NPK analysis of vermicompost produced from banana waste, papaya waste and paper waste.
\r\n\tWith this goal in mind, together with the US Prof. John M. Ballato and the InechOpen publishing house since 2011 we have published in 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2017 4 books of our serial “Optoelectronics” and the book “Excitons”, edited in 2018 by Prof. Sergei L. Pyshkin. Publishing the new book “Luminescence” we are pleased to note the growing number of countries participating in this undertaking as well as for a long time fruitfully cooperating scientists from the United States and the Republic of Moldova.
\r\n\tSpecialists from all over the world have published in edited by us books their works in the field of research of the luminescent properties of various materials suitable for use in optoelectronic devices, the development of new structures and the results of their application in practice.
Solid waste is one of the growing problems in both developed and developing countries. Due to the rapid growth in industrialization, most of the rural populations have shifted towards the urban area in search of employment. The rapid increase in the volume of waste is one aspect of the environment crisis, accompanying global development.
Earthworms play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and soil metabolism through feeding, fragmentation, aeration, turnover and dispersion [1]. Earthworms are involved in the recycling of nutrients, soil structure, soil productivity and agriculture, and their application in environment and organic waste management is well understood [2, 3]. They help in the degradation of substrate indirectly by affecting microbial population structure and dynamics and also directly since their gut is capable of undertaking cellulolytic activity. Thus products of cellulose hydrolysis are available as carbon and energy sources for other microbes that inhabit the environment in which cellulose is degraded and this availability forms the basis of many biological interactions.
There are about 3627 species of terrestrial earthworms in the world [4]. Sixty three species of earthworm from Sri Lanka of which 47 are considered as zoogeographically important to the Asian region have been recorded [5]. Vermiculture biotechnology promises to contribute in the ‘second green revolution’ by completely replacing the destructive agrochemicals which did more harm than good to both farmers and their farmland during the ‘first green revolution’ of the 1950–1960s.
Three major groups of earthworms based on ecological strategies have been recognized: the epigeics (Epiges), anecics (Aneciques) and endogeics (Endoges) [6]. Epigeic earthworms live in the soil surface and are litter feeders. Anecic earthworms are top soil species, which predominantly form vertical burrows in the soil, feeding on the leaf litter mixed with the soil. Endogeic earthworms preferably make horizontal burrows and consume more soil than epigeic and anecic species, deriving their nourishment from humus.
Vermicomposting is a mesophilic procedure, using microorganism and earthworms that are dynamic at 10–32°C. Vermiculture provide for the use of earthworms as a natural bioreactor for cost effective and eco-friendly waste management. Earthworm fecundity is based on the rate of cocoon production, hatching success of cocoons and number of offspring’s emerging from each cocoons. The success of the composting depends upon the fecundity of the earthworm.
The type of substrate used and species of earthworms introduced plays a significant role in plant growth and yield. The waste to be stabilized should support an adequate biomass needed for effective processing. The time, cost and space requirements could compete economically with conventional methods of composting [7].
Vermicomposting of cattle and goat manure by Perionyx excavatus and their growth and reproduction performance was studied [8]. They concluded that cattle manure provided more nutritious and friendly environment to the earthworm than goat manure. The effects of Goat manure sludge, sewage and effective microorganisms on the composting of pine bark was studied [9]. The pine bark goat manure compost had more desirable nutritional properties than the pine bark and pine bark sewage sludge composts. It had neutral pH, C\\N ratio and high amount of inorganic constituents.
Poultry litter is the mix of bedding material, manure and feathers that result from intensive poultry production. This includes litter from meat chickens (broilers), egg laying chickens (layers) kept under barn conditions, turkeys, ducks and quails.
Limited available data presents numerous challenges while vermicomposting poultry litter. High ammonical nitrogen concentration, auto heating, and high bulk density are some of the major concerns that need to be addressed while vermicomposting poultry litter [10]. Poultry wastes contain significant amount of organic salts and ammonia that kill worms. So it is necessary to neutralize freshly deposited wastes by CaCO3.
The Indian state of Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of bananas in the country cultivating around 9 million metric tons (MT) annually, but inefficient postharvest practices lead to massive waste every year. An average of 30% or 2.7 million MT of Tamil Nadu’s bananas currently goes to waste largely due to the absence of integrated cold chain infrastructure. Banana cultivation produces a huge amount of waste: approximately 30 tonnes of waste is generated per acre in one crop season from banana stem alone.
India produces around 2300 tonnes of papaya annually. In the past decade, the area under papaya cultivation in India has hugely increased following the introduction of Taiwanese and Hawaiian varieties. The processing operation of fruits and vegetables produce significant wastes as by-products, which constitute about 25–30% of a whole commodity group. The waste is composed mainly of seed, skin, rind, and pomace, containing good sources of potentially valuable bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids, polyphenols, dietary fibers, vitamins, enzymes, and oils, among others.
The Indian paper industry accounts for about 1.6 per cent of the world’s production of paper and paper board. It is the 15th largest in the world and is one of the high priority industries having a bearing on the socio-economic development of the country.
India consumes almost 100 lakh tons of paper and paper boards. Paper Mills in the country are increasing their production and renovating their plants. By 2025, the demand for paper would increase to 2.5 crore metric tons. There is no effective collection mechanism for waste paper from offices and households. Newspapers are used for packaging. Muncipalities are not efficient in waste management network. There is lack of space for storage and sorting of waste paper. No proper co-ordination exists between the informal sector and the main supply chain of waste paper to paper industry (Tables 1 and 2).
Samples | Banana waste | Papaya waste | Paper waste | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | P | K | N | P | K | N | P | K | |
Control 45 days | 0.48 ± 0.03* | 1170 ± 5.83* | 23 ± 0.37* | 0.42 ± 0.06* | 787 ± 6.12* | 21 ± 0.32* | 0.53 ± 0.30* | 211.23 ± 4.38* | 628.50 ± 93.04NS |
Treated 45 days | 0.41 ± 0.07* | 840 ± 2.55* | 17.1 ± 0.32* | 0.47 ± 0.05* | 974 ± 9.08* | 19.10 ± 0.28* | 0.57 ± 0.09* | 270.13 ± 21.92* | 526 ± 149.66NS |
Samples | Poultry waste | Cow dung and vegetable waste | Goat dung and vegetable waste | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | P | K | N | P | K | N | P | K | |
Control 45 days | 1.08 ± 0.07NS | 0.39 ± 0.05* | 0.22 ± 0.02* | 6.31 ± 469.077NS | 846 ± 48.256* | 16.89 ± 127.71NS | 6.31 ± 469.077NS | 846 ± 48.256* | 16.89 ± 127.71NS |
Treated 45 days | 2.5 ± 0.1NS | 0.67 ± 0.14NS | 0.65 ± 9.11NS | 6.14 ± 434.925NS | 896 ± 40.329* | 17.74 ± 80.233NS | 6.84 ± 1104.70NS | 1024 ± 25.292* | 18.76 ± 83.66NS |
NPK analysis of vermicompost produced from poultry waste, cow dung and vegetable waste and goat dung and vegetable waste.
Values are mean ± SD. *- p ≤ 0.05; NS – Not significant.
In the present study different substrates have been used to culture earthworms and the nutrient content of the vermicompost produced by them has been analysed. The nitrogen content has significantly increased in papaya waste, paper waste, poultry litter and vegetable waste with goat dung. Phosphorus content has significantly increased in all the wastes except banana and levels of potassium have decreased in banana and paper waste. In the study the vermicompost produced from banana as a substrate did not show a significant increase in NPK content from that of the control. On the other hand poultry waste and vegetable waste with goat dung showed significant increase in the NPK content.
In vermicompost, a higher amount of organic carbon is used when compared to the normal compost as the earthworms have higher additional assimilating capacity besides microorganisms. Earthworms also modify the conditions which subsequently lead to increased carbon losses as CO2 due to microbial respiration in organic matter being converted to vermicompost [11].
The pH reduction may be due to the mineralization of nitrogen into nitrates/nitrites and phosphrous into orthophosphates as well as bioconversion of organic wastes into organic acids [12]. Studies where Bacillus has been reported to be isolated from the gut of Eisenia foetida [13] and these gut associated miroflora assists the earthworms significantly to hasten the decomposition of organic matter by producing certain enzymes namely cellulase, amylase, protease etc. Although dependent upon earthworm species, it is known that earthworms interact with microorganisms (fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes) on three broad spatial scales-burrow linings, casts and earthworm gut or intestine. Importantly, the increased gut associated microflora are then excreted throughout the media within earthworm casts and via microbial adherence to earthworm skin whilst the transit and dispersal mechanisms associated with the water flow also help to further dissipate microorganisms [14].
The enhancement of the vermicompost was probably due to mineralization of the organic matter containing proteins [15, 16] and conversion of ammonium nitrogen into nitrite [17, 18]. The final N content of the compost as well as the vermicompost depends on the initial content of N in the substrate and the extent of its decomposition [19, 20]. The earthworms can enhance N levels during vermicomposting through the digestion of substrate in their gut and simultaneous addition of nitrogenous excretory products, mucous, body fluid, enzymes; besides the decay of dead tissues of worms in vermicomposting system [21]. This nitrogen content value could have been due to the nitrogenous metabolic products of earthworms which are returned to the vermicompost as casts.
Mineralization and consequent mobilization of phosphorous by enhanced bacterial and phosphatase activities during vermicomposting leads to increase in P [22]. An increase of 25% P in paper waste sludge after the activities of earthworms was reported [23]. They further suggested that the consequent increase in P after the earthworm’s activities may be due to the direct action of worm gut enzymes and due to enhanced microbial activity in the vermicompost. Increase in P content in vermicompost could be due to enhanced mineralization and mobilization of phosphorous as a result of increased bacterial and fecal phosphatase activity of earthworms [22].
Plant litter was found to contain more available P after ingestion by earthworms, which may be due to the physical breakdown of the plant materials by worms. An increase of 25% in P in paper waste sludge after worm activity was observed. They attributed this increase in P to the direct action of worm gut enzymes and indirectly by stimulation of the microflora [23].
The increased phosphorous level was due to mineralization of phosphorous. The release of phosphorous in the available form is performed partly by earthworm gut phosphatases and further release of phosphorous might be assigned to the phosphorous solubilizing microbes present in vermicast. The earthworm affects phosphorous mineralization in wastes during passing organic matter through its gut.
Decrease in potassium content in the vermicompost may be due to the leaching of this soluble element through the action of excess water draining through the mass [24]. The rate of nutrient loss was directly related to the initial concentrations [25]. The selective feeding of earthworms on organically rich substances which breakdown during the passage through the gut, biological grinding, together with enzymatic influence on finer soil particles, were lightly responsible for increasing the different forms of K [26]. The increase of soil organic matter resulted in decrease K fixation and subsequent increase K availability [27].
The available micro-nutrients like potassium (K) are required for assimilation by earthworms during the vermicomposting, although the quantity required is very low as compared to the initial content present in the parent feed material. The production of acids by the microorganisms and enhanced mineralization rate through increased microbial activity during the vermicomposting process play a key role in the solubilizing of insoluble potassium [28, 29].
The increase of potassium in the treated might be due to changes in the distribution of potassium between exchangeable and non-exchangeable forms. The earthworm processed waste materials contain high concentration of exchangeable potassium, due to enhanced microbial activity during the vermicomposting process, which accordingly enhanced the rate of mineralization.
When organic matter passes through the gut of earthworm, unavailable potassium is transformed to more soluble forms with enhanced rate of mineralization. Decomposition of organic material by microorganisms produces acid products that increase the available soluble potassium. On the other hand, the gut of earthworm has a big population of microflora that could enhance potassium content in the vermicompost.
Vermicomposting has many applications such as increasing water holding capacity, crop growth and yield, improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. It increases the production of plant growth regulators. Vermicompost is pollution free and cost effective. The texture of vermicompost is homogenous, contains many plant growth hormones and soil enzymes and tends to hold more nutrients over larger periods without adverse effects on the environment.
The author would like to thank the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, for strengthening Life Sciences and for initiating Research Projects at the under graduate level.
There is no conflict of interest.
For the last decades, the demand for renewable energy has been increasing intensively due to the crude-oil crisis and the alert of global warming. Among the alternatives for fossil fuels to generate heat, biomass is an abundant neutral carbon source, of which its conversion to heat does not break the balance of the atmosphere’s air contents [1]. Combustion of biomass has been the most direct and simple process to produce energy. However, the traditional combustion of biomass, such as wood, charcoal, straw, husks, etc., often leads to the emission of smoke, dust, fumes, volatile compounds and toxic gases due to incomplete reactions and fine particles dragged out of the system by the flue gas [2]. Although several combustion methods were invented to increase efficiency and reduce emission of pollutants, such as fixed bed rocket type, and fluidized bed technology, the direct combustion of solid fuels is still one of the major causes of the industrial air pollutant in the world [3].
\nIn contrast, gasification of biomass can minimize the emission of pollutants. Syngas produced from gasification of biomass can be optionally purified before being combusted. Ultimately, the combustion of gaseous fuels inherently has higher efficiency than that of solid matters. That is because the oxidation of a solid object in oxygen/air is gradually happening from its outer surface into the inner layers, which can be described as a heterogeneous process, while a combustive gas like syngas can be burned at a very high mass transfer rate in a homogeneous process. A comparison is presented in Table 1.
\n\n | Combustion of syngas from gasification of biomass | \nDirect combustion of solid biomass | \n
---|---|---|
Type of reactions | \nHomogeneous | \nHeterogeneous | \n
Uniformity | \nVery high | \nNone | \n
Process nature | \nSimple | \nComplex | \n
Mass transfer rate | \nAlmost instant | \nSlow, depending on the solid surface – oxygen/air contact | \n
Combustion of syngas vs. combustion of solid biomass.
The gasification phenomenon of carbonaceous materials was possibly observed in the human history as very early as the invention of fire. Gasification was found as the ignition and combustion of smoke released from smoldering coal, wood, straw, grass, or other organic substances in the lack of oxygen. In 1792, the first industrial gasification system to generate electricity was reported [4]. Gasification is a thermal decomposition process of solid or liquid substances to syngas in the presence of gasification agents through a series of chemical reactions mentioned in the following sections. This technology can help converting variable low-energy-density fuels to combustive gases. It attracts significant interests in both academic and industrial fields. Figure 1 shows a very strong flame torch produced by gasification of oil-extracted cashew nut shell.
\nGasification of oil-extracted cashew nut shell at Laboratory of Biofuel and Biomass Research, Ho chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT).
Gasification is an advanced technology to convert biomass to syngas fuel under different atmospheres (oxygen/air, steam, H2, CO2). The product syngas can also be used as precursors to synthesize valuable chemicals via Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) reactions [5]. Table 2 highlights some key differences between gasification and direct combustion of biomass.
\n\n | Gasification of biomass | \nDirect combustion of biomass | \n
---|---|---|
Input feedstock | \nLow-energy-density and wet biomass is still feasible | \nThe biomass fuel must have acceptable moisture content and relatively flammable to guarantee a sustainable operation. | \n
Output flame | \nSmokeless, free of dust and toxic gases if the syngas is purified. | \nSmoky and dusty with fly ash. | \n
Impact to the heat exchangers’ surface | \nMinimized | \nSilica fume, dusty aerosol, and corrosive gases can shorten the lifetime of equipment. | \n
Applicability for internal combustion engines | \nYes | \nNo | \n
Equipment design complexity | \nComplex | \nSimple | \n
Heat receiver arrangement | \nMobile | \nFixed to the burner | \n
Side product | \nChar, ash (solids), tar, bio-oil, wood vinegar (liquids) | \nAsh | \n
A brief comparison between biomass gasification and combustion.
The combustion of a solid fuel is a thermal and oxidation decomposition with the involvement of oxygen in air. Generally, for biomass, it can be simply expressed as:
\nThis process can be observed with two visual phenomena: first, thermal decomposition on the outer surface of the solid phase to release volatile and combustive components, which join thermal reactions in the gas phase secondly, as the formation of flames [6]. Differing from direct combustion, gasification limits the process at the first step to produce syngas. Conventionally, oxygen/air is used as gasification agent in this case. However, other gasification agents also can be employed to enhance the conversion efficiency as presented followings.
\nIn this context, to simplify the theory, biomass can be formulated with its main general composition CaHbOc due to the much lower contents of other elements, such as N, S, P, and halogens. The involvement of inorganic compounds is not considered.
\nThe thermal decomposition of biomass in insufficient presence of oxygen/air, known as incomplete combustion, is the most conventional gasification. Logically, the whole process can be described below as rearranged from theory [7].
\nDrying: firstly, once entering the reactor, the biomass is dried due to heat.
\nCombustion: secondly, a part of the solid biomass, which was ignited and in contact with locally excess oxygen/air, is combusted to generate heat as the energy source for later reactions to occur.
\nPyrolysis: heat from the combustion zone is transferred via radiation, conduction, and convective hot streams to the surrounding biomass where oxygen/air is not sufficient or absent. Due to the heat, pyrolysis occurs to form CO2, CO, CH4, C2H4, H2O, char (C), and other organic solids and liquids as primary tar (2).
\nReduction: after the above two steps, hot reactants react in situ with the biomass and with each other via a series of reactions.
\nThe main weakness of gasification by oxygen/air is due to a large portion of inert nitrogen in the agent (79–80%), which makes the resulted syngas diluted. It can be roughly estimated that syngas from this type of gasification mainly contains around 30–60% of nitrogen and 10–15% of CO2 since its heating value is typically between 4 and 6 MJ/m3 (for comparison, HHV of H2 = 12.76 MJ/m3, CO = 12.63 MJ/m3, CH4 39.76 MJ/m3 and CH4 is commonly much less than CO and H2) [7, 8, 9]. Low quality syngas is the main disadvantage of this technique for applications which require high temperature and steady operation, such as internal combustion engine, metallurgy, and melting glass industries.
\nAir-based gasification processes are sensitive and complex, which are influenced by a number of factors, such as biomass composition and particle geometry, gasification agent composition and flow rate, equipment design, etc. Among these, the ratio of actual air-fuel ratio to the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (ER) is used as a parameter to calculate and to simulate the process [10].
\nGasification ER is theoretically usually from 0.19 to 0.43, and a range of 0.25–0.29 was studied to be considered as the optimum ER in gasification of some popular biomass [11].
\nTo obtain more concentrated syngas, nitrogen must be limited from the gasification agent in air-based systems while sufficient oxygen is still guaranteed for combustion to generate heat [12]. This method does not change the nature of the gasification process since nitrogen is an inert gas not involved in the reactions. Several techniques were introduced to remove nitrogen, thus increase oxygen content in the input air stream, such as pressure swing adsorption (PSA) [13], temperature swing adsorption [14], carbon membranes [15], etc. Oxygen concentration in studies on gasification with oxygen- enriched air is found limited by less than 50%, and no study on 100% oxygen gasification, possibly because of a high risk of explosion [16, 17, 18].
\n\nFigure 2 shows the visual change in an air-based syngas flame (wood pellet as feedstock) when oxygen concentration in the gasifying agent increased from that of normal air to 30%. With normal air, the syngas flame is thinner with smoke, while oxygen-enriched air makes the flame stronger, thicker, and less smoke. The flame temperature was measured as 874 and 933°C, respectively.
\nExperimental gasification of wood pellet (a) showing the flame of syngas when using (b) normal air (21% vol. as O2) and (c) oxygen-enriched air (30% vol. as O2)
Water gas (3) and water gas shift (6) reactions are the reasons steam can be introduced to oxygen/air gasification or wet biomass is accepted, of which moisture is more tolerated than that in direct combustion. Higher generation yields of H2 and CO are obtained so the final syngas mixture gets higher heating value. However, these two reactions are endothermic while the vaporization enthalpy of water has a large value (at atmospheric pressure that is 40.65 kJ/mol) so saturated steam or water can make the pyrolysis zone lose heat, drop temperature, leading to lower conversion yield. Lower quantity becomes a contrast to higher quality of syngas formation in this case. Subsequently, the process even gets faded if sufficient heat is not guaranteed. To achieve both quantity and quality of syngas, heat should be redeemed by using superheated steam instead of saturated steam or water in wet biomass so that the gasification temperature is maintained above 750–800°C [19].
\nThe ratio of steam to carbon content of the biomass fuel (SCR) is used as a crucial operating parameter in biomass gasification with steam feeding [20]:
\nSteam flow rate (kg/s) to biomass (kg/s) ratio (S/B) is also used like SCR [21]. Steam feeding makes the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the whole reaction mixture increase, which was found to yield more H2, and increase the heating value of the syngas, while tar content decreases significantly [22]. This technique is positively meaningful in biomass gasification because it does not only increase the quality of the syngas but also reduce tar-clogging problems to sustain the process.
\nNot many studies on gasification by hydrogen and carbon dioxide were found although these two agents are reactants in methanation (4) and Boudouard (7) reactions.
\nMethanation reaction can be increased when more H2 exists in the reaction zone of a gasifier. Since methanation is exothermic, hydrogen can be mixed with air in air-based gasification or can be used as the only gasification agents without slagging problems in the gasifiers like conventional oxygen/air gasification. Pure hydrogen gasification is expected to be able to run at lower temperature and milder conditions because less heat is generated from methanation reaction (ΔH = −87.5 kJ/mol) than from combustion step in air-based gasification [23], which may lead to the absence of oils and tars [24]. However, catalysts are needed because the reaction rates are very low [25]. Otherwise, hydrogen gasification should be carried out in high H2 pressure, which rises several safety concerns.
\nCO2 is a Boudouard reactant, as well as it can react with H2 in the mixture via reverse water gas shift reaction. Hot flue gas is a popular product in industry, which includes steam, CO2, and heat from direct combustion of fuel, thus can be considered as a gasification agent [26]. This technique is available if a combustion process is combined with gasification because air-based gasification already has its combustion zone. CO2 utilization and enhancement of CO formation can be the purposes of CO2-gasification [27].
\nThe reactions in gasification can proceed with higher yields and less energy input if appropriate catalysts are employed. Catalysts can facilitate the process by reducing slagging problems, by which in severe cases, gasifiers need to be shut down for maintenance. Together with slagging of low-melting-point inorganic compounds, tar and soot formation also interrupts the operation because matters can be vaporized at high temperature, then condense at cooler zones and clog the systems. Catalysis helps limit the formation of such undesired side-products or decompose them to workable substances by cracking reactions. The mechanism of tar catalytic cracking can be assumed as follows [28]:
Organic and hydrocarbon compounds are dissociated from the biomass and absorbed on the catalytic sites.
Catalytic dehydrogenation reactions happen.
Water is hydroxylated to OH radicals, which oxidize the hydrocarbon fragments.
Syngas, CH4, and lighter hydrocarbons are formed then.
In contrast, catalytic gasification has some disadvantages, such as material costs and fading catalyst performance over reaction time. Theoretically, catalysts can be recovered after the process. But in fact, they are easily poisoned and contaminated by variable products, which are formed from the complex interactions in gasification.
\nAlkali metal salts seem to be the earliest catalysts to be examined for gasification [29]. Alkali elements were studied to catalyze gasification of char and biomass, and they were proved to reduce the formation of tar and soot [30, 31]. The employment of catalysts is preferred for entrained-flow gasifiers, which will be discussed later [32].
\nNatural minerals, precious metal and synthetic catalysts are also studied for their application in biomass gasification, as well as coal and syngas conversion [33, 34, 35].
\nPlasma, which can be produced by an electric arc discharged to a gas, is a very hot and highly ionized gaseous mixture. The initial gas interacts with the electric arc to become dissociated into electrons and ions at temperatures often exceeding thousands of Celsius degree. When biomass and a non-oxidizing gasifying agent are fed into a plasma reactor, the gasification can proceed at high temperatures without combustion to generate heat as in conventional process. Therefore, plasma gasification can convert organic substances to syngas that preserve all its chemical and heat energy, while converts inorganic mineral ash to inert vitrified glass or slag. As a result, contamination and dilution of syngas are minimized and the process control is easy to yield expected syngas composition [36, 37].
\nMicrowave was also used to generate plasma in plasma gasification [38]. However, microwave plasma system is not easy to scale up for industrial purposes like electric arc type.
\nWith the principle of supplying intensive heat for endothermic reactions, plasma gasification was used to produce hydrogen with steam injection as discussed in Section 2.3 [20]. Carbon dioxide gasification was studied with a various biomass feedstock to show input plasma energy was lowest while syngas formation yield was highest [39]. Experimental results showed that steam or catalysts added to plasma gasification can significantly reduce the formation of tars [40].
\nGasification is a complicated process, which is influenced by many factors, among which equipment design plays a very important role. Popular types of gasifiers are listed and briefly discussed as bellows.
\nThere are three ways of arrangement for biomass and gasifying agents entering to react with each other in the reactors: updraft, downdraft, and cross draft as illustrated in Figure 2a–c.
Updraft gasifiers (Figure 3a): in this type of reactor, biomass is fed downward from the top and gasifying agents is fed upward from the bottom in a counter flow arrangement. Ash is collected at the bottom of the equipment with air-lock design. The biggest weakness of updraft gasifiers is the accumulation of tar, moisture, and soot on the top of the reactors, which becomes hard clogging blocks inside the equipment. Figure 4 is the actual photo of a very thick and hard layer of tar and soot attached to the inner wall on the top of an updraft biomass gasification reactor (the photos were taken at the Laboratory of Biofuel and Biomass Research, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, HCMUT). This counter flow process also makes syngas from updraft gasifiers carries much contamination. In contrast, the operation of updraft gasifiers is the easiest among the three types of fix-bed gasifiers above. Its design is also simple and available for multi-feed stock purpose.
Downdraft gasifiers (Figure 3b): a narrow throat at the combustion zone is the typical design of this type of equipment. Since syngas is obtained at the bottom of the reactor, biomass and gasifying agents move in a co-current direction and get in contact for combustion at the device throttle. The flow rate of the gasifying agent gets maximum at this position due to the decreasing cross-sectional area of the orifice. As a result of this structure, the combustion increased sharply at the throttle while the amount of feeding agents is still. Downdraft gasifiers have higher conversion yield than that of their updraft models [41]. Syngas from downdraft gasifiers have much less tar and incomplete decomposed substances because they have to pass the combustion zone before exit with the syngas. However, downdraft gasifiers cannot be scaled up easily due to difficulties in controlling the movement of solid fuels through the throttle. Another difficulty in designing and fabricating downdraft gasifiers is “bridging problems” for feedstock with low densities [42]. The downward flow of the solid fuel is dictated by gravity while the pyrolysis zone is right above the narrow throat. The melting and adhesivity of lignin in biomass, as well as the local condensation of volatile substances, also facilitate the formation of stiff domes above the device throat, blocking the coming feedstock. It was observed that a rice husk downdraft gasifier kept stop working within some minutes of operation due to this problem and it was not an easy job to remove the bridging dome of “melting” rice husk inside the equipment (Figure 5).
Crossdraft gasifiers (Figure 3c): as an intermediate between downdraft and updraft design, crossdraft gasifiers has the simplest design when biomass is fed from the top, gasifying agent from the rear side, and syngas is withdrawn from the other rear side of the reactor. Thanks to this arrangement, the pyrolysis zone is separated from reduction zone, where syngas is obtained, and between them is the combustion zone to reduce tar and soot. Bridging problem is not a concern in this case, and scaling up is feasible.
Fix-bed gasifier types. (a) Updraft gasifier. (b) Downdraft gasifier. (c) Crossdraft gasifier.
(a) an updraft gasifier converting rice husk to syngas, (b) the inside wall of the top opening is clogged with a thick layer of condensed tar and soot.
Fixing a downdraft gasifier after a bridging problem happened.
Fluidization is an advance technique for solid fuel combustion. It is also applied for gasification. Inert materials (sand, dolomite, crushed stone, etc.) are employed to hold fluidization. The gasifying agents enter the reactor from the bottom upward to the top at velocities of 1–3 m/s through the biomass + inert material bed. Gasification reactions occur inside the bed then the resulted gases drag the particle before going up like “bubbling”. This technique provides the mixture a uniformity for heat exchange. Cyclones are installed to collected solid particles and return them to the reactors. With high gasification efficiency, fluidized bed gasifiers are known for tar and char reduction [43].
\nThe operating temperature of fluidized-bed gasifiers is limited to the melting point of the inert medium. The gasifying agents also play a role as fluidization fluids so the input flow rate must be high enough. Therefore, gasification agents in fluidized bed gasifiers are usually rather than only oxygen/air, which need to be at a limited mass ratio to the biomass [44, 45].
\nEntrained flow gasifiers are applied for biomass with small particle sizes so that the specific contact area with gasifying agents is large enough for suitable reaction rate. Simply described as illustrated in Figure 6a, the solid and the gas agents are fed co-currently to the reactor in the same downward direction. The agent surrounds the solid particles and react to convert the biomass to syngas. At the end of the falling routine to the bottom of the reactor of the feed, only ash and slag are expected to be remained solid collected in cyclone systems while syngas is passing through. The operation is carried out at high temperature and in high pressure. The extremely turbulent flow of the aerosol mixture causes rapid conversion and allows high throughput [46].
\n(a) Entrained flow gasifier, (b) rotary drum gasifier.
To reach uniformity of the biomass during gasification without combustion (using gasifying agents rather than oxygen/air), mechanical mixing can be applied as rotary kiln type reactor (Figure 6b). In this rotating cylinder, biomass is well mixed in contact with gasifying agents. Differing from fluidized bed and entrained flow equipment, the gasifying agents’ flow rates can be at any value in rotary drum gasifiers.
\nGasification is a big subject in biomass and chemical engineering. Among the renewable technologies converting biomass to fuels and energy with environmental preservation concern, gasification is superior over combustion with variable feasible application. Gasification process includes many reactions, which make it complex and sensitive to many factors. The diversity in the thermochemistry of gasification gives researchers and engineers a big space for creativity in R&D. This context introduced some brief theory and technical discussion on gasification technology with a humble hope to contribute to that vision.
\nThis research was funded by Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCM) under grant number B2018-20-02. We acknowledge the support of time and facilities from Ho Chi Minh University of Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCMUT for this study. We also acknowledge the technical support and consultancy from Tin Thanh Group for Laboratory of Biofuel and Biomass Research in the last 5 years of this study.
\nIntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.
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\\n\\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
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\\n\\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
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\n\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
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