\r\n\tWe must not forget that farming requires quite different approaches and animal feeding conditions in different farming systems. It is not the same having a larger number of animals or small herds just for family needs.
\r\n\r\n\tHowever, one thing should be common and most important: animal “well-being”, knowledge of the health status of animals, continuous monitoring and, if necessary, healing and treatment of animals. Without this knowledge, infectious diseases, feed-borne diseases and resistance to individual drugs cannot be traced, which can lead to very serious problems and, in some cases, tragedies.
",isbn:"978-1-78984-709-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-708-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-193-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7e5d45badb49806d949ad1475e3a0ef0",bookSignature:"Prof. Sándor Kukovics",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9706.jpg",keywords:"Goats and Environment, Stress Factors, Goats Feed, Goats and Society, Economy, Meat, Skin, Fibre, Milk, Human Health Benefits, Goat Health, Goat Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kukovics is the President of the Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association. He has been the Executive Manager of Sheep and Goat Products’ Board and Inter-professional Organisation since 2010. Between 2015 and 2019 he served as Vice President of the EU COPA-COGECA Working Party on Sheep and Goats and he has been a member of the Board of Directors of the International Goat Association since 2016.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"25894",title:"Prof.",name:"Sándor",middleName:null,surname:"Kukovics",slug:"sandor-kukovics",fullName:"Sándor Kukovics",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25894/images/system/25894.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Sándor Kukovics spent 40 years at the Research Institute\nfor Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Herceghalom, Hungary)\nbeing responsible for the small ruminants sector. He also edited\n30 books, published more than 1,000 articles and has licences\nfor 4 products. Besides research work, he has been taking part in\nundergraduate and further education from various universities (in\nDebrecen, Mosonmagyaróvár, Gödöllő, Kaposvár). Since 1996 he\nhas been the President of the Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association. He has been the Executive Manager of Sheep and Goat Products’ Board and\nInter-professional Organisation since 2010. Between 2015 and 2019 he served as Vice\nPresident of the EU COPA-COGECA Working Party on Sheep and Goats and he has\nbeen a member of the Board of Directors of the International Goat Association since\n2016. As an expert he has been taking part in the activities of several special groups in\nthe EU working with small ruminants since 2004.",institutionString:"Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5987",title:"Goat Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35f3a7d6f517410f6581d265f17ee7c9",slug:"goat-science",bookSignature:"Sándor Kukovics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5987.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25894",title:"Prof.",name:"Sándor",surname:"Kukovics",slug:"sandor-kukovics",fullName:"Sándor Kukovics"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7019",title:"Goats (Capra)",subtitle:"From Ancient to Modern",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fae6861d044e520db52992966f28b361",slug:"goats-capra-from-ancient-to-modern",bookSignature:"Sándor 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Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52309",title:"Applications of 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Clinical Microbiology",doi:"10.5772/64450",slug:"applications-of-1h-nuclear-magnetic-resonance-spectroscopy-in-clinical-microbiology",body:'\nScientific progress made in the recent years has enabled the development of new techniques that facilitate and improve microbiological study. In this way, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a spectroscopic technique easy to use and quick to recognize microorganisms and provides sensitivity to antimicrobials. Anyway, to date we have not consensus about the usefulness of these techniques that are not totally standardized. In this chapter, we summarize the state of knowledge about NMR in microbiological studies.
\nNMR is a spectroscopic technique initially developed by Felix Bloch and Edward M. Purcell that relies on the magnetic properties of the atomic nucleus. Since 1946, it has become a powerful and extremely valuable tool for chemists, physicists, biochemists and more recently for the medical practitioners [1–5].
\nAlthough the most widespread application of NMR is the structural determination of molecules, the technique offers the advantage of direct mixture analysis, and therefore, NMR has demonstrated a unique potential to be used for metabolic mixture analysis, fastidious bacteria included [6]. In comparison with other techniques employed for mixture analysis, NMR can be used to directly investigate biological samples and cell cultures without requiring significant sample preparation. Moreover, the technique allows the determination of compound ratios in a highly reproducible manner. For these reasons, metabolomics and metabonomics are driving new technological advances in the NMR field. Thus, the combination of sophisticated NMR‐based methods for mixture analysis with the power of statistical and chemometric methods makes NMR spectroscopy the technique of choice for complex biological mixture analysis, especially in clinical and biomedical researches [3, 4].
\nIn the biological field, the NMR technique [7] is employed to determine the structure and function of macromolecules. Additionally, NMR allows the determination of metabolic changes in organisms in response to external stimuli, through the identification and quantification of metabolites (metabolomics/metabonomics). Metabolomics is the study of global metabolite profiles of a cell under a given set of conditions; however, the terms metabolomics and metabonomics are used in the literature interchangeably [8]. Jeremy Nicholson was the pioneer of the approach, ‘the distinction between the two terms metabolomics/metabonomics is mainly philosophical rather than technical’ [9].
\nSince NMR is the only technique that allows to carry out in vivo analysis, it has applications in medical diagnosis, for example, magnetic resonance tomography (MRT).
\nThe use of NMR in metabolic studies was reported in 1977, by Brown et al., who determined the presence of lactate, pyruvate, creatinine, and alanine in a blood cell suspension by proton NMR (1H NMR) [10]. Since then, the analysis of biological fluids, tissues, and cell extracts has been carried out successfully by NMR, especially in the context of research on diseases and evaluation of toxicological processes [11, 12].
\nThe NMR phenomenon can only be carefully described and fully understood using quantum mechanics. Therefore, a complete understanding of the technique would require an exhaustive knowledge of the properties of the angular momentum in the quantum mechanics field, along with statistical thermodynamics knowledge to describe the floating processes needed in the liquid state.
\nHowever, since the theory and fundamentals of NMR have been fully developed over the last few years [13, 14] and its detailed description would get away from the objective of this chapter, we describe below some aspects of the technique, which could help to understand the equipment and methodologies used in metabolic research.
\nThe basis of the technique is to use the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei that are defined by their angular momentum and their associated magnetic moment. Both moments are vector quantities, and they are related by a constant called gyromagnetic constant (γ), which is specific to each type of atomic nucleus. According to quantum mechanics, both moments are quantized and their value depends on a quantum number called spin (I). Not all nuclei are valid to get NMR signals, only those whose spins are greater than zero are valid, but 1H or proton is the most used nucleus in NMR studies. Moreover, higher the value of constant γ, more sensitive will be the active nucleus in NMR. So, 1H is the nucleus used in NMR studies because of its great abundance (100%) and high value of γ. However, other magnetically active nuclei with lower sensitivity may be used, such as 2H (or D), 13C, 19F, 15N, 31P, and 23Na. Focusing on the proton, in the presence of an external magnetic field (B0), two different energy levels appear. The magnetic moments of these nuclei try to align with B0, resulting in two possible orientations at that time. Each of these orientations corresponds to a different energy level. That is, in the presence of B0, the cores can be arranged in two new states with different energies. This phenomenon, from a vectorial viewpoint is known as magnetization.
\nTo obtain a NMR signal, the sample is irradiated with a radiofrequency wave, perpendicular to B0, which compels it to reach the state of resonance, where the nuclei gyrate with a resonance frequency (f0), specific to each atomic nucleus and called Larmor frequency. For this reason, NMR spectrometers are designated by the 1H resonance frequency instead of the magnetic field (for example, on a 14.1 T field, 1H resonates at 600 MHz). After the pulse, the excited nuclei return to the initial equilibrium state emitting a radiofrequency signal, which decays with the time, a phenomenon known as relaxation. The resonance of the excited nuclear magnets is detected as an oscillating current in a coil placed around the sample. This signal is the FID (free induction decay), which arrives at the receiver and provides a spectrum formed by lines defining frequencies and widths by a mathematical operation known as Fourier transform. The widths are formed from the contributions of all nuclei of the sample, so that this quality allows quantitative measurements. A line in the NMR spectrum obtained at a certain frequency (or chemical shift) corresponds to an atomic nucleus with a given chemical environment, which allows structural information about the molecule it belongs.
\nThe NMR spectrometer involves several parts such as a superconducting magnet, a radio transmitter, a probe, a radio receiver, an analog‐to‐digital converter (ADC), and finally, a computer. The magnet is the main element and consists of a solenoid of superconducting Nb/Ti alloy wire immersed in liquid helium (4 K) that is charged to generate the essential field strength. The helium is protected with a vacuum jacket and further cooled by an outer dewar of liquid nitrogen (77 K).
\nThe probe head is a coil of wire positioned around the sample (NMR tube) that alternately transmits and receives radio frequency signals. The probe head is usually hosted into the magnet from the bottom and is connected to at least three radiofrequency channels providing the 2H lock, 1H frequency, and one X‐nucleus frequency. In general, devices to control temperature (heater, thermoelement, and air) are needed. New developments include the digital transmission of the probe‐head parameters to the console.
\nThe computer addresses the transmitter to send a high‐power and very short duration pulse of radio frequency to the probe‐head. Instantly, after the pulse of radio frequency, a weak signal (FID) from the sample received by the probe‐head is amplified and sampled at intervals by the ADC to produce a digital FID signal, which is just a list of numbers. The computer automatically determines the timing and power of pulses output by the transmitter and receives and processes the digitalization. After the computer performs the mathematical processes of Fourier transform in order to convert time domain into frequency domain, the resulting spectrum can be displayed on the computer monitor, transferred to other computers or plotted on a paper.
\nComponents of an NMR equipment.
The sample volume should be about 0.6 mL, which gives a 4.0 cm depth in a standard 5 mm NMR tube. Volume of the samples is less important than the concentration of targets. Very small volumes could not be studied by NMR equipment with low magnetic field but once the volume is established, it is more important to ensure that the metabolites to be studied are in an appropriate concentration. For biological samples, the ideal solvent is D2O or a mixture of H2O/D2O. In this latter case, the 1H NMR spectra will be recorded using the pulse sequence for presaturation or the equivalent in order to avoid the signals from water. This is the typical and most simple method used to record NMR spectra of biological samples.
\n\nUsually, the protocol of preparation for biological and aqueous samples is simple, quick and involves two steps. Samples are prepared from inocula of the microorganisms and the bacterial concentration is adjusted using 0.5–2 McFarland standards [15, 16]. Cultures are incubated at the optimum temperature and time to preserve the same growth conditions than the reference method, if possible. After incubation, the suspensions are removed by centrifugation and the supernatants are decanted and used for NMR experiments. Because the measurements are carried out on supernatants, there is no need to quench cell growth rapidly. Furthermore, pH is measured and fixed by the slow addition of aqueous 1 M HCl and 1 M NaOH solutions or with a buffer solution in order to fix the chemical shifts. Next, a biological sample is added to a 5 mm NMR tube together with D2O with the addition of the sodium salt (trimethyl)propanoic‐2,2,3,3‐d4 acid (TSP) for the chemical shift calibration. Figure 1 shows an overview of the components of NMR equipment.
\n\nThe quality of the obtained NMR spectra depends on several variables that influence the process from sample collection to final data collection. The sample collection involves the sample, containers used, additives (preservatives, stabilizers), and time (collection, transport, storage) [17].
\nDepending of the source of the biological sample, two different methodologies can be used for the experiment acquisition:
\n(A) Sample concentration by lyophilization and subsequent reconstitution with a deuterated solvent: using this methodology, NMR experiments can be performed without solvent suppression, allowing an increase in sensitivity and stopping enzyme activity. The risks in using this method include the possibility of introducing contaminants into the sample and more importantly, the loss of volatile compounds.
\n(B) The addition of a small amount of D2O to the aqueous sample: the corresponding NMR experiment is performed with a pulse program that can remove the water signal, which would otherwise mask the signals from the rest of the sample. This method involves minimal sample handling and the ability to detect volatile compounds, making it a more suitable method for metabolite analysis of biological samples.
\nIn addition to these processes, due to the infectious potential of microorganisms contained in the sample, all steps of sample processing must be performed safely, through protocols and in laboratories appropriate to the biosafety level for the organism—until the organism is inactivated.
\nInterpretation of the NMR data is essential to complete metabonomics studies to draw conclusions and trends. The first thing is to perform a pre‐processing of NMR data in which NMR spectra are cleaned up in standard ways. After treatment of the spectra, it is possible to get information of metabolites, either through direct quantification by parameters [18, 19] or by applying the methods of data analysis and modelling. In this case, chemometric techniques and multivariate analysis are used to identify and quantify the different metabolites present in the sample. Figure 2 shows an example of NMR spectrum with the main metabolites obtained. The existence of NMR databases of metabolites can greatly facilitate the latter processes.
\n1H NMR spectrum showing the main metabolites.
The application of 1H NMR to living cells is used to determine metabolites in complex mixtures and has been widely used for identification and quantification of the bacterial species [15, 20]. This technique has also been applied for antimicrobial drug susceptibility studies on different species of yeast, and in the last few years, it has also been developed for bacterial studies. Furthermore, other determinations directly in body fluids have emerged to help in the diagnosis of different diseases and conditions.
\n1H NMR spectroscopy has been used for bacterial identification and quantification and for metabolic pathways studies. Several studies have been conducted for the diagnosis of the bacteria that cause urinary tract infections (UTI). These focus on the use of 1H NMR spectroscopy for the identification and quantification of common uropathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Proteus mirabilis in urine samples. These studies are based on specific properties of the metabolism of the studied bacteria, and the results showed that 1H NMR is a simple and fast tool compared with the traditional methods [16, 21, 22].
\nThe qualitative and quantitative determination of P. aeruginosa using NMR spectroscopy is based on the specific property of the bacteria to metabolize nicotinic acid (NA) to 6‐hydroxynicotinic acid (6‐OHNA). Only this bacterium can produce this reaction. The addition of NA to urine samples after incubation and the subsequent analysis by 1H NMR spectroscopy showed that NA signals disappeared from the medium after some time, while the appearance of new signals of the metabolite 6‐OHNA indicated the presence of P. aeruginosa. The increase in the intensity of the metabolite signals, together with the decrease in the NA signals, involved a proportional increase in the number of bacteria. This shows the potential offered by this technique for quantitative and qualitative identification, simultaneously, on the bacteria [21].
\nA similar process occurs in the determination of K. pneumoniae. In this case, the specific metabolic reaction is the transformation of glycerol into 1,3‐propanediol, so the substance that is added into the medium is glycerol. Despite Citrobacter freundii also being capable of carrying out this reaction, both bacteria can be easily differentiated using microscopic examination by observing their motility. K. pneumoniae is not mobile while C. freundii is. In addition, C. freundii is not a common nosocomial urinary tract infection agent. The combination of both methods showed very good sensitivity and specificity (90 and 100%, respectively), suggesting the potential usefulness of NMR for bacterial diagnosis [22].
\nThe same experiment carried out on E. coli and P. mirabilis revealed that the specific metabolites of the bacteria are lactate and 2‐hydroxy‐4‐(methylthio)butyric acid (MOBA) after incubation with lactose and methionine, respectively [16].
\nThe results obtained using this alternative technique provided the warrant for the development of this method in bacterial identification and quantification and the technical development with other microorganisms. With experience, spectral analysis and data interpretation could be quick and reliable [16].
\nThe use of 1H NMR spectroscopy for antimicrobial susceptibly tests has been not highly studied despite its powerful utility in this area of study [5]. Application of 1H NMR spectroscopy to antimicrobial susceptibility studies was first carried out on different species of yeast. The standardized methods currently available for fungal susceptibility studies are unreliable and relatively slow, so, 1H NMR spectroscopy can be a simple indicator, an objective and fast method (metabolic changes detected by this method are more easily observed than growth inhibition in broth). 1H NMR spectroscopy is potentially valuable in determining the metabolic composition of yeast suspensions incubated with a drug. In addition, it is a high performance automated method with low operating costs, so that both operator time and reagent cost are greatly reduced. Therefore, it has great potential to emerge as an alternative method for the antifungal drug susceptibility determination of different yeast species [15, 20].
\nOne of the few studies in which the 1H NMR technique has been applied to observe the effect on microorganisms upon exposure to several drugs, has been carried out with medically relevant fungi. The fungal species analysed were Cryptococcus neoformans, different species of Candida and Aspergillus spp. These studies are based on the identification of the fungal metabolites produced, on their comparative profile implementation and on the monitoring of the nutrient utilization of the incubation medium in the presence of certain drug concentrations (caspofungin, amphotericin B, and voriconazole). The spectra obtained after subjecting the sample to the 1H NMR were interpreted based on the metabolites produced (fumarate, malate, ethanol, etc.) and/or the metabolites consumed (tyrosine, phenylalanine, valine, etc.). This interpretation established a measurable parameter, the metabolic end point (MEP), from the spectral peak area. The MEP is defined as the lowest drug concentration at which nutrient utilization from the medium or the production of fungal metabolites is inhibited ≥ 50% and compared with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) used in the reference method. The results of MEP generally showed a good correlation with MICs, which were determined by a modification of the reference method in broth microdilution M27‐A of the CLSI. Discrepancies, which may arise between MEPs and MICs, could be due to differences in the culture medium and incubation time. In addition, 1H NMR spectroscopy is a potentially valuable method for determining the metabolism of microorganisms incubated with the drug because it is a reproducible and relatively quick method (it takes 16 h versus 48 h required by the reference method) suggesting its consolidation as a platform for rapid determination of antifungal susceptibility [15, 20].
\nIn reference to bacteria, there are very few studies based on their antimicrobial susceptibility according to metabolic profiling by 1H NMR. One of these studies focused on a bacterial disease called ‘Withering Syndrome’ of abalone (a type of mollusc belonging to Haliotis spp. important in aquaculture). It is caused by a pathogen of the Rickettsiaceae family, ‘Candidatus Xenohaliotis californiensis’ that infects digestive epithelial cells [23, 24]. On this basis, the effects of the antibiotic oxytetracycline in the metabolic profiles were observed by 1H NMR. This drug, used to treat bacterial infections in aquatic species, reduces the severity and mortality of the Withering Syndrome. The aim of this study was to observe whether the recovery of the metabolism during treatment with oxytetracycline coincided with the disappearance of the disease caused by the bacteria. To this end, they examined the metabolic constituents present in the foot muscle of the mollusc after oxytetracycline treatment during several established days at two different seawater temperatures (13.4 and 17.3°C) [24]. Metabolic changes were observed at both temperatures: levels of taurine, glycine‐betaine, and homarine increased and the amino acid and carbohydrate levels decreased. The detection of metabolic differences between animals treated and untreated with antibiotics was observed only at the highest temperature. Therefore, oxytetracycline eradicated the infection and at the highest temperature it reduced the metabolic changes due to the syndrome. The conclusions drawn from these experiments drive the development of 1H NMR based on metabolic studies and its complementarity with other techniques, such as the histology for the identification of pathological processes in the aquatic species and for the optimization of drug therapy. This tool displays the performance by analysing quickly and cheaply the functional status of an organism [23, 24].
\nWe have analysed the metabolism and antimicrobial susceptibility of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 in the presence of gentamicin using 1H NMR and compared with a reference method [25]. The MIC, determined by the reference method used in this study, would correspond to the termination of the bacterial metabolism observed using NMR. To carry out these experiments, serial dilutions of gentamicin were tested. Furthermore, two controls were also analysed (one was the medium with an inoculum of bacterium (control I), and the other was only the medium (control II)). The comparison of the two control 1H NMR spectra showed different signals. Succinic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol were only detected in the control I spectra and threonine was only detected in the control II medium. According to the results obtained by visual turbidity, the lowest concentration of drug that completely inhibited visible growth (MIC) was 0.5 μg/ml (MIC: 0.25–1 μg/ml) [26]. When we registered antibiotic spectra at different concentrations, we detected the presence of succinic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol only in samples with concentrations of gentamicin lower than the MIC. Moreover, when the concentration of gentamicin was greater than the MIC, we detected the presence of threonine. These data suggested that the results obtained by 1H NMR spectroscopy were in agreement with those obtained by visual turbidity. These results confirm that E. coli is able to metabolize components of the medium to produce succinic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol. Furthermore, threonine only appeared in the spectra of those samples with gentamicin concentrations of ≥0.5 μg/ml. Differences in peak intensities for the metabolites observed in spectra allowed the determination of the MIC for gentamicin using 1H NMR spectroscopy. Consumption of the amino acid threonine, present in the culture medium, was interrupted when MIC was performed. Therefore, we assume that succinic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol are metabolites produced by the bacteria and threonine is the amino acid consumed by E. coli.
\nFurthermore, to evaluate the potential of this tool, we also performed the same biological experiments but using an NMR tube as the incubation reactor. The bacterial activity occurred effectively within the NMR tube, and the metabolic process started around 3 h 20 min and ended at 6 h. Moreover, when samples containing gentamicin were analysed in the same way the ethanol signal appeared later using the lowest concentration of gentamicin (4 h 40 min) compared with the experiments performed in the absence of the antibiotic (3 h 20 min) and much later (8 h 40 min) when the gentamicin concentration used was close to MIC. Similarly, threonine consumption by bacteria was delayed when the concentration of antibiotic in the medium was higher [25].
\nIn the last few years, 1H NMR has been used to directly analyse biofluids and to diagnose different diseases directly from body fluids. In this sense, it has been applied to analyse human microbiota from faeces and urine samples, to study the metabolic implications that take place in sepsis, or even to diagnose hepatitis C virus infection, distinguish HIV‐1 positive patients from negative individuals or to diagnose pneumonia from urine [27–33].
\nAs mentioned above, 1H NMR has been employed to study gut microbiome focusing on the metabolite profiling obtained by the analysis of different human samples. In this sense, Jacobs et al. [27] studied faeces from healthy subjects after consuming placebo, grape juice, or a mix of grape juice and wine during four weeks by 1H NMR. The comparison of the NMR profiling of the samples indicated that only the mixture of wine and grape juice was able to modulate gut microbiota assessed by the reduction in isobutyrate observed only in the samples from subjects who had consumed the mixture. These results confirm that 1H NMR could determine the impact of the nutrition in human microbiome [27]. Furthermore, the use of 1H NMR to understand gut microbiota has been also extended to the study its impact on obesity by analysing metabolite profiling obtained from urine samples [28, 34].
\n1H NMR has been also used to study different conditions as sepsis. Stringer et al. used 1H NMR to compare the metabolic profile of whole blood from serum. This study revealed that the use of 1H NMR in whole blood allowed obtaining more metabolic details that serum, and, in some cases, the metabolites detected were in higher concentrations in whole blood than in serum. Furthermore, whole blood allowed the determination of metabolites associated with red blood cell metabolism and observed that alterations in their metabolism could be in relationship with sepsis due to the haemolysis they cause [29]. The same authors have carried out several experiments in the same way. In these experiments, they were able to observe that blood samples of sepsis‐induced acute lung injury patients were measurable and distinguishable from healthy blood due to differences in metabolites using 1H NMR [35]. Other studies have been carried out to evaluate sepsis by 1H NMR, but in rats [30]. Metabolic profiles obtain from the 1H NMR analysis reveal changes in the metabolites involved in energy metabolism, especially in the serum of septic rats. From these results, authors concluded that according to the metabonomic approach, 1H NMR has the potential for the early prognostic evaluation of sepsis [30].
\nAs discussed above, 1H NMR has been applied to the diagnosis of hepatitis C virus infection [31]. This study performed in urine samples was able to identify infected patients and negative individuals with good sensitivity and specificity using a metabonomics model based on the spectra obtained from the urine samples analysis. In this study, although the differences observed in the spectra allowed comparison of both groups, the chemical structures showed in the spectra are still being analysed [31]. In a similar way, 1H NMR has been also used to distinguish between HIV‐1 positive/AIDS patients on antiretroviral treatment and HIV‐1 negative individuals [32]. These experiments were carried out in serum samples and differences in the metabolite profiling showed the distinction between the two groups. The authors also suggested that ARV‐associated side effects could be monitored using 1H NMR [32].
\nPneumococcal pneumonia is another condition that has been diagnosed using 1H NMR [33]. The use of the technique applied to urine samples of patients diagnosed with pneumonia has enable to distinguish pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae from that caused by other microbes such as viruses or other bacteria. This distinction is observed due to the differences in the metabolomic profiles. So the use of 1H NMR‐metabolite profiling could result in a rapid, specific and sensitive tool for the diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia. In this study, it is also observed that the metabolic profile shown in the samples of patients with pneumonia caused by S. pneumoniae changed to a more normal metabolite profiling when specific treatment is administrated, suggesting that the urinary profiles were specific to the infection [33].
\nThe combination of NMR spectroscopy, with the use of isotopically substituted molecules as tracers is a well‐established protocol in microbiology. These NMR analyses appear to be the most appropriate for such studies because of their analytical power (provided that the labelling of products can be easily monitored non‐invasively), their non‐destructive features, and the large number of compounds that can be analysed simultaneously [6, 36–40]. However, despite the great potential of this combination in clinical practice, these analyses are out of the aim of this chapter.
\nIn conclusion, 1H NMR is an emerging technique in the microbiological field that promises to be a useful tool for the diagnosis of a broad range of conditions, including rapid identification of microorganisms, antimicrobial susceptibility and infectious‐related syndromes. It can be also employed for knowing the metabolic pathways used by microorganisms, allowing the performance strategies for fighting against the infection.
\nDerivative nonlinear Schrödinger (DNLS for brevity) equation is one of the several rare kinds of integrable nonlinear models. Research of DNLS equation has not only mathematic interest and significance, but also important physical application background. It was first found that the Alfven waves in space plasma [1, 2, 3] can be modeled with DNLS equation. The modified nonlinear Schrödinger (MNLS for brevity) equation, which is used to describe the sub-picosecond pulses in single mode optical fibers [4, 5, 6], is actually a transformed version of DNLS equation. The weak nonlinear electromagnetic waves in ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic, or dielectric systems [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] under external magnetic fields can also be modeled by DNLS equation.
Although DNLS equation is similar to NLS equation in form, it does not belong to the famous AKNS hierarchy at all. As is well known, a nonlinear integrable equation can be transformed to a pair of Lax equation satisfied by its Jost functions, the original nonlinear equation is only the compatibility condition of the Lax pair, that is, the so-called zero-curvature condition. Another fact had been found by some scholars that those nonlinear integrable equations which have the same first operator of the Lax pair belong to the same hierarchy and can deal with the same inverse scattering transform (IST for brevity). As a matter of fact, the DNLS equation has a squared spectral parameter of
In this chapter, we will solve the DNLS equation under two kinds of boundary condition, that is, the vanishing boundary condition (VBC for brevity) and the non-vanishing boundary condition (NVBC for brevity), by means of three different methods – the revised IST method, the Marchenko formalism, and the Hirota’s bilinear derivative method. Meanwhile, we will search for different types of special soliton solution to the DNLS equation, such as the light/dark solitons, the pure solitons, the breather-type solitons, and the rogue wave solution, in one- or multi-soliton form.
For the VBC case of DNLS equation, which is just the concerned theme of the section, some attempts and progress have been made to solve the DNLS equation. Since Kaup and Newell proposed an IST with a revision in their pioneer works [10, 11], one-soliton solution was firstly attained and several versions of raw or explicit multi-soliton solutions were also obtained by means of different approaches [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Huang and Chen have got a
DNLS equation for the one-dimension wave function
with VBC, where the subscripts stand for partial derivative. Eq. (1) is also called Kaup-Newell (KN for brevity) equation. Its Lax pair is given by
and
where
In the limit of
The free Jost solution is a
The Jost solutions of (4) are defined by their asymptotic behaviors as
where
Since the first Lax equation of DNLS is similar to that of NLS, there are some similar properties of the Jost solutions. The monodromy matrix
where
It is easy to find from (2) and (9) that
and
Then we can get the following reduction relation and symmetry properties
and
The asymptotic behaviors of the Jost solutions in the limit of
Then we have
In the limit
In the limit
and
Eq. (21) leads to
which expresses the conjugate of solution
On the other hand, the zeros of
where
in order to maintain that
Due to
The 2 × 1 column function
An alternative form of IST equation is proposed as
Because in the limit of
The integral path for IST of the DNLS.
where
where a factor
Taking the symmetry and reduction relation (18) and (28) into consideration, from (31) and (33), we can obtain the revised Zakharov-Shabat equation for DNLS equation with VBC, that is,
Substituting Eqs. (34) and (35) into formula (26), we thus attain the
where
Let
where
where superscript “T” represents transposition of a matrix. Then Eqs. (39) and (40) can be rewritten as
where m = 1, 2,…, N. They can be rewritten in a more compact matrix form.
Then
where
Substituting Eqs. (48), (49) into (50) and (51) and then substituting (50) and (51) into formula (36), we thus attain
where
In the subsequent chapter, we will prove that
It is obvious that formula (52) has the usual standard form of soliton solution. Here in formula (52), some algebra techniques have been used and can be found in Appendix A.1 in Part 2.
We only need to prove that Eq. (55) holds. Firstly, we define N × N matrices P1, P2, Q1, Q2, respectively, as
Then
where
where
Similarly,
where
It is easy to find a kind of permutation symmetry existed between expressions (59) and (61), that is,
Comparing (58) with (62) and making use of (63), we thus complete verification of Eq. (55). The soliton solution is surely of a typical form as that in NLS equation and can be expressed as formula (52).
The time evolution factor of the scattering data can be introduced by standard procedure [21]. Due to the fact that the second Lax operator
Then the typical soliton arguments
where
Substituting expression (64) and (65) into formula (59) and then into (58), we have
with
About the calculation of the most complicate determinant
with
The above summation obviously can be decomposed into two parts: one is extended to m1 = 0, the other is extended to
with
Here
An interesting conclusion is found that, besides a permitted well-known constant global phase factor, there is also an undetermined constant complex parameter bn0 before each of the typical soliton factor
We give two concrete examples – the one- and two-soliton solutions as illustrations of the general explicit soliton solution.
In the case of one-soliton solution, N = 1,
It is different slightly from the definition in (66) for that here
and
The complex conjugate of one-soliton solution
where
and
And we get
where
and
where
Substituting (81) and (84) into formula (52), we thus get the two-soliton solution to the DNLS equation with VBC
Once again we find that, up to a permitted global constant phase factor, the above two-soliton solution is equivalent to that gotten in Ref. [23, 24], verifying the validity of our formula of
The complex conjugate of expression (52) gives the explicit expression of N-soliton solution as
Without the loss of generality, for
As
and in the vicinity of
Here the complex constant
Introducing a typical factor
and
In the vicinity of
Here
then
Each
So as
then as
That is to say, the
Finally, we indicate that the exact
is also integrable [23] and called modified nonlinear Schrödinger (MNLS for brevity) equation. It is well known that MNLS equation well describes transmission of femtosecond pulses in optical fibers [4, 5, 6] and is related to DNLS equation by a gauge-like transformation [23] formulated as
with
with
The
The newly revised IST technique for DNLS equation with VBC supplies substantial foundation for its direct perturbation theory.
Gel’fand-Levitan-Marchenko (GLM for brevity) equations can be viewed as an integral-transformed version of IST for those integrable nonlinear equations [21, 24, 28].
In this section, a simple method is used to derive and solve Marchenko equation (or GLM equation) for DNLS E with VBC [28]. Firstly, starting from the first Lax equation, we derive two conditions to be satisfied by the kernel matrix
DNLS equation is usual expressed as
with vanishing boundary,
The first Lax equation is
In the case of
where
As usual, we introduce the integral representation,
where the superscripts d and o mean the diagonal and off-diagonal elements, respectively. According to the conventional operation in IST, the time variable is suppressed temporarily. Here
Due to the symmetry of the first Lax operator
Substitute Eq. (115) into the first Lax Eq. (111). By simply partial integration, we have the following terms:
and
Use is made of that
According to equation
Or
and the equations in the integral
Therefore, Eq. (125) gives two conditions to be satisfied by the kernel matrix
Since (122) is an identity, Eq. (123) or (124) gives the solution
In Eq. (115), the
where
We now show the kernel
Making partial derivation in (128) with respect to x and y, respectively, we obtain
By partial integrating, Eq. (131) becomes
Use is made of the fact that
We find
Since
If we choose
then
Thus, Eq. (134) becomes
Now substituting (135) into (129), we find
Making partial derivation with respect to x and y, respectively, on the l.h.s. of Eq. (138), we have
or
Now we make a weighing summation as
Hence, we have
Noticing
We find that, as long as we choose a suitable form for
Considering the dependence of the Jost solutions on the squared spectral parameter
where
As is well known, Lax equations are linear equation so that a constant factor can be introduced in its solution, that is,
When there are N simple poles
where
Here and hereafter the superscript T represents transposing of a matrix. On the other hand, we assume that
Then
Substituting (146)–(149) into the Marchenko equation (128) and (129), we have
or
here
Both of them are N × N matrices and their matrix element are, respectively, expressed as
From (151) and (152), we immediately get
from (148), (156), and (157), we have
then
and
Substituting (160) and (161) into Eq. (124), we thus attain the N-soliton solution as follows in a pure Marchenko formalism.
where
and we will prove that in (136)
By means of some linear algebraic techniques, especially the Binet-Cauchy formula for some special matrices (see the Appendices 2–3 in Part2), the determinant D and C can be expanded explicitly as a summation of all possible principal minors. Firstly, we can prove identity (164) by means of Binet-Cauchy formula.
where
The complex constant factor
here
where
where
If we define matrices
and
where
Using above identity, comparing (169), (172), (173), and (174), we find that identity (164) holds and complete the computation of D.
Secondly, we compute the most complicate determinant
with n, m = 1, 2,…, N. We thus have
The above summation obviously can be decomposed into two parts: one is extended to m1 = 0 and the other extended to m1 ≥ 1. Subtracted from (176), the part that is extended to m1 ≥ 1, the remaining parts of (176) is just C in Eq. (163) (with
which leads to
here
In the case of one simple pole and one-soliton solution as
From (167) and (168), we have (suppose
Then from (181) and (182), we attain the one-soliton solution
By further redefinition of its soliton center and initial phase, the single soliton solution can be further rewritten as usual standard form. It is easy to find, up to a permitted well-known constant global phase factor, the one-soliton solution to DNLS equation gotten in the pure Marchenko formalism is in perfectly agreement with that gotten from other approaches [23, 24, 26, 27].
As
Up to a permitted constant global phase factor, the two-soliton solution gotten above is actually equivalent to that gotten from both IST and Hirota’s method [23, 24, 26, 27], verifying the validity of the algebraic techniques that is used and our formula of the generalized multi-soliton solution. Because Marchenko equations (128), (129), (144), and (145) had been strictly proved, the multi-soliton solution is certainly right as long as we correctly use the algebraic techniques, especially Binet-Cauchy formula for the principal minor expansion of some special matrices.
Bilinear derivative operator D had been found and defined in the early 1970s by Hirota R., a Japanese mathematical scientist [30, 31, 32, 33]. Hirota’s bilinear-derivative transform (HBDT for brevity) can be used to deal with some partial differential equation and to find some special solutions, such as soliton solutions and rogue wave solutions [26, 27, 32]. In this section, we use HBDT to solve DNLS equation with VBC and search for its soliton solution. The DNLS equation with VBC, that is,
is one of the typical integrable nonlinear models, which is of a different form from the following equation:
which had been solved in Ref. [14] by using HBDT. We have paid special attention to the following solution form in it [14]:
where
here and henceforth a bar over a letter represents complex conjugation.
In view of the existing experiences of dealing with the DNLS equation, in the present section, we attempt to use the solution form (192) and HBDT to solve the DNLS equation. We demonstrate our solving approach step by step, and naturally extend our conclusion to the n-soliton case in the end.
For two differentiable functions
which is different from the usual derivative, for example,
where
for example,
➂ Suppose
Especially, we have
After a suitable solution form, for example, (192) has been selected, under the Hirota’s bilinear derivative transform, a partial differential equation like (189) can be generally changed into [20, 26, 27].
where
Substituting the above expressions (199)–(202) into Eq. (189), the latter can be reduced to [26, 27].
We can extract the needed bilinear derivative equations from Eq. (203) as follows:
Functions
Substituting (207) and (208) into (204)–(206) and equating the sum of the terms with the same orders of
The above equations, (209)–(223), contain the whole information needed to search for a soliton solution of the DNLS equation with VBC.
For the one-soliton case, due to (209)–(211) and considering the transform property ③, we can select
From (212), one can select
where the vanishing boundary condition,
Substituting (226) and (227) into Eq. (213), we can attain
From (226) and (228), we can get an expression of
Due to (224) and (229), we can also easily verify that
which immediately leads to
in Eq. (215). Then from (215), we can select
where
which is characterized with two complex parameters
Then
It is easy to find, up to a permitted constant global phase factor
On the other hand, just like in Ref. [13], we can rewrite
Here
which makes us easily extend the solution form to the case of
For the two-soliton case, again from (209), we can select
The similar procedures to that used in the one-soliton case can be used to deduce
Substituting (242) and (243) into (215), one can attain
Substituting the expressions of
Due to (243) and (244), we can also easily verify that
Then from (244), (245), (246), and (221), we can select
It can also be rewritten in a standard form as follows:
where
which is characterized with four complex parameters
we can easily transform it to a two-soliton form given in Ref. [23], up to a permitted constant global phase factor.
Generally for the case of N-soliton solution, if we select
then using an induction method, we can write the
where
therein
Here, we have some discussion in order. Because what concerns us only is the soliton solutions, our soliton solution of DNLS equation with VBC is only a subset of the whole solution set. Actually in the whole process of deriving the bilinear-form equations and searching for the one and two-soliton solutions, some of the latter results are only the sufficient but not the necessary conditions of the former equations. Thereby some possible modes might have been missing. For example, the solutions of Eqs. (209)–(211) are not as unique as in (224) and (225), some other possibilities thus get lost here. This is also why we use a term “select” to determine a solution of an equation. In another word, we have selected a soliton solution. Meanwhile, we have demonstrated in Figures 2 and 3, the three-dimensional evolution of the one- and two-soliton amplitude with time and space, respectively. The elastic collision of two solitons in the two-soliton case has been demonstrated in Figure 4(a–d) too. It can be found that each soliton keeps the same form and characteristic after the collision as that before the collision. In this section, by means of introducing HBDT and employing an appropriate solution form (192), we successfully solve the derivative nonlinear Schrödinger equation with VBC. The one- and two-soliton solutions are derived and their equivalence to the existing results is manifested. The N-soliton solution has been given by an induction method. On the other hand, by using simple parameter transformations (e.g., (235) and (252)), the soliton solutions attained here can be changed into or equivalent to that gotten based on IST, up to a permitted global constant phase factor. This section impresses us so greatly for a fact that, ranked with the extensively used IST [23] and other methods, the HBDT is another effective and important tool to deal with a partial differential equation. It is especially suitable for some integrable nonlinear models.
The evolution of one-soliton solution with time and space under parameter Λ1=−1+0.2i,η10=1 in (234).
The evolution of two-soliton solution with time and space under parameter Λ1=1+0.3i,Λ2=1−0.3i,η10=η20=1 in (251).
The elastic collision between two solitons at 4 typical moments: (a) t = −10(normalized time); (b) t = −1; \t(c) t = 1; (d) t = 10, from −10 before collision to 10 after collision.
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10542",title:"Molecular Epidemiology Study of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Complex",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"29279e34f971687dc28de62534335ac4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10542.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10281",title:"Nanopores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"73c465d2d70f8deca04b05d7ecae26c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. 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