Internal distribution of a standard Lidia farm considering the different types of animals classified by sex and age [11].
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Very important organization is thought to be the integral process of resource, transport, partitioning, metabolism, and production, which involves yield, biomass, and productivity in plants. Accordingly, it is important to obtain more information about the knowledge concerning yield, biomass, and productivity in plants. Soybean is one of the main crops largely contributing to our life, which is thought to be connected to our ecosystem through the above-mentioned integral process. This book focuses on the soybean, and reviews and research concerning the yield, biomass, and productivity of soybean are presented herein. This text updates the book published in 2017. 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In more detail, these topics are pertaining to the geological characteristics and the production response of a reservoir located offshore the Niger Delta (Nigeria), the coastal lacustrine geo-archives with the example of the Lake Bafa (Turkey), the sedimentary processes in the riparian zone of the Ruxi Tributary Channel (Three Gorges Reservoir, China), the beach morphological changes studied by means of a contour-line change model and finally, the role of the mangroves in controlling the sedimentary accretion of coastal and marine environments with the regional example of the south-eastern Asia.",isbn:"978-1-78984-765-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-764-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-729-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77582",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sedimentary-processes-examples-from-asia-turkey-and-nigeria",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e66ff69a772c2913167e9987180d7279",bookSignature:"Gemma Aiello",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7768.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2266,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",middleName:null,surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/100661/images/system/100661.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gemma Aiello was born in Aversa (CE), Italy, on 24 October\n1964. In 1989, she graduated in Geological Sciences at the University of Naples 'Federico II”. In 1993, she earned a PhD degree\nin Sedimentary Geology at the University of Naples 'Federico II”,\nDepartment of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geological Sciences. She\ncompleted a 2-year postdoctoral fellowship at the University of\nNaples 'Federico II”, a CNR-CEE fellowship, and several contracts\nat the Research Institute 'Geomare Sud”, CNR, Naples, Italy. Since 1998, she has\nbeen a full-time researcher at the Italian CNR. Dr. Aiello has 25 years’ experience in\nthe field of sedimentary geology, marine geology, and geophysics, participating in\ndifferent research projects for the Italian National Research Council (CARG, Vector,\nCentri Regionali di Competenza). She was a contract professor of sedimentology and\nstratigraphy at the Parthenope University of Naples, Italy, and a teacher in formation\ncourses of technicians in marine science and engineering in Naples, Italy",institutionString:"Institute of Marine Sciences - National Research Council ISMAR-CNR",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Institute for Coastal Marine Environment",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"667",title:"Geomorphology",slug:"sedimentology-geomorphology"}],chapters:[{id:"70756",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Introduction to Sedimentary Processes - Examples from Asia, Turkey, and Nigeria",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-introduction-to-sedimentary-processes-examples-from-asia-turkey-and-nigeria",totalDownloads:134,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello"}]},{id:"67387",title:"Geologic Characteristics and Production Response of the N5.2 Reservoir, Shallow Offshore Niger Delta, Nigeria",slug:"geologic-characteristics-and-production-response-of-the-n5-2-reservoir-shallow-offshore-niger-delta-",totalDownloads:584,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"228567",title:"Dr.",name:"Prince Suka",surname:"Momta",slug:"prince-suka-momta",fullName:"Prince Suka Momta"}]},{id:"66556",title:"“Geo-archives of a Coastal Lacustrine Eco-system”: Lake Bafa (Mediterranean Sea)",slug:"-geo-archives-of-a-coastal-lacustrine-eco-system-lake-bafa-mediterranean-sea-",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"138405",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Namik",surname:"Çagatay",slug:"m.-namik-cagatay",fullName:"M. 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Over the course of the past three decades, we have witnessed dramatic changes in our lifestyles. This is attributed to an unprecedented revolution of information technology (IT). The key element of the IT revolution is the continuing advancement of semiconductor technology. A major driving force of semiconductor technology lies in silicon. The silicon semiconductor has been applied to logic chips as well as memory chips for various applications. Meanwhile, the silicon memory has been at the center of an ongoing battle to manufacture the smallest, highest density, and most innovative product. Since their invention in the early 1970s, silicon memory devices have advanced at a remarkable pace. Silicon based memories such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM), static random access memory (SRAM), and Flash memory have been crucial elements for the semiconductor chip industry in the areas of density, speed, and nonvolatility, respectively. An important growth engine is scaling, which has enabled multiple devices to be integrated within a given area, resulting in an exponential increase in density and a decrease in bit-cost (Moore, 1965). The traditional scaling approach, however, is now confronting physical and technical challenges toward the end-point of the international technology roadmap for semiconductors (ITRS), indicating that the revenue from downscaling will diminish as scaling slows. Thus, an entirely new concept is required to ensure that silicon memory technology remains competitive. To meet this stringent requirement, this chapter will exploit a new paradigm of memory technology.
\n\t\t\tAn ideal memory device should satisfy three requirements: high speed, high density, and nonvolatility. Unfortunately, a memory satisfying all requirements has yet to be developed. Memory devices have consequently been advanced by pursuing just one of these virtues, and appear in many different forms. SRAM dominates high speed on-chip caches for advanced logic and DRAM occupies applications for high-density and high-speed computation; but DRAM’s data is volatile, and Flash memory is widely used for high density and non-volatile data storage. Therefore, if a single memory transistor can process different memory functions, a paradigm shift from ‘scaling’ to ‘multifunction’ can continue the evolution of silicon technology. In this chapter, the prototype of the fusion memory, named unified-random access memory (URAM), is introduced that can simplify device architecture, reduce power consumption, increase performance, and cut bit-cost.
\n\t\tURAM is composed of a single memory transistor, which must be of the smallest cell size. It can perform nonvolatile functions or high-speed operations according to the set of operational biases. In other words, circuit designers can specify URAM to be Flash memory or DRAM in order to comply with their specifications. Before discussing the details of URAM, each underlying operation principle is briefly introduced.
\n\t\t\tAdvancements in high quality and ultra-thin oxides have paved the way for nonvolatile memory for silicon-oxide-nitride-oxide-silicon (SONOS) devices, which have replaced conventional floating-gate memory (Brown & Brewer, 1998). Figure 1 shows the SONOS device structure and the program/erase operations. The device has a multiple gate dielectric stack consisting of tunnel oxide/nitride/control oxide (O/N/O), and the charges are stored in discrete traps in the nitride layer sandwiched between the upper/lower oxide barriers. The stored charges are positive or negative depending on whether negative or positive voltage is applied to the gate electrode. If positive programming voltage is applied to the gate, the electrons quantum-mechanically tunnel from the inverted channel through the tunnel oxide, and these electrons are stored in the deep-level traps in the nitride layer. During erasing, the holes are injected into the traps in the nitride in a manner similar to the program operation. The data is identified by the difference in the drain current. Once the charges are stored, the information is retained for up to 10 years with 106 to 107 program/erase cycles. Due to the superior ability of data retention, SONOS memory is called nonvolatile memory. From the perspective of speed, however, the writing requires few to few tens of microseconds, which might be too long to transfer high density data. Thus, the SONOS has been mainly utilized for portable applications, such as MP3 players, digital cameras, and memory stick solution.
\n\t\t\tOperational principle of a SONOS Flash memory. (a) schematic of SONOS structure and (b) drain current versus gate voltage characteristics for two data states. The information is stored as a form of nitride trapped charges. The polarity and amount of charges stored in nitride layer determine the threshold voltages. The data is distinguished by measuring drain current flow at a given voltage. Once the charges are stored, the data is retained for over ten years so that the Flash memory is referred as nonvolatile memory.
In conventional one transistor/one capacitor DRAM (1T/1C DRAM), Moore’s Law tends to be invalid as the device scaling advances. While the cell transistors continue scaling, the cell capacitors cannot shrink much because they should store a detectable amount of charge, which is equivalent to the minimum cell capacitance, 30fF/cell. Therefore, the size mismatch between the transistors and capacitors leads to complexity in the fabrication process. In 2001 (Okhonin et al., 2001), the densest and cheapest DRAM, which is called capacitorless 1T-DRAM or zero-capacitorless RAM (ZRAM), was developed. The capacitorless 1T-DRAM replaces the large and complicated capacitor to be fabricated with a floating-body capacitor. The capacitorless 1T-DRAM exploits inherent properties, known as the floating body effects or history effects, of transistors made on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrates. The floating body effects are generally considered as parasitic by circuit designers because they cause the current overshoot, and obstruct to model and implement into circuit simulator (Gautier, 1997). While the majority of efforts are made to suppress these effects, Okhonin et al. found out that they can be a method to temporarily store the information. Figure 2 illustrates the principle of the capacitorless 1T-DRAM. In the program, the impact ionization process generates pairs of electron and holes. While the electrons exit the channel through the drain, the holes are repelled by the drain, charging the body. Since the body is isolated vertically by the energy band offset of the buried-oxide and gate oxide, and laterally by the built-in potential energy of the n+ source and n+ drain with a p-type body, the confined holes are stored inside the floating body, as shown in Figure 2 During erase, the negative drain voltage pulls the holes out of the floating body. The information is identified by turning on the transistor and measuring the amount of current flow. More current flows at programmed state as the positive body charges contribute to lowering the channel potential. Since the holes can disappear by recombination at the programmed state and the holes can be generated by band-to-band tunneling or thermal generation at the erased state, the data is volatile. However, as the generation and removal of holes only takes a few nanoseconds, the capacitorless 1T-DRAM can be embedded for high-speed applications such as the caches of microprocessor, digital signal processor (DSP), system-on-chip (SOC), etc.
\n\t\t\tOperational principle of a capacitorless 1T-DRAM. (a) Schematic of floating body structure, (b) energy band diagram of capacitorless 1T-DRAM, and (c) drain current versus gate voltage characteristics for two data states. The information is stored as a form of floating body charges. The excess holes inside the floating body increase the drain current. Since the stored charges disappear in a second, it is referred as DRAM.
The basis of URAM lies in the difference of the inherent operational biases for Flash and capacitorless 1T-DRAM (Han et al., 2007). Figure 3 shows an operational bias domain for two memory modes. For erase operation, the two erase bias regions are distinctive. For program operation, even though the two regions partially overlap, the Flash memory utilizes relatively higher biases than the capacitorless 1T-DRAM. The overlapping region might cause them to disturb each other, a problem that will be solved in Section 5. If the proper biases are selected, two functions can work without disturbance from each other. In order to realize two functions in a single transistor, O/N/O gate dielectric is embodied onto a floating body transistor. When the Flash memory mode is activated, relatively higher voltages are used. On the other hand, relatively lower voltages are utilized to activate the capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode. Once the mode of URAM is determined, the operational biases are accordingly selected.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Operational bias domain of URAM and (b) schematics device structure and the program mechanism of two functions. The inherent difference stems from the distinctive operational domain, which allows independent functions in a single memory transistor.
The operational sequence is presented in Figure 4. The memory block is firstly selected, and the operation mode is then decided. If the nonvolatile mode is chosen, the Flash operation is activated. Similarly, the capacitorless 1T-DRAM is activated if the high speed mode is needed. When the mode transits from Flash to capacitorless 1T-DRAM, the cell transistors in the selected block should be initialized to have a threshold voltage of 0.2V. If the threshold voltages are not initialized and high value remains, the greater gate voltage would be required to bias the fixed gate overdrive voltage. The high gate voltage can gradually impose stress on the gate oxide, which gradually increases the threshold voltage. On the other hand, if the initialized threshold voltage is small or even negative, excess holes can be generated, even in the zero gate voltage (off-state) since the carrier supplement is sufficient to trigger impact ionization, which can cause drain disturbance. It should be noted that the impact ionization process for the program operation of the capacitorless 1T-DRAM can adversely affect the charge trapping into the O/N/O layer. Here, the undesirable threshold voltage shift caused by capacitorless 1T-DRAM program is referred to as a soft-program. Since the soft-program causes unstable operation, the threshold voltage should be periodically monitored to find out whether the cells have suffered from soft-programming. The memory block would be re-initialized if the cells failed the verification test. This verification and re-initialization loop is an essential but time consuming process. The method to minimize and, furthermore, eliminate this redundant loop will be discussed in Section 5.
\n\t\t\t\tOperational sequence diagram for URAM. The mode is selected according to the designer’s demand. Since the program mechanism between two modes partially overlaps, the verification and re-initialization loop is inserted in high-speed mode.
To date, silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate has been utilized for the capacitorless 1T-DRAM. As embedded DRAM (eDRAM) now occupies more than 50% of the total chip area, and advanced processors have started to pick up SOI, the capacitorless 1T-DRAM made on SOI substrate is highly attractive for embedded memory. However, since a bulk substrate still occupies a significant portion of the market share, if the floating body effect is found in the bulk substrate, a chip built on the bulk substrate will be fully blessed with the benefits from the bulk substrate technology. It is true that major memory industries are conservative to adopt SOI substrate for their stand-alone memory products mainly due to the cost issue. Therefore, the capacitorless 1T-DRAM fabricated on the bulk substrates will be explored in terms of not only the embedded memory, but also stand-alone memory applications. In this section, the various quantum substrates, in particular the bulk substrates embodied with the quantum energy band structure, are introduced and the device fabrication process is illustrated.
\n\t\t\t\tVarious templates and their energy band diagrams for excess hole storage. The SOI, SOSC, and SONW are potential barrier types, and the SOSC is potential well types. Unlike the SOI and SOSC, the SONW and SOSG confine holes by shallow trench isolation (STI) oxide in the lateral direction.
The quantum substrates used for the device fabrication and their corresponding energy band diagram for hole storage are comparatively shown in Figure 5. In SOI substrate, the excess holes are vertically confined between the tunnel oxide and the buried oxide and are horizontally isolated by the built-in potential barrier of the n+ source/drain and p-type body. Next, three methods for the floating body in bulk substrates are introduced. The hetero-epitaxial growth of semiconductor can imitate the energy band lineup of SOI. The introduction of carbon (C) into the silicon substrate enlarges the energy band-gap (Kim & Osten, 1997). Thus, the sequential growth of Si1-yCy and Si on the bulk wafer can mimic SOI substrate. Here, Si1-yCy serves as the role of the buried oxide. This substrate is named SOSC after the abbreviation of silicon-on-silicon carbon. Similar to the SOI substrate, the tunnel oxide and the valence band barrier at Si/Si1-yCy confine holes in the vertical direction, and the built-in potential at the junction boundary confines in the horizontal direction. The n+ ion deep implantation onto the p-type bulk substrates forms the buried n-type well structure (Ranica et al., 2005). The n-type well and p-type body forms a built-in potential barrier that prevents the holes from flowing out to the substrate terminal. This template is named SONW after the abbreviation of silicon-on-n+ well. Whereas the holes are horizontally isolated by the junction barrier at SOI and SOSC, the SONW confines hole by shallow trench isolation (STI) oxide. In order to an avoid electrical short between the n+ source/drain and n+ well, the n+ well should be buried much deeper than the junction depth of the source/drain. This requirement inevitably imposes a minimum space between the two junctions. Therefore, that opened space should be filled by the STI oxide. The aforementioned three substrates: SOI, SOSC, and SONW, vertically confine holes with the potential barrier. Similarly, a potential well can also store the excess holes as the potential barrier did. Similar to the SOSC preparation, the introduction of germanium (Ge) into the silicon substrate reduces the energy bandgap. Thus, the sequential epitaxial growth of Si1-xGex and Si forms the potential well (Ni & Hansson, 1990). In order to avoid the loss of the excess holes via recombination at the source/drain junction, buried Si1-xGex is placed under the source/drain junction boundary. As a result, the STI oxide blocks the evacuation of stored holes along the lateral direction. The silicon-on-silicon germanium is referred to SOSG. In addition to the fundamental interest in the well-type storage media, Si1-xGex is more frequently studied in the literature than Si1-yCy, and Si1-xGex has been already adopted for the strained technology in the mass production so that SOSG technology might be more practical.
\n\t\t\tThere are two common types of Flash memory array architectures: NAND and NOR which follow to the logical form of the cell configuration. The cell layout of URAM is the same as that of NOR type Flash because the drain voltage should be applied to each memory cell to trigger the impact ionization. The cell layout of URAM is shown in Figure 6. The gates of each cell are coupled by a row line, and their drains are coupled with column lines. Since the individual memory cells are connected in parallel, random access is allowed. NOR architecture generally has one contact per two neighboring cells by sharing the source contact, thereby reducing the chip area. Some types of URAM, however, cannot use the shared source contact. While the shared source is possible for SOI and SOSC, SONW and SOSG require each source contact for all cells because each cell should be isolated by the STI oxide. The cross-sectional schematic along the bit-line direction in Figure 7 shows that the source can be shared in SOI and SOSC. If the source is shared at SONW and SOSG, however, the lateral migration of excess holes can disturb the body charges of the neighboured cell. In other words, every cell should be isolated by the STI oxide and have their own source line. As a result, the layout efficiency of SOI and SOSC is better than that of SONW and SOSG.
\n\t\t\t\tTwo types of URAM configuration. (a) Shared source line uses one contact for two cells and (b) divided source lines require individual contact for each cell.
Schematics of the cells along the word line direction. Whereas the SOI and SOSC use the shored bit line, the SONW and SOSG should utilize the divided source line.
The schematic of the process flow is shown in Figure 8 (Han et al., 2009). Except the SOI substrate, SOSC, SONW, and SOSG utilize the bulk silicon wafer. Whereas SOI itself provides the intrinsic floating body, bulk substrates require the energy band engineering to form the extrinsic floating body. The n+ deep ion implantation is carried out for the SONW, Si1-yCy/Si is epitaxially grown for SOSC, and Si1-xGex/Si is epitaxially grown for SOSG. After the various types of the templates are prepared, the subsequent processes are similar. A photolithography process with a 0.18m design rule is applied for channel definition. The photoresist is then trimmed down to a line width of 30nm by plasma ashing. The silicon is etched by reactive ion etching (RIE), resulting in the a 30nm width fin shaped channel. High density plasma (HDP) oxide is deposited and planarized by chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) and partially recessed by diluted HF until the upper part of the fin is exposed. The remaining lower part of the fin is covered by the isolation STI oxide, and the exposed upper part of the fin becomes the active area. The gate dielectric stack, tunnelling oxide/nitride/control oxide, is formed, and in-situ doped n+ polysilicon for the gate is sequentially deposited. After the gate patterning, source/drain implantation and activation are carried out followed by forming gas annealing.
\n\t\t\t\tProcess flow of the URAM. After the quantum substrates for the floating body are prepared, the subsequent process flow is identical. Whereas SOI itself provides the intrinsic floating body, bulk substrates are hindered by the energy band engineering to form the extrinsic floating body. The n+ deep ion implantation is carried out for the SONW, Si1-yCy/Si is epitaxially grown for SOSC, and Si1-xGex/Si is epitaxially grown for SOSG.
Tilted view of the SOI URAM (upper), and cross-sectional view of four types of URAM (lower).
Tilted scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image and cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of the fabricated device on various quantum templates are shown in Figure 9. Table 1 summarizes the geometric dimensions.
\n\t\t\t\tSummary of geometric dimensions for four types of URAM.
Once the devices are fabricated, the fundamental properties should be investigated to find out whether the current-voltage characteristics are acceptable. The drain current (ID) versus gate voltage (VG), i.e. transfer characteristics, is commonly monitored, providing important parameters such as threshold voltage (VT), on-current (Ion), off-current (Ioff), subthreshold slope (SS), drain induced barrier lowering (DIBL), etc. Figure 10 shows the transfer plot for URAM. The SOI exhibits the steepest SS due to the well known fact that the depletion capacitance is the smallest at SOI. Whereas VT of the SOI, SOSG, and SOSG are similar, that of the SON is larger than others because of the high body doping concentration. In order to avoid an electrical short between n+ source/drain and n+ well, body doping concentration should, reluctantly, be high. Thus, driving current degrades due to the mobility degradation stemming from impurity scattering. It is found that the other parameters are superior to the counter devices (planar single-gate structure), which is attributed to the three-dimensional device structure. The device parameters are summarized in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\tDrain current versus gate voltage characteristics for various types of URAM. The superior device properties are attributed to the three dimensional device structure.
Summary of the device performances. The high threshold voltage in SONW is attributed to the high body doping concentration.
The simplest method to verify whether the impact ionization generates excess holes that will be stored inside the body is to examine the kink point in the drain current (ID) versus drain voltage (VD), i.e. output characteristics. As the drain voltage increases, the impact ionization process begins to occur beyond a certain drain voltage, generating pairs of electrons and holes. While the generated electrons flow out toward the drain terminal, the generated holes are repulsed to the body by positive drain voltage. In bulk substrates, generally, these holes are collected by a grounded substrate terminal, appearing as a form of substrate current. If the body is electrically floated, however, the holes are accumulated, contributing as an extra quasi-gate. Therefore, the accumulation of excess holes causes current increase at certain drain voltage, and anomalous output characteristics can be found. Figure 11 shows the output characteristics for URAM. The kink points assure that the excess holes are effectively accumulated, even at the bulk substrates, which are quantum mechanically engineered.
\n\t\t\tDrain current versus drain voltage characteristics for various types of URAM. As the drain voltage increases, the excess holes generated by the impact ionization are stored in the floating body, resulting in a kink in the saturation region.
Flash memory performance is normally evaluated in terms of four aspects: program speed, erase speed, data retention time, and endurance cycles. For nonvolatile memory application, the cells should satisfy the 10-years data retention requirement with 107 program/erase endurance cycles. The ability to store and recover data after ten years is called ‘retention’, and the ability to withstand repeated program/erase cycles is called ‘endurance’. The program/erase can be carried out by Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunneling or hot-carrier injection (HCI). In this study, the program/erase is enabled by FN tunneling. Figure 12 shows representative program/erase transient characteristics. The characteristics are obtained from the SOI, representatively. As the program/erase voltages are increased, a higher threshold voltage shift is achieved. In addition, as the program/erase time is increased, the threshold voltage is at first shifted and then saturated after a certain time. Normally, the erase speed is slower than the program speed because the tunneling efficiency of holes is lower than that of electrons due to the high effective mass and energy barrier height in the valence band side. Thus, in a memory array, erase operation is normally carried out by block erasing to improve the erasing throughput. Here, a VT window of 3.3V is achieved at the program of 11V with 80sec and the erase of -11V with 10msec.
\n\t\t\t\tProgram/erase transient characteristics of Flash memory mode at SOI URAM. (a) program transient and (b) erase transient characteristics. (Han et al., 2007)
The retention and endurance are crucial factors that determine the reliability of the Flash. Figure 13 shows that the 10-years retention and 107 cycles are guaranteed with a 1.9V detection window. Table 2 summarizes the reliability factors for various templates. No memory retention and endurance failure are obtained as long as the detectable threshold voltage window is greater than 1V. The endurance failure for SOSG is speculated to be caused not by a structure related failure, but by a process induced failure of O/N/O.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Data retention and (b) endurance characteristics of Flash mode at SOI URAM. (Han et al., 2007)
Summary of program/erase efficiency and reliability for various types of URAM.
A capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode is characterized by the customized system. Figure 14 shows the measurement system. The computer controls the pulse generator (Agilent 81110A), oscilloscope (Agilent 54542C), and current amplifier (Keithley 428). The pulse generator applies voltage patterns to the device. The source current is amplified by the current amplifier, changed into a form of voltage, and monitored by the oscilloscope. For low noise measurement, a low noise cable with length of 50cm is used. The device is tested under the probe station (Cascade R4840). All operations utilize the gate voltage of 1V, which is not an indispensable condition, but for monotone waveform to simplify the sensing circuit circuitry.
\n\t\t\t\tCustomized measurement system and the operational pulse waveform.
In order to minimize the leakage paths in the three-dimensional FinFET, the fin width should be as narrow as possible. This means that a fully depleted body is desirable in terms of scalability. The capacitorless 1T-DRAM, however, requires a partially depleted body, i.e. wider fin width, to store the detectable amount of holes. To compromise the scalability and the performance functionality, the fin is divided into two regions (Han et al., 2009). Figure 15 compares the conventional FinFET and the proposed one as counterpart structures. Whereas the fin is fully surrounded by the gate at the conventional FinFET, the fin of the proposed one is partially covered. The essence of the proposed one is that the hole accumulation region is spatially separated from the inverted channel. The upper part covered by the gate, which is fully depleted, provides a conduction path. The lower part covered by STI oxide, which is partially depleted, serves for a hole storage. Therefore, scalability and performance functionality (the floating body effect) are attained at the same time.
\n\t\t\t\tComparative images of (a) the conventional fully-depleted FinFET SONOS and (b) the proposed half fully-depleted and half partially-depleted FinFET SONOS. The contours of the body potential supported by simulation assure that the existence of a partially depleted region to accommodate more holes is attractive for proper 1T-DRAM operation. Consequently, the proposed FinFET is superior to the conventional FinFET. (Han et al., 2007)
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 16 shows the program/erase characteristics of the capacitorless 1T-DRAM. As mentioned in Section 2.3, the program/erase voltage should be optimized in order to avoid undesired charge trapping in the O/N/O layer. The program uses VG,PGM=1V and VD,PGM=1.5V, the erase uses VG,ERS=1V and VD,ERS=−1V, and the read voltages are VG,READ=1V and VD,READ=0.4V. Before utilizing the capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode, the initial VT is set to 0.2 V. The data states are clearly distinguished with a 7A sensing window after 80msec data retention, whereas the conventional device exhibits a smaller sensing window. This is attributed to the presence of increased excess hole accumulation as shown in Figure 15\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSource current for the capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode. The two data states are clearly identified because more holes are accumulated in the partially-depleted URAM. However, the source current difference is relatively small in the conventional fully-depleted URAM. (Han et al., 2007)
In the SONW substrate, the buried n-type well is embedded inside a p-type bulk substrate. The junction of the p-type body and the n-type well forms the pn built-in potential barrier, thus the excess holes can be retained inside the p-type body region. In order to prove that the excess holes can really be confined, the simulated contours of the hole concentration after the program are shown in Figure 17 In conventional bulk substrates, excess holes are generally collected by the grounded substrate. At the SONW substrate, the holes confront the n-well junction barrier, and the holes are thus accumulated inside the body.
\n\t\t\t\tSimulated contours of the hole concentration biased at hold condition after impact ionization, (a) convention bulk FinFET, and (b) SONW URAM. In contrast to the conventional case, SONW URAM stores the excess holes in the body region. (Han et al., 2008a)
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 18 shows the program/erase characteristics. The important feature in the bulk substrates is that the barrier height can be modulated by the substrate voltage. In other words, the ability to retain holes can be improved by proper substrate voltage. An applying a weak positive voltage and enlarging the hole barrier height can enhance the sensing window. The sensing window with retention time is increased from 4A with 8msec to 7A with 30msec as the substrate voltage is increased from 0V to 0.3V. In the case of strong positive voltage, however, the capacitorless 1T-DRAM cannot work because the forward biased source/drain to the body junction diode is inevitably turned on.
\n\t\t\t\tSource current for capacitorless 1T-DRAM of SONW. The sensing window is widened at a small positive substrate voltage. (Han et al., 2008a)
Since the SONW substrate needs the deep implantation process, it is hard to define an accurate and abrupt quantum engineered junction profile. The SOSC would be preferred as its energy band is determined by epitaxial growth and the mole fraction of C in Si1-yCy. In addition, whereas the buried n-well should be located far from the source/drain junction in order to avoid the electrical short, the band offset interface of Si/Si1-yCy can be at closer to the source/drain so that the influence of stored holes on the inverted channel becomes stronger. Therefore, SOSC gives a rise to improvements in performance. Figure 19 shows the program/erase characteristics. The sensing window of 11A with a retention time of 50msec at a substrate voltage of 0.3V is wider compared to that of SONW (Han et al., 2008). Also, the sensing window is wider at VSUB=0.3V than at VSUB=0V as predicted.
\n\t\t\t\tSource current for the capacitorless 1T-DRAM of SOSC. The small positive substrate voltage raises the sensing current window. (Han et al., 2008a)
The above three substrates, SOI, SONW, and SOSC, showed a quantum barrier, i.e. the energy band of the floating body is above that of the quantum engineered substrate. In contrast, SOSG is the quantum well structure because the energy band of the floating body is below that of the quantum engineered substrate. The quantum barrier type substrates use their bodies for the conduction path as well as the storage region, simultaneously. This condition can cause the excess holes to easily disappear by recombination with the inverted electrons, leading to degradation in the data retention time. However, the quantum well can separate the excess holes and conduction electrons; thus, the stored charge loss via the recombination process with an inverted electron is expected to be minimized, and improved performance is predicted. The Si/Si1-xGex/Si, SOSG, forms the potential well structure because the valence band energy of Si1-xGex is higher than that of Si, as shown in Figure 16 In SOSG, the top Si serves as the conduction channel, and the centered Si1-xGex is devoted to the hole storage region. The major advantage compared to SOSC is that, whereas the solid solubility of carbon in silicon is limited to 5%, the germanium content can be adjusted from 0% to 100%, which allows wide band offset modulation by changing stoichiometry of Si1-xGex. Therefore, the SOSG can provide more degrees of freedom in the energy band design because the depth of the potential well is favorably determined by the germanium content. The impact of germanium on the band offset has been theoretically reported, and it turns out that the valence band offset between Si and Si1-xGex is linearly increased with content x. The simulated distribution of excess holes after programming and maximum hole concentration for various content x are shown in Figure 20 The holes are found to be preferentially accumulated in the Si1-xGex layer. The hole concentration is exponentially increased as the valence band offset is increased. However, the hole concentration starts to saturate after a band offset of 0.24eV, which corresponds to germanium content of x=0.4. This means that the usage of Ge higher than x=0.4 will be ineffective in terms of the ability to store holes. In other word, a very deep potential well is not always necessary for higher performance (Han et al., 2008b).
\n\t\t\t\ta) Simulation results of hole concentration biased at hold condition after impact ionization. The stored excess holes are found in a Si1-xGex potential well, (b) the valence band offset as a function of germanium content and resultant hole concentration, and (c) the energy band offset in the SOSG structure. The amount of stored holes is exponentially increased as the valence band offset is increased, but the hole concentration starts to saturate after a band offset of 0.24eV. (Han et al., 2008b)
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 21 shows the program/erase characteristics for two germanium contents, x=0.3 and x=0.5. Despite of the larger sensing window at x=0.5, the retention is found to be inferior to that at x=0.3 due to the fact that the higher defect density caused by an atomic lattice mismatch at x=0.5 induces faster recombination during read operation. In addition to the retention degradation at the programmed state, a deeper potential well also is found to degrade the retention at the erased state. The reason is speculated to be that the holes are easily diffused into the potential well from the neighbored p-type silicon layers, as illustrated in Figure 22. As a result of the trade off between sensing current window and retention time, the optimized stoichiometry of Si1-xGex is x=0.3. The retention time (the order of microseconds) appears to be insufficient to practical application, however, refinement of the epitaxial process and geometric optimization of the 3-D structure will enhance the performance.
\n\t\t\t\tCapacitorless 1T-DRAM characteristics for different germanium content in Si1-xGex of SOSG. The higher x exhibits a wider sensing window at the beginning of the sensing, but also faster charge loss. (Han et al., 2008b)
a) Transmission electron microscopy images of x=0.4 and 0.3 and (b) schematics for retention degradation mechanisms. The high germanium content induces a high lattice mismatch because the lattice constant of germanium is larger than that of silicon. The defects originating from the lattice mismatch reduce the data retention at the programmed state via charge recombination, and a deeper potential well degrades the data retention at the erased state due to hole-to-hole repulsion and its repellent diffusion mechanism. (Han et al., 2008b)
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 3 summarizes the features and performances of four types of URAM. The SOI substrate exhibits the fastest write speed, the widest sensing window, and the longest retention among the four substrates. Among the bulk types, the SOSC substrate displays superior performance.
\n\t\t\t\tSummary of the features and performance of various URAMs. All data were measured at 300K.
URAM can be realized by combining the O/N/O gate dielectric to store electrons and the floating body to capture holes in a single transistor. Unfortunately, impact ionization for the program of the capacitorless 1T-DRAM can adversely affect the stored charges in the O/N/O layer. This gives a rise to an undesired threshold voltage shift, which is called ‘soft-programming’. The strong impact ionization condition provides faster program speed, a wider sensing window, and longer retention time, but this simultaneously increases the hot-electron injection into O/N/O, leading to instability as a result of the disturbance between the Flash and capacitorless 1T-DRAM modes. Thus, the program condition of capacitorless 1T-DRAM has reluctantly been bounded in order not to disturb the Flash memory states. This is becoming an increasingly important concern.
\n\t\t\t\tIn order to clarify the soft-programming, Figure 23 shows the capacitorless 1T-DRAM performance after 105 cyclic operations. When the drain voltage for a program is 1.8V, a sensing current window of 6A is sustained, which means the interference is negligible. To improve the performance, when the drain voltage is increased to 2.2V, hot-electron injection is unpropitiously caused. This causes a gradual charge trapping into O/N/O, and the resultant sensing window is decreased. Therefore, a soft-program poses a constraint on the maximum program voltage. In order to overcome this issue, soft-programming immune device structures and operational methods are suggested in the following subsections.
\n\t\t\tProgram/erase characteristics by the impact ionization method for different program voltages. The sensing window is reduced at a high drain voltage as the stress cycles increase due to hot electron injection into the nitride layer. (Han et al., 2009a)
The soft-program tends to occur as the impact ionization process is triggered under the gate. Thus, if the impact ionization region is steered out of the O/N/O layer, hot electron injection can be mitigated. The impact ionization process occurs at the region with the highest electric field, i.e., drain end. Thus, a gate-to-source/drain nonoverlap creates an impact ionization region located outside of the gate. Even though the impact ionization triggers a hot-electron injection, the charge trapping is alleviated since there are no trap sites. Thus, the constraint of program bias is relieved. For this purpose, junction nonoverlap structure is fabricated and compared to the conventional overlap structure. Figure 24 shows the fabricated device images. The nonoverlap length is 20nm.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Schematics of gate-to-source/drain overlap and nonoverlap structure and (b) transmission electron microscopy image of the gate-to-source/drain nonoverlap devices. The body thickness is 50nm, the gate length is 110nm, and the nonoverlap length is 20nm. (Han et al., 2009a)
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 25 shows the memory characteristics for both structures. Even though the nonoverlap device may suffer from degradation in the impact ionization efficiency, the sensing current window of the nonoverlap device is found to be wider than that of an overlap one (Figure 25a) because the nonoverlap reduces the junction leakage and recombination rate. In addition, the effective volume of the floating body is extended by the amount of nonoverlap. As a result, reduced impact ionization efficiency can be compromised (Song et. al., 2008). In the Flash memory characteristics shown in Figure 25b, a threshold voltage window of 4.3V is achieved. The threshold voltage for a fresh device is higher in a nonoverlap than at an overlap device, and the threshold voltage window of a nonoverlap structure is narrower than that of an overlap structure. Despite of the degradation in the threshold voltage window for flash memory, the window of 4.3V is acceptable to identify the data states (Han et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t\ta) Capacitorless 1T-DRAM and (b) Flash memory characteristics. The nonoverlap structure shows a wider sensing current window in capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode, but narrow threshold voltage window in Flash mode. (Han et al., 2009a)
In order to evaluate the soft-programming immunity, a stress test is carried out. While the program voltage is applied, the threshold voltage shift is periodically monitored during the operation cycles. As shown in Figure 26, whereas the overlap structure shows a threshold voltage shift of 0.2V, the nonoverlap device exhibits distinctively superior immunity against the soft-program to the overlap device.
\n\t\t\t\tThe threshold voltage shift monitored during the cyclic operations. The nonoverlap structure shows superior immunity against the soft-program. (Han et al., 2009a)
It is worthwhile to note that the major weakness of the nonoverlap junction structure is that the parasitic voltage drops via series resistance at the nonoverlap region reduces the impact ionization efficiency. This drawback can be countervailed by increasing the dielectric constant of the gate offset spacer. The high dielectric constant of the spacer can increase the effect of the gate fringing field to the nonoverlap region, which is expected to boost the impact ionization rate (Ma et. al., 2007). Therefore, the abundance of excess holes can further improve the current drivability and recover performance of the capacitorless 1T-DRAM against the sacrificed impact ionization efficiency.
\n\t\t\tTo date, impact ionization was commonly used to create excess holes in the body. However, in place of the impact ionization, there is another method to generate excess holes; the gate-induced-drain-leakage (GIDL). A device biased on the GIDL condition, i.e., negative gate and positive drain voltage, creates excess holes in the body by band-to-band tunneling. The impact ionization program significantly wastes power since it is triggered by high drain current. However, GIDL current does not require such drain current; thus, low power operation is feasible. If the O/N/O is in the erase saturation state prior to activating the capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode, the hole injection into O/N/O is effectively restricted. In addition, the hole injection is even suppressed because the effective mass and energy band barrier of the hole in the valence band side are high. Figure 27a shows the program/erase pulse waveform of the GIDL program method and resultant sensing current. The current window of 12A with 50msec data retention facilitates the data sensing. In order to verify the immunity against the soft-program, the stress test is carried out by the impact ionization and GDIL program methods. The amount of trapped charges is evaluated by monitoring the shift of the threshold voltage. Figure 27b shows the impact of cyclic capacitorless 1T-DRAM on the threshold voltage shift. Whereas the impact ionization condition induces the charge trapping and results in a threshold voltage shift, the GIDL method does not. Thus, the GIDL method is the effective tool to achieve a soft-program immune operation (Han et al, 2009).
\n\t\t\t\ta) Program/erase characteristic of GIDL program method and (b) threshold voltage shift versus cyclic stress time. The GIDL program method does not shift the threshold voltage, while the impact ionization program does. (Han et al., 2009b)
It is worthwhile to note that the GIDL program method in URAM may be inefficient in terms of the generation efficiency of holes. As the Flash memory utilizes O/N/O gate dielectric, such a thick gate dielectric hampers to achievement of sufficient band bending for band-to-band tunneling. Thus, a programming time of 100nsec was used, which would be too long to apply for the embedded system. Since the thickness of O/N/O is no longer scalable to sustain acceptable nonvolatility, a higher gate voltage would be required, but it also poses power issues. In order to overcome this drawback, a p+ polysilicon gate on the p-type body can be used. Since the flat band voltage difference between p+ polysilicon and n+ drain is higher than that of n+ polysilicon and n+ drain, a higher GIDL current is induced at a given gate voltage (Lindert et. al, 1996). Therefore, the implementation of the p+ polysilicon gate can yield improved memory characteristics in the GIDL method.
\n\t\t\tIn the first prototype of URAM, the impact ionization program condition caused a soft-program issue. Next, despite the suppression of the soft-program, the GIDL program tends to sacrifice program efficiency. In summary, both methods have their distinctive strengths as well as weaknesses, simultaneously. In this section, a third method is introduced for improved performance with soft-program free operation. It is important to note that the floating body MOSFET contains a parasitic lateral bipolar junction transistor (BJT) composed of n+ source, p-type body, and n+ drain, which correspond to an emitter, base, and collector, respectively. As the p-type body is floated, the BJT with the floating base cannot be activated in the normal MOSFET operational conditions. However, if the high voltage is applied to the drain, the hole injection to the floating base can turn on the parasitic BJT, and the drain current is maintained even though the MOSFET is supposed to be turned off (Chen et. al, 1988). Figure 28 shows the double-sweep transfer characteristics. At a low drain voltage, the normal MOSFET transfer curved is shown, and there is no hysteresis. At high drain voltage, however, the subthreshold slope approaches 0mV/dec at the time of the parasitic BJT activation, and a hysteresis loop is generated. Thus, even at the given read voltage, bistable current-voltage characteristics can be utilized as a single memory transistor, as indicated in the Figure 28 (Okhonin et. al, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tDouble sweep drain current versus the gate voltage characteristics at the SOI URAM. At VD=1.8V, the device shows normal MOSFET transfer characteristics. At VD=2.2V, the parasitic BJT alternatively begins to work, and the hysteresis loop is created.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 29 comparatively shows the capacitorless 1T-DRAM characteristics with the previous two program methods and the BJT read method. A pulse width of 5nsec is applied for program and erase in the BJT mode. The programming is carried by impact ionization or GIDL, and the erase is fulfilled by forward junction current. The difference lies in the read condition. The previous methods used low drain voltage, typically VD<0.6V, in order not to disturb the body charged state, resulting in a small sensing current. In addition the sensing current window was gradually narrowed by the generation and recombination processes. In contrast, the parasitic BJT read uses a high drain voltage at least VD>2V to activate bipolar action. While the negative gate voltage turns off the MOSFET, the parasitic BJT can either be activated or deactivated according to an excessive number of holes or lack of holes. When excess holes exist in the body, a parasitic BJT is activated in which the current corresponds to the point A in Figure 28. On the other hand, when excess holes are eliminated, the parasitic BJT is deactivated, thereby causing the current not to flow, which corresponds to point B in Figure 28 In particular, once the parasitic BJT is activated, the high BJT current is latched despite the MOSFET being in off state because the hole is continuously supplied as long as the read voltage is applied. Therefore, the BJT read method is considered to be completely non-destructive, and the sensing current window is high enough that a sense amplifier may not be necessary to identify the data.
\n\t\t\t\tComparison of the capacitorless 1T-DRAM characteristics with various methods. In the conventional read method, the sensing current window is gradually narrowed with the read time. In the BJT read method, the source current remains constant because the stored data at BJT read condition is latched.
It is important to note that the read and program operations correspond to the hot-hole injection conditions, which can cause a threshold voltage shift during cyclic capacitorless 1T-DRAM operations. This situation seems similar to the soft-program, but it turns out that the soft-program in BJT is negligible, as shown in Figure 30 If the nitride traps are saturated with holes that can be carried out by an initialization step before the capacitorless 1T-DRAM mode, there are no additional threshold voltage shifts because there are no extra available trap sites in the nitride. According to the stress test data, the threshold voltage shift is found to be negligible, resulting in stable operation. The soft-program free scheme can exclude the operation loop of the verification of the soft-programming and re-initialization that is supposed to be required in the conventional methods, as shown in Figure 31 The elimination of the redundant loop can greatly conserve the integrity of the gate oxide, which can otherwise be degraded by repeated initialization processes.
\n\t\t\t\tThreshold voltage and sensing current window versus the operation cycles. The threshold voltage shift and sensing current window degradation are found to be negligible, which guarantees very stable URAM operation without soft-programming.
Operational sequence for URAM. (a) The conventional read method and (b) the parasitic BJT read method. In the conventional read method, the verification and re-initialization loop is necessary due to the soft-program issue. In contrast, the parasitic read method excludes the redundant loop because the interference between the two modes is eliminated.
In this chapter, as we confront challenges of current memory technology and as the design rule deviates from the historical scaling paradigm, a novel memory scheme is proposed to continue the roadmap beyond the end point of silicon based memory. Over the scaling to multi-bit era, the multi-functional paradigm is proposed. Whereas the conventional fusion memory pursues high-cost multi-chip-package technology, multi-function is realized in a single memory transistor. The functions of nonvolatile Flash memory and high-speed DRAM are co-integrated, and this memory is named Unified-RAM or URAM. The combination of oxide/nitride/oxide gate dielectric and the floating body structure provide two functions in a single memory cell. In addition, the inherent operational bias domain for two functions allows independent function depending on the end user’s demand. The various floating body substrates designed with consideration of the quantum mechanics were proposed in order to confine the excess hole to operate the capacitorless 1T-DRAM. In addition to the conventional silicon on insulator (SOI) substrate, three bulk type floating body substrates were developed. The silicon on n-well (SONW) formed by the deep ion implantation and the silicon on Si1-yCy (SOSC) formed by epitaxial growth were presented for the potential barrier type approach. Furthermore, the silicon on Si1-xGex (SOSG) was developed for the potential well type substrate. Even though the performance of bulk might be inferior to that of SOI, the bulk can be still useful in terms of cost-effective manufacturing and heat dissipation with a moderate sensing window. After the soft-program issue was certificated, the parasitic bipolar junction transistor (BJT) read method was newly proposed for powerful performance with soft-programming immunity.
\n\t\t\tAs URAM is implemented by using standard semiconductor design and fabrication facility, new products can be manufactured quickly, reducing development time and investment cost. The beauty of URAM lies in the fact that it does not require exotic semiconductor materials, oddly structured parts, exploratory insulator, or an extra photolithography step. URAM is considered to be the next generation for advanced memory technology, which will open a new paradigm shift, and it will be a viable successor to the future embedded memory.
\n\t\tLidia’s cattle breeding has been, and continues to be, one of the most genuine animal production sectors, due to the particular ethological characteristics of this breed and the peculiarities of the production system and the product obtained, in this case suitable animals for the show [1].
\nSpain is the first Lidia cattle breeding country and has the most varied and important genetic heritage of this breed [2] that is also present in Portugal, southern France, and much of South America such as Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Ecuador [3].
\nLidia cattle sector represents in Spain a socioeconomic activity of considerable importance, with a total turnover of approximately 1.5 billion euros per year, which does not only affect entrepreneurs, ranchers, and bullfighters, but also more than 200,000 jobs that depend directly or indirectly on the bullfighting activities [4], which constitute the second mass spectacle of Spain and Portugal [5]. Lidia cattle, the second pure breed in the bovine census in Spain [6], are considered the greatest exponent of an extensive breeding system, due to their ethological characteristics, the need for wide spaces, and the difficulty in handling that it presents [7]. In turn, it is a breed of great rusticity, able to adapt and take advantage of all types of terrain, including those of extreme weather conditions [8]. Many farms are located in territories of high landscape value such as natural parks, playing an important role in maintaining biodiversity and contributing to the conservation of the ecosystem [9].
\nThe characteristics of a Lidia standard farm are an average size of 253 mother cows and a total number of heads of 748 animals, including animals of other breeds or those belonging to other species, necessaries for livestock’s handling, with an annual replacement rate of 12% [10]. However, after the economic crisis of 2008, most livestock farms have decreased the number of heads. Nevertheless, the livestock internal distribution remains stable. For a Lidia cattle farm of 100 mother cows, the ideal average internal scheme, considering the different types of animals classified by sex and age, could be the one presented in Table 1 [11].
\nSires | \n3 | \n
Cows | \n100 | \n
Calf male <1 year | \n40 | \n
Males 1–2 years | \n38 | \n
Males 2–3 years | \n36 | \n
Males 3–4 years | \n35 | \n
Bulls 4–6 years | \n34 | \n
Calf female <1 year | \n40 | \n
Heifers 1–2 years | \n36 | \n
Heifers 2–3 years | \n20 | \n
Halters | \n12 | \n
Internal distribution of a standard Lidia farm considering the different types of animals classified by sex and age [11].
The standard farm has a number of hectares ranging from 586 to 721, of which 92% of the land is used as pastures [12].
\nToday, the farming system of the Lidia breed continues to be, mainly, an extensive management system that has gradually adapted to new grazing techniques and food supplementation in times of natural grass decline, such as winter and summer, in dry climates [13]. The extension of the farms is still remarkable, but of much less spacious than that of several decades ago and in terms of quality, the brave cattle have been relegated to less productive and more stepped mountain farms in favor of agriculture or other more profitable species, such as the Iberian pig in Spain and Portugal [7]. In Mexico, most farms are located in the central part of the country, with a dry climate similar to Spain, carrying out similar feeding management. On the other hand, Lidia cattle in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru are in territories with a tropical climate, whose diet is based on natural grass with a concentrated supplementation during the last stage of preparing the males for the show [14].
\nLidia bull growth estimation [9].
The Lidia cow is a very rustic animal, of few requirements, since its small size also dictated its nutritional needs. Even so, adequate feeding is essential to obtain a good fertility rate, avoiding abortions and perinatal mortality, and, after a good lactation, wean the calf in an optimal state [7, 15]. Currently, the use of natural resources is maximized, preferably by grazing and the supplementation of hay or silage, and if necessary, concentrated food is used at a rate of 2–4 kg/day, depending on the richness of the grass and forage [16, 17].
\nDuring the first 3–4 months, calves are fed exclusively with cow’s milk and develop optimal growth, as long as it comes from a well-fed cow that produces milk of adequate quality and quantity.
\nAfter weaning, and when the animals are between 9 and 10 months old, they are usually supplemented in times of shortage of grass with rations whose fundamental components are fibrous products (beet and citrus pulps, dehydrated or henified alfalfa, and cereal straw), industrial by-products (gluten-feed, wheat bran, soy cake, and beet molasses), and common products in the composition of concentrates of other types of farm animals (corn, barley, wheat, and sunflower meal).
\nGalvanized iron feeders are frequently used, 5 m long by 40 cm wide approximately, which allow to guarantee half a meter of free space per animal, avoiding hierarchy problems, present in any group of this breed, which could result in some type of undernourishment particularly important in this stage of development. Likewise, several water points distributed along the fenced space must be installed, arranged around the feeder area, to favor the movement of animals across different areas and to avoid their concentration in one point.
\nWhen the animals are around 23 months of age, they are slowly provided, during 4 weeks of adaptation, an increasing proportion of the ration designed for adult animals of 3 and 4 years, in order to adapt them to the finishing feeding diet composition.
\nLivestock facilities used for these animals have similar characteristics to the ones described for young animals, although in case of using individual feeders, the number of feeders is usually 10% greater than the number of animals to be fed [18]. Also, the different water points are often installed at a greater separation distance from the feeders (at least 500 m), to facilitate a better distribution throughout the land surface. As in previous phases, a supplementation is necessary, which as an example could be based on the addition of 0.5 kg of alfalfa hay to the total supplementation established in the previous phase, thus leaving 2.5 kg of alfalfa hay added to 0.5 kg of concentrate per animal per day [15].
\nThe feeding systems described during the 1980s based on a final bait are still in force today. Although each farmer has its own feeding methodology, depending on the availability of grass and other types of food on the farm, the possibility of growing the forage or concentrate on the farm itself or the use of agricultural by-products such as citrus pulp or some derived from the olive oil industry.
\nThis final bait is carried out in fenced areas of small size, frequently without grass, with a daily supply of rations of high energy concentration and high digestibility [19]. This last feeding stage is called “pre-lidia bait” or “finishing,” and it can vary between 5 and 12 months and usually begins during the winter [20], adapting the amount of ration supplied to the bulls at the date on which they have to fight.
\nThe average fenced area used for these bulls is usually around 60 hectares per farm, and the average number of animals per enclosure is 20 (which is equivalent to a density of 3 hectares per bull), although each farm distributes its animals in a way different. The average daily gain (GMD) is approximately 450 g/day (Figure 1), which means that in this period, the bulls gain about 150 kg of weight, 30% of their final body weight, considering a standard bull of 500 kg of weight at 4 years of age [7].
\nThe use of long feeders is common, especially in southern Spain, compared to the classic individual and small feeder used in farms located on the center of Spain (Figure 2). The distribution of food is done during the morning and the afternoon in most of the farms [21].
\nLong feeder and single feeders.
There is a critical point in the strategy of feeding management, due to the overfeeding carried out during the last year, prior to the fight, which causes an overload of weight in the bone structure, added to the state of obesity that causes a lack of strength and mobility of the animal that limits its behavior in the arena and, therefore, the show itself.
\nThe problem lies in the overfeeding to which it is subjected in the final phase of its growth during variable periods of time (from 8 to 12 months) that generates a series of pathologies and inconveniences that negatively influence its productive aptitude: the behavior in the ring.
\nSeveral studies have been carried out on the effect of intensive bait on rumen physiology of Lidia cattle [16, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31], and all of them point to ruminal acidosis, a primary pathology that predisposes the appearance of secondary lesions such as liver abscesses, gastrointestinal ulcers, ruminal parakeratosis, laminitis, anthill, and so on. Later we will address this pathology more widely.
\nLidia females reach puberty at approximately 12 months of age but must reach the two-third of adult body weight before becoming pregnant [7] at approximately 2 years of age, and the productive lifespan time lasts for 8–10 years with a calving-gestation interval of 2–4 months [32].
\nLidia bulls begin to show sexual activity from 6 months of age reaching puberty at 10–12 months, having been necessary to separate them from females before 1-year olds [7]. At 2 or 3 years, the selected sires are tested with a small group of females, but they are not profusely used until their female offspring are tested, and the quality of their genetic is proved, once this happens, they could be 15 years contributing its genetic flow in natural mating to the cattle ranch [32].
\nAt present, in the majority of Lidia farms, the reproductive handling is very traditional with natural mating of one sire and 30–40 cows during several months. The outstanding difference with the past management is that now the fertility is greater due to a better cow’s body condition that allows them to perform a successful gestation and lactation every year [33] (Figures 3 and 4).
\nLive weight variation of a Lidia cow [23].
Calving and natural mating management based on grazing availability in seasonal countries.
In Europe, the duration of the mating period in Lidia cattle is similar to that of other extensive bovine breeds, being able to reach up to 8 months (autumn–spring) in livestock farms with longer periods, but its duration is often shorter, from the end of winter to the beginning of summer (March–July), since at this time, the best results are obtained in heat of the cows and fertility, due to both photoperiod and feeding reasons. In countries as Colombia without reproductive stations, the cycle is continuous.
\nThere are relevant anatomical differences in the reproductive system of the female of the Lidia cattle: the cervix is longer in length than other bovine breeds; they present a uterine body very short, and it seems as nonexistent during transrectal palpation [34]. It is similar to the bipartite uterus in rodents, and the ovary has a very small size compared to other breeds of similar size presenting at the oviduct level the largest infundibulum that surrounds much of the ovary [35].
\nAt the same time, there are hormonal differences because the Lidia cow reaches puberty earlier and has a shorter gestation period than other breeds: 286 days [36]. The natural mating should last long enough to guarantee a good fertility rate, with a minimum recommended period of 3–4 months (each cow has at least three opportunities to get pregnant), but there are farmers who extend it more, and there are even systems with continuous natural mating, more common in tropical countries like Colombia. Short mating periods have the advantage of being able to concentrate the calving with better control of herd management and feeding. It is done more in larger herds, in large areas, where lactation is adapted to times of pasture abundance.
\nThe utilization of techniques for semen collection and conservation for artificial insemination (AI) began to be used three decades ago in Lidia bulls. Later, embryo-transfer from high genetic merit Lidia cows to dairy cattle and cloning of one sire to preserve the excellent genetic quality was achieved. These reproductive methods, used to improve the productive characteristic of dairy and beef cattle, could be useful future tools to increase the genetic progress in Lidia cattle behavior selection [37].
\nThere are immense advantages in using cryopreservation, due to semen dilution and conservation during medium and large periods, increasing the possibilities to use it for decades through AI when the behavioral results of their offspring are well known. There is also the possibility to extract post-mortem semen from the epididymis after the fight in the bulls of extraordinary behavior [38]. In this way, each farmer begins to have his own semen bank of his own sires and bulls. In turn, this would allow the exchange of semen between breeders, to refresh the blood of their livestock, being easy to transport to farms located in the countries of America. Among the advantages of this technique are avoid risks of contagions of potential pathologies, allowing the reproduction of animals of different sizes because natural mating is not necessary, and also is not necessary to move the male, allows the collection of semen in extreme situations, and, above all, enables the possibility to use some improving individuals of a contrasted character in a large number of females [39].
\nThe biggest problems are due to the handling difficulties of these animals due to the untidy nature of this breed. Insemination implies added high-risk management both for animals and for people that seriously conditions, from a technical and economic point of view, its generalization in the Lidia cattle [37]. The introduction of other reproductive techniques such as early pregnancy diagnosis allows to discover and treat uterine pathologies, helping to detect nonpregnant cows that could be resynchronized or intended for natural mating and reducing calving pregnancy intervals. Reproduction control does not necessarily imply the hormonal treatment of all animals nor their subsequent insemination because it is possible to use mixed models in which the natural mating and AI are used in a complementary way [40].
\nOnce the AI technique will be established, the next step will be to adapt an embryo transfer program to this type of cattle. Currently, it is used to preserve the valuable genetic material of small farms and to increase the reproductive efficiency of some females. In recent years, this technique has contributed to the formation of germplasm banks as genetic reserve in cases of farms with severe health problems or encastes\n1 in danger of extinction [35].
\nAt the same time, the use sexed semen to obtain a greater number of males than females could create an opportunity, considering the superior economic value of those. However, its use could jeopardize the process of selection and breeding of the farms due to the fact that reducing the numbers of females could be a risk if the proper and strict selection pressure is not applied.
\nRegarding cloning, there are many questions about its efficacy in general and in Lidia cattle in particular. It is not known, for example, if a cloned animal can develop and interact normally with its peers in a highly hierarchical and of great rivalry environment. A cloned individual may have a poor development of the immune or cardiovascular system, and it is not known whether the libido and fertility of a future cloned breeder will be normal. At the moment, it is known that it ages quicker and has a shorter productive lifespan [41]. A cloned bull must also be tested, and in the event that his quality would be acceptable, it will be also necessary to test its offspring to see if it is able to convey his characters.
\nThe cloning of a sire, with the aim of collect semen, may be important in the case of some farms with few breeding males or if it is an individual of outstanding genetic merit and advanced age [42]. In any case, a clone might not have the same ethological characteristics as the animal from which it proceeds, since the behavior is the consequence of its genetic background, the environment in which it develops [33] its ontogenesis or sequential development.
\nTraditionally, three types of selection are made: genealogical, morphological, and functional [32]. In relation to the first, the farmer systematically records information, in his own books, the lines, or families that form the basis of the genetic heritage of his livestock, as well as the results of the offspring of each generation.
\nThis information is used to choose future breeding animals. In addition, each farm defines its morphological preferences, depending on the type it belongs to or the priorities of the owner. The selection criteria are usually higher for males than those used for females. They focus, fundamentally, on aspects related to external appearance, neck musculature conformation, bone structure and development, and so on [43]. And finally, the functional selection consists in measuring the brave character of each animal, although each farmer understands the meaning of this term in a very subjective way. A series of tests are carried out on both females and males to assess their bravery [32].
\nIn the case of females, animals of 1, 2, or 3 years are evaluated. The test is practiced in the tienta,2 under the direction of the farmer and with the participation of professional bullfighters, trying to discover the functional performance of each animal. The behavior of each individual in each phase of the test is assessed using the horse and with the muleta. There are different parameters (prompt response, attack, fixity, mobility, nobility, fierceness, aggressiveness, repetition, and so on) that are evaluated by the farmer, to achieve a final note for each animal and, subsequently, keep the best females as breeders [44].
\nIn the test of males, animals of 2–4 years of age are chosen, initially selecting the specimens that have obtained the best results in the genealogical and morphological tests. They are tested in a small bullring, and if the animal does not respond properly, the test is interrupted, and the bull is withdrawn and will be destined for normal fighting. Those animals initially selected, after testing the behavior of their offspring, will become part of the livestock as a sire or will be discarded, losing their value for a standard fight since they have developed sense during the test fight [32].
\nThere is another circumstantial and sporadic form of sire selection, performed by fans and not by the farmer, which is the case of indulto.3 It occurs in the context of a bullfight where many influential factors could alter the true criteria by which a bull must be selected. Therefore, it is the breeder who will decide, later, if the animal should be used for reproductive purpose or not.
\nCurrently, another type of selection, genetics, has been introduced by livestock associations, which has become increasingly important [9]. It consists of identifying the individuals carrying the most beneficial genes for the interest characters and using them as breeding animals to transmit them to their descendants. The way to evaluate whether or not the phenotype of an animal is a good reflection of the genes of which it is a carrier (genetic value or merit) is based on calculating the heritability of that character [45].
\nThe capacity to transfer behavioral characters is very slow because it is limited by the production of a calf per year, at the most, as well as the complexity to accurately and quickly assess the ethological response of its products in the show [46].
\nAccording to Cañón et al. [2], many of the behavioral characters manifested by the Lidia bull, such as mobility, repetition, nobility, rhythm, and fierceness, despite its complexity and subjective assessments, if scored with enough rigor, can manifest high heritability (>0.35) that makes them susceptible to be selected in one way or another, at the choice of the farm’s owner.
\nA very precise selection of the best individuals entails the maintenance of a population with high consanguinity; therefore, controlling it is an always necessary activity in a Lidia cattle ranch, preserving the necessary genetic variability within it. In general, in Lidia farms, the level of consanguinity does not seem to be very high: 0.12 and 0.13 [47]. Even so, it is possible to find bulls with a consanguinity coefficient of 0.25 [48]. However, regulated mating strategies should be followed, to avoid mating animals with common ancestors, establishing a short- or medium-term conservation program. However, we must be aware of the difficulties involved in the conservation of some minority genetic lines, cattle ranches, or “encastes” [48], because the smaller a population is and the greater the imbalance between the sexes the more difficult it is to preserve their genetic characteristics, complicating the task of avoiding mating between related animals.
\nFinally, the incorporation of the computer methods to control the productive data of the animals allows organization and best valuation of each reproductive potential. With the information reduced to informative schemes, the results can be checked immediately, which make it possible to know, through the corresponding analysis of the offspring, the racing power of the father or mother [45, 49, 50, 51].
\nThe most frequent diseases of Lidia cattle, which also affect extensive cattle, are parasitic processes (coccidiosis, ostertagiosis, dictyocaulosis, and sarcosporidiosis), infectious processes (clostridiosis, anthrax, paratuberculosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, actinobacillosis, and pyobacillosis), poisonings (aflatoxicosis, ochratoxicosis, aluminum phosphide, and lead poisoning), and deficiency processes as poliencefalomalacia [52].
\nIn addition, the extensive nature of this animal production system predisposes him to suffer from eye problems such as infectious keratoconjunctivitis and horn wounds due to fights between animals [53]. The latter represents a very important chapter in the economies of Lidia farming assuming losses of traumatic etiology ranging from 3 to 15% of male adult individual. Most of them require surgical treatment; some of the interventions are simple, and others are more complicated, but all have in common the septic character of the traumatic focus [54].
\nThe gorings have an etiology closely related to the age of the bulls, strength, and encaste, with an increase in frequency of incidence in 4-year-old bulls with a weight of 500 kg, and the wounds occur with a greater probability in the head and extremity regions. They are caused by external violence in which the surface of the traumatic agent is wide. We can find open or closed wounds. The closed wounds, even when not seen to affect external skin tissues, can cause internal muscular or vascular lesions. Hematomas or serous effusions (blood and lymphatic exudates) of difficult reabsorption due to their large size appear, and they require intervention. They evolve to contamination and abscess formation [55].
\nThe treatment of all types of wounds should be focused on controlling, primarily, the bleeding, either by suturing damaged vessels or by hemostatic parenteral treatments, then preventing or controlling the infection, disinfecting and cleaning the affected area, and finally achieving the rapid healing, usually by second attempt, and is always suggested to leave a drain at the trauma point even if it is small [56].
\nAnother pathology that has been observed with a high incidence in the Lidia breed is osteochondrosis [57]. It is a degenerative process of the joint surfaces, widely described in horses and in bait cattle of other breeds, with few studies in fighting bulls to know if it could influence the mobility of the animal during the show [27].
\nRA is a metabolic disease that settles in the rumen and is produced by the ruminal fermentation of large amounts of nonfibrous carbohydrates, such as starch and sugars, which lead to the production of high amounts of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and lactate, which accumulate in the rumen and cause an abnormal reduction in rumen pH [58]. Ruminal epithelial cells, not protected by mucus, are vulnerable to chemical acid damage [59], and this decrease in ruminal pH together with high concentrations of VFAs causes ruminitis, erosions, and ulcerations of the ruminal epithelium. In turn, abnormal thickening of the stratum corneum of the mucosa occurs due to accumulation of corneal cells with perturbations in their keratinization resulting in hyper and parakeratosis, observing partially pigmented ruminal mucous membranes [60, 61].
\nAmong the works carried out on the feeding management of the Lidia bull, the one carried out by Bartolomé [26] stands out because he observes 66.2% of the animals studied with ruminal pH values compatible with RA, of which 41.5% chronically (pH = 6.2–5.6) according to the classification of González et al. [62]. In addition, 70.7% of animals presented parakeratosis in the mucosa, and in 26.9% of bulls sampled, liver lesions were detected. In the same line, Lomillos et al. [27] reported a 43% reduction in the length of the ruminal papilla of bulls subjected to the finishing bait, added to an increase in the thickness of their mucosa, which approximately doubled the value obtained in the group of animals considered control, and maintained in pure extensive regime (Figures 5 and 6).
\nNormal papilla of extensive animal.
Thickened and shortened papilla of finished bulls [27].
In this context, the decrease in rumen pH predisposes the epithelium to become fragile and loses its ability to act as a barrier between the ruminal environment and the blood, which predisposes the appearance of continuity solutions, which allow the passage of microorganisms toward the bloodstream and the consequent risk of suffering sepsis for the animal [60]. Among others, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Corynebacterium pyogenes, are bacteria often carried to the liver through the portal vein, and there they begin infection and abscess formation, which compromise their metabolic capacity [5]. From the liver, they can go to the peritoneum, generating peritonitis, and sometimes they can go to the lung, heart valves, kidneys, joints, and so on [63]. In this sense, García et al. [12] recorded abscesses at the liver level in 4% of the studied bulls and hepatic-diaphragmatic adhesions in 21% of cases that extended to the pulmonary pleura, confirming, after culture, Fusobacterium necrophorum as the main causative agent of lesions.
\nAt the same time, the intense finishing feeding management based on the use of high amounts of carbohydrates is a predisposing cause of hoof lesions such as the lameness by diffuse aseptic pododermatitis observed in the animals as an excessive growth of the hoof [60] widely described in Lidia cattle [25, 29] and detected with a prevalence of 28% in the fought animals [12].
\nAccording to Nocek [64], the relationship between RA and laminitis seems to be associated with hemodynamic alterations of peripheral microcirculation. During acidosis, as a consequence of the decrease in ruminal pH, a process of bacteriolysis takes place in the rumen, releasing vasoactive substances (histamine and endotoxins), which are absorbed through the damaged rumen wall and cause vasoconstriction and dilation, which destroy microcirculation at the level of synovial joints and chorionic tissue of the hoof [65, 66]. The combination of high concentrations of histamine in areas of terminal circulation [67], the increase in digital blood flow and high blood osmolarity induce an increase in blood pressure inside the animal’s hoof, producing a serum exudate, which results in edema, internal hemorrhages from thrombosis, and finally, the expansion of the chorion, causes intense pain [60, 64]. The disease presents with signs of lameness, excessive growth of the hooves, and the appearance of dark lines or bands on the surface of the hooves, a consequence of the ischemia generated by vascular damage and edema [68]. At present, lameness is treated with anti-inflammatories, and the hoof overgrowth is usually remedied in livestock by a functional cut of the hoof, using the cattle crush facilities to immobilize the animal.
\nIt seems clear that the RA generated after the intensive bait and the pathological processes to which it predisposes or directly causes, affects the performance of the bull in the arena in the form of physical decline of the animal that hinders its ethological and physical performance [12, 20, 26, 69]. Therefore, it is of great importance to explore possible solutions or prevention strategies by designing a new food management.
\nTo control the process, in principle, it would be enough to reduce the amount of nonfibrous carbohydrates provided with the diet, but this measure would lead to a decrease in the rations’ energy level, with the consequent delay in the fattening of the bull and the consequent economic losses.
\nIn the case of the final bull bait, improved rationing and feeding management could have a considerable impact on rumen pH stability. Adapting the ruminal environment by slowly and gradually changing from one forage feed ration to another concentrate would stimulate the development of the rumen papillae and the growth of the lactic acid transforming flora [5], in such a way so that a greater amount is metabolized and the mucosa of the rumen can absorb a greater amount of generated VFAs. This adaptation of the mucosa to concentrated rations takes approximately 4–6 weeks [64] and changes in microflora about 3 weeks [70].
\nThe adoption of the mixed total ration type feeding system, better known as “unifeed” carriage (Figure 7), widely used in dairy cattle, ensures a balanced consumption of concentrate and forage, which is a very important advantage. In this way, it is possible to increase the energy density of the rations by reducing the risk of digestive problems [71]. In fact, in recent years, this type of food management has begun to be incorporated into the Lidia farms, mainly in farms located in the south of the peninsula, later extending through Madrid and Salamanca [72].
\nSmall format “unifeed” mixer truck, adapted to Lidia cattle (BIGA).
In this sense, the contribution of compensated and high fiber rations through the use of “unifeed” mixer cart during the bull bait does not generate a pH decrease below the physiological limits, as shown in Graph 1 that describes the pH ruminal of bulls fed following this pattern of food management for a month [31]. However, it is not clear that this handling is the solution to the RA of the bull since the use of these mixing machines during the entire bait period, which usually lasts between 3 and 9 months, can generate lesions in the morphology of the papilla ruminal (decrease in length and thickening of the mucosa) similar to those found in animals fed through traditional feeding management. In addition, the feeding time generates a negative effect on the severity of the lesions, with the animals fed for more than 6 months being the ones with the greatest lesions at the level of the rumen mucosa [27].
\nAnother strategy to prevent RA is the use of additives both chemical and microbial. Among the first are buffer substances such as bicarbonate, alkalizing agents such as magnesium oxide, or adjuvants such as bentonite, which can help fight RA because it absorbs part of the volatile fatty acids at the ruminal level [5, 65, 73, 74]. The most commonly used microbial additives to combat RA are yeast extracts and live yeasts. These microorganisms help maintain ruminal pH by stimulating the growth of cellulolytic bacteria and lactic acid users, preventing their accumulation in the rumen [75].
\nMuscle weakness syndrome, which involves motor incoordination and transient loss of standing and balance, all encompassed under the common term of “falling syndrome,” has been worrying different authors for almost a century [76]. The frequency with which this problem occurs in the arena had not become worrisome until the beginning of the last century, from the being of 1930 when the manifestation of the problem became general and the falls were more frequent and alarming [77], reaching incidence percentages in the most critical decades close to 99% [78] or 98% [26] of the sampled animals. It affects both males and females and specimens of all ages: bulls, calves, and cows [79, 80]. It is observed in individuals of different livestock farms, regardless of their weight, the category of the arena where they fought, the distance from its farm of origin [77], and, additionally, within the same livestock, the incidence of this problem can be very diverse.
\nDespite recent research work done in this regard, the falling syndrome of the brave bull is an issue in which consensus is not yet perceived. The theories that have come to light in order to explain the etiology of the syndrome have been very numerous and varied, without any of them providing definitive conclusions to date. The simplest attributes the problem to physical reasons such as transport trauma and intentional fraud, while others, more complex, consider that the origin of the syndrome is genetic, due to the inheritance of a gene that determines the fall [81]. However, given the appearance of the problem in cattle ranches whose original genetic distance is very wide, it is logical to assume that the appearance of this syndrome must be influenced by the action of the environment, within which food management, in addition to other factors, such as the health status of the livestock itself would play a very important role.
\nNowadays, in view of the different studies carried out, it is possible to think that the falling syndrome is a multicausal problem, where we can observe some predisposing causes, such as the genetic endowment, the characteristics of the transport, the physical demands of the fight, the effect of the puya and the banderillas, the lack of functional gymnastics, nutritional deficiencies, and other more determinants, such as the possible pathological, circulatory, nervous, metabolic, endocrine, genetic, or ethological causes [76].
\nOn the other hand, the bull is by nature a sedentary animal. In the last year of life, he is transferred to small enclosures where his chances of exercising naturally are limited and the energetic components in his diet are increased. Although cattle are not considered an athletic species, the bull is subjected to tremendous exercise in the arena, lasting approximately 20 min, maintaining a physical and metabolic effort of great intensity to which it is not accustomed [82]. These circumstances mean a lack of physical condition for the show.
\nThis muscle weakness, manifested in the falling syndrome, is projected in various acute muscle injuries associated with intense physical exercise and in chronic muscle injuries that may result from nutrient deficiencies of selenium and vitamin E [83]. On the other hand, Aceña et al. [84] demostrated the existence of a reduction in glycogen stored and very high concentrations of lactic acid in the muscles at the end of the fight, results that indicate the existence of muscle fatigue due to physical exercise in an anaerobic situationss. Similarly, a high correlation has been observed between the main parameters indicative of metabolic acidosis (HCO3−, lactate, and low blood pH) and respiratory acidosis (PCO2) with the falling syndrome [69].
\nTherefore, it is essential to subject the animals to a physical preparation and adaptation to the fight. In fact, in recent years, the number of farmers who seek to achieve adequate physical condition in their animals has increased, through an empirical training program along a running track or by moving them in the same enclosure where they normally live.
\nThere are few studies on the effect of training on the physiology of the bull [85, 86, 87]; however, we can state that training potentially increases athletic performance, as can be deduced from muscular and blood metabolic adaptations [88, 89]. It has been observed that training favors the β-oxidative metabolic pathway of fatty acids (oxidative metabolism) prevailing over the glycolytic pathway, requiring a protocol of at least 6 months to increase its antioxidant capacity [89, 90].
\nIn addition, this training would increase the muscle mass of the animal favoring physical performance [91]. To train, and for the result to be effective, great care of the diet should be taken into account since, in the finishing phase of the bulls, it is intended that the animal’s body weight increases and that the training will serve to increase muscles and adapt the cardiovascular system to an aerobic exercise. With this training management, it is being pursued that the bull endures the fight better, increasing its mobility while achieving greater lung capacity and, therefore, a greater chance of recovery, after efforts made in the first moments of fight.
\nWith training, physical capacity is enhanced, stimulating the body’s level of work above normal. These animals have a great capacity for adaptation and although at the beginning of the training they show signs of fatigue and body loss, this is followed by a phase of recovery/adaptation and maintenance of body weight.
\nA basic training program would consist of three sessions per week, within a total period of 5–6 months, depending on the date scheduled for the fight. A group of animals, with a variable number of bulls, around 12, are forced to move for approximately 3 km, accompanied by horsemen.
\nIt usually begins with a weekly session, increasing the pace until reaching 3 sessions/week in the second month. The intensity is progressive, each session begins with the first minute to the step, to warm the animals, increasing the pace until they are trotted or lightly galloped, to return to the initial point in a progressive cooling. The orography of the land is usually flat, but there are farmers who prefer to exercise the cattle on sloping terrain to increase the intensity of the session. This training is interrupted approximately 15 days before the fight [92].
\nEach breeder has been carrying out a particular training protocol, adapted to their availability of time and cowboys, the number of animals they intend to prepare, and the date of their fight. Generally, a more intense preparation is usually carried out with bulls whose destiny is first or second category arena. In turn, the orographic characteristics of the farm, its distribution of fenced areas, and its extension will have an important influence on the programmed exercise.
\nConsidering the high economic value of the Lidia breed animals, the number of farmers who establish a health management program in their livestock as a control system against infectious or parasitic diseases, and to increase fertility and pregnancy rates as well as to decrease mortality rates in new-born calves, is rising in recent years.
\nProblems related to infectious and contagious diseases represent the main source of economic losses. The pathogens that have tropism for the reproductive, respiratory, or digestive system stand out. Therefore, reproductive and respiratory alterations and neonatal diarrhea are the main problems we find in these cattle [93].
\nCurrently, there are several emerging diseases that could affect these animals during the last decade such as blue tongue, foot and mouth disease, or bovine spongiform encephalopathy, which have joined those that already have an eradication program in our country (brucellosis and tuberculosis), which require periodic official livestock checking on farms (Order DES/6/2011). On many occasions, the health problem itself is linked to a cumbersome legislation that hinders the transit of animals through the various communities of the national territory and between intracommunity countries such as Spain, France, and Portugal (Royal Decree 186/2011).
\nThe official campaigns of eradication of brucellosis and tuberculosis are based on hard controls of the herds and on the application of a legal regulation on these aspects that makes, in certain cases, the movement of animals from the infected cattle ranches, including sales for bullfighting, impossible [94]. It is essential to consider the peculiar factors of this cattle production system. One of them is the level of consanguinity within some farms with a very small number of individuals, which works against disease resistance. It is also necessary to consider the complexity of handling these animals, which coexist in extensive systems with species of different sanitary categories (hunting and/or wild) that could be reservoir for numerous diseases.
\nIn addition, cross-reactions with paratuberculosis (a widespread disease in the Spanish countryside) compromise the reliability of diagnostic analytical tests, posing serious problems when addressing eradication plans [95]. The fight against diseases, both endemic (tuberculosis and brucellosis) and emerging (bluetongue), to achieve eradication and control, will be one of the workhorses for the Lidia sector. This should not entail, in any case, any risk to the maintenance of the diversity of encastes and genetic lines that characterize this breed. Important and unique farms for their genealogy are being decimated by this cause, to the point of endangering the survival of certain encastes.
\nOne of the most valued and delicate body parts of the bull is its horns. They suffer a risk of deterioration, mainly in the last year of life, as a result of potential fights, friction, contacts, or blows with the ground, with trees, fencing, feeders, or the walls of the handling facilities [96]. Therefore, to protect the horns during the last year of animal live, a fiberglass bandage is placed on the horns, easy to handle, porous and that hardens quickly by polymerization with water, providing good consistency (Figure 8). The technique consists of immobilizing the animal in the restraining facilities and wrapping the horn with this bandage to protect it from any aggression or friction. The distal part of the horn is reinforced in many cases with metal tubes or similar hard materials, in order to reduce the wear of the apical zone [97, 98].
\nLidia bull with protected horns.
The horn is increased in thickness by the sheath, and the end of the horn is blunt, which decreases the effect of the lesions of horns between animals by 90% and, in addition, improves their handling for vaccinations, deworming, and other treatments, due to the risks of deterioration of the defenses when the animals pass through the handling facilities minimized [99]. In spite of the obvious advantages of the sheathing mentioned above, and the answer to many questions about the influence of this management practice on the structure and corneal anatomy and the ethological performance of the animal in the arena provided by Alonso et al. [100], there is still some controversy about its usefulness.
\nLidia cattle production presents unique characteristic that requires farmer and veterinary knowledge about the particularities of these animals and its management. The Lidia production sector, from its origins, has been adapting to the new times making use of the most current technological advances. In this way, the feeding system, selection criteria, and reproductive techniques have been modified, driving the need for a modernization of the medical and management practices. However, there are difficulties associated with the breeding, either because of the temperament of animals that increase the difficulty in handling, as well as to the predisposition to present diseases that greatly affect the animal, such as the ruminal acidosis, the falling syndrome, and some health problems that it shares with other extensive bovine cattle.
\nWe would like to thank Mr. Logan Scott for his revision and edit of the English translation.
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