",isbn:"978-1-83962-547-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-546-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-548-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",bookSignature:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",keywords:"Managing Urbanization, Managing Development, Managing Resource Use, Drought Management, Flood Management, Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Ecological Monitoring, Modeling Extreme Natural Events, Ecological Restoration, Restoring Environmental Flows, Environmental Management Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geospatial scholar working at the interface of natural and human systems, collaborating internationally on innovative studies about hazards and environmental challenges. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published more than 200 papers on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73876/images/system/73876.jfif",biography:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher (Ph.D., Rutgers, 1992) is a professor of Geography at Texas State University. His research has focused on various aspects of hazards and environmental management. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine. More recently his work pertains to spatial adaptation to climate change, spatial responses in wine growing regions to climate change, the geographies of viticulture and wine, artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict patterns of natural processes and hazards, historical ethnic enclaves in American cities and regions, and environmental adaptations of 19th century European immigrants to North America's landscapes.",institutionString:"Texas State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Texas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"76073",title:"Integrating Ecological Site Descriptions with Soil Morphology to Optimize Forest Management: Three Missouri Case Studies",slug:"integrating-ecological-site-descriptions-with-soil-morphology-to-optimize-forest-management-three-mi",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"},{id:"269286",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",surname:"Aide",slug:"christine-aide",fullName:"Christine Aide"},{id:"269287",title:"Dr.",name:"Indi",surname:"Braden",slug:"indi-braden",fullName:"Indi Braden"}]},{id:"76399",title:"Hunting and Deforestation: A Threat to the Existence of the Niger Delta Red Colobus Monkey (Procolobus epieni)",slug:"hunting-and-deforestation-a-threat-to-the-existence-of-the-niger-delta-red-colobus-monkey-procolobus",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"142349",title:"Dr.",name:"Gbolagade Akeem",surname:"Lameed",slug:"gbolagade-akeem-lameed",fullName:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Holography is the only visualization technique that satisfies all the depth cues [1, 2, 3]. Therefore, it gives a natural three-dimensional (3D) visualization. Holography is based on capturing the diffracted optical waves from an object and regenerating those waves again by illuminating the recording media [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Captured optical waves provide a significant amount of information related to the object such as surface profile, depth, and refractive index of the object. Hence, holography has a myriad of applications. For instance, holograms can be used as optical elements like prisms, lenses, and mirrors [7, 8]. Also, parallel optical computing is possible when holograms are employed [9, 10]. Furthermore, holograms are useful in metrology [11, 12, 13] and microscopic imaging to visualize very small objects like cells and bacterias [14, 15]. Another application of holography is related to nondestructive testing [16, 17, 18]. Nevertheless, major application of holography is related to 3D visualization, and it is used in education [19, 20], dentistry [21, 22], gaming [23], demonstration of cultural heritage [24], and more.
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Holography setups can be assembled by using different configurations depending on the application. In optical holography setups, holographic patterns are stored on high-resolution holographic films [25, 26] and some type of crystals [27]. However, in some of the applications, we need to process the captured holographic patterns by numerical methods. Then, digital sensing devices are employed as a capturing device. Those types of setups are called as digital holography, and it has a vast amount of applications especially in nondestructive testing and microscopy. In [28], digital holography-based measurement method of 3D displacement is presented. Observed material is illuminated from four different directions sequentially; then they are combined to improve the resolution in the order of 10 nm. As a nondestructive testing method, digital holography is used in the analysis of cortical bone quality and strength impact in [29]. Furthermore, a method based on digital holography is implemented for detecting and measuring effect of moisture on the hygroscopic shrinkage strain on wood [30]. Another application of digital holography is in precise and accurate measurement of the initial displacement of the canine and molar in human maxilla [31]. By using subpixel registration and fusion algorithms, an improvement of profile measurements and expanding the field of view (FOV) in continuous-wave terahertz reflective digital holography is achieved [32]. A comprehensive review of denoising methods on phase retrieval from digital holograms in terms of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and computation time is presented in [33]. Removal of phase distortions by using principal component analysis (PCA) method is given in [34].
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Holography is a versatile tool for visualization, measurement, and testing. In optical and digital holography methods, we need some optical sensing elements like polymers and digital devices to capture the diffracted field from the object. However, in computer-generated holography (CGH), diffraction field calculations are performed by using numerical methods and signal processing algorithms [4, 5, 6, 35]. Then, we can obtain the hologram from the calculated diffraction field and use it to drive dynamic display devices such as spatial light modulators (SLMs). After that, illumination of the SLM with a coherent light source will provide an optical reconstruction of the original object. When CGHs are calculated sequentially and used in driving SLMs, then we can have a holographic 3D television (H3DTV) as a product. An overview on holographic displays is presented in [36]. Generally, coherent light sources are used in H3DTV systems, and those light sources can generate speckle noise in the reconstructions. Low computational method for improving image quality and decreasing the speckle noise in CGH is proposed in [37]. Diffraction field calculations as in CGH are also used in other 3D display systems to improve the resolution of reconstructed objects. For instance, in integral imaging-based 3D display system, distortions on the elemental images are corrected by using holographic functional screen [38].
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In diffraction field calculation from a 3D object, we have to generate a synthetic 3D object. There are plenty of ways for generating a synthetic 3D object in a computer. For instance, we can form a 3D object by using a set of point light sources which are distributed over the space. Those types of objects are called as point cloud objects. To calculate the diffraction field from a point cloud object, we superpose the diffraction fields emitted by each point light source [35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Another 3D object generation method is based on stitching small planar patches. As in the process of diffraction field calculation from point cloud objects, once again the diffracted fields from each patch are superposed to obtain the diffraction field of the object [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. The third method which can be used in the generation of synthetic 3D object is based on having multiple two-dimensional (2D) cross sections of the object along the longitudinal axis. Then, superposition of diffracted fields from those 2D cross sections will give the diffraction field of the 3D object [56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. A detailed summary on CGHs in terms of resolution, field of view, eye relief, and optical setups for different 3D object generation methods can be seen in [61, 62].
\n
CGHs of the objects should be calculated rapidly to obtain H3DTV systems. Hence, fast methods such as fast Fourier transform (FFT) and look-up table (LUT)-based methods are utilized in CGH calculations. In [39, 52], algorithms which are based on FFT are used for decreasing the calculation time of CGH. Precomputed LUTs are also used for achieving fast calculations in CGH calculations [2, 39, 41, 42, 63, 64]. Another way to achieve fast calculation in CGH is based on segmentation of diffraction field from point light sources [43, 44]. Parallel processing of diffraction field calculation provides further improvements on the computation time. Graphical processing units (GPUs) are special hardware to run parallel calculations. Thus, they are one of the most convenient hardware for H3DTV systems [40, 44, 65, 66]. Time-division method can also be used in the calculation of CGHs for layered 3D objects to achieve fast computations [67].
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Imposing some approximations in the diffraction field calculations provides to decrease the computational complexity, and it paves the way to obtain fast diffraction field calculations. In the meantime, we have to improve the quality of the reconstructed object. An accurate calculation method of diffraction field which is based on angular spectrum decomposition is explained in [68]. Furthermore, diffraction field calculation methods for SLMs with pixelated structure are presented in [69, 70, 71]. However, the computational complexities of those methods are too high to have real-time diffraction field calculations. As a result of this, the algorithms presented in [72, 73, 74, 75] are proposed as a solution to both computation time and quality in the reconstructed object in H3DTV. Further computational time improvements can be obtained by utilizing a LUT which is optimized for parallel processing on a GPU to achieve real-time calculations. Moreover, the pixel structure of the employed SLM in the reconstruction process is taken into account in forming LUT. Calculated LUT has one-dimensional (1D) kernels to decrease the allocated memory space.
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\n
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2. Calculation of diffraction pattern used in driving SLM with pixelated structure
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In CGH, it is possible to obtain 3D reconstructions of both synthetic and real objects. By employing dynamic display devices like SLMs in the reconstruction process, we can have H3DTV systems. To drive SLMs, we have to calculate diffraction fields from 3D objects by using numerical analysis methods and signal processing techniques. Calculation of diffraction field depends on the 3D object generation method. In this work, we assumed that 3D objects are represented as point clouds, because it is one of the simplest methods in 3D object generation. The diffraction field of the 3D object is calculated by superposing the diffraction fields emitted from the points that form the 3D object.
\n
Superposition on diffraction field calculation from a point cloud object over a planar surface can be expressed as
where \n\nψ\n\n\nr\n0\n\n\n\n and \n\nψ\n\n\nr\nl\n\n\n\n are the diffraction fields over SLM and diffraction field at \n\n\nl\nth\n\n\n sample point of the 3D object, respectively. Surface of SLM is represented by the position vector \n\n\nr\n0\n\n=\n\nx\ny\n0\n\n,\n\n and the sampling points of 3D object are shown by
\n
\n\n\n\nr\nl\n\n=\n\n\nx\nl\n\n\ny\nl\n\n\nz\nl\n\n\n\n. We assume that Fresnel approximation is valid and the term \n\n\nh\nF\n\n\nr\n\n\n denotes diffracted field on the SLM from a point light source expressed as
where \n\nr\n=\n\nx\ny\nz\n\n\n, \n\nk\n\n is the wave number, and \n\nλ\n\n is the wavelength of the light source used in illumination of the object.
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Scaled and superposed diffraction fields from point light sources provide the diffraction field of the 3D object, and its phase component is used for driving the SLM. Then, entire surface of the SLM is illuminated by a plane wave. After that, the reflected optical wave from the surface of the SLM generates an optical replica of the 3D object. Most of the off-the-shelf SLMs have square pixels with very high filling factors like \n\n93\n%\n\n [76]. Hence, the filling factor in the simulated SLM is approximated as \n\n100\n%\n\n. The pixel structure of the simulated SLM is illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1.
An illustration of the pixel structure of the simulated SLM.
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Simulation of optical setup can be improved when the pixelated structure of the SLM is taken into consideration. For that purpose, we have to perform surface integration over each pixel area on the SLM. It is assumed that gray value over each pixel area has a constant value. The diffraction field over SLM can be found as
where \n\nn\n\n and \n\nm\n\n stand for indices of SLM along \n\nx\n\n- and \n\ny\n\n-axes, respectively. It is also possible to represent Eq. (3) by scaling and superposing 2D kernels \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n,
where \n\nP\n\n\nr\nl\n\n\n=\n−\njψ\n\n\nr\nl\n\n\n\ne\n\njk\n\nz\nl\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nα\nl\n\n=\n\n1\n\n\nλ\n\nz\nl\n\n\n\n\n\n 2D kernel \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n can be decomposed into 1D kernels as
where \n\n\nx\nl\n\n\n and \n\n\ny\nl\n\n\n refer to locations of \n\n\nl\nth\n\n\n point light source, used in generation of 3D object, along \n\nx\n\n- and \n\ny\n\n-axes, respectively. Each 1D kernel \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n1\nD\n\n\n\n can be represented as
where \n\n\nζ\n\nl\n,\nn\n\n\n=\n\n\n\nx\nn\n\n−\n\nx\nl\n\n\n\n√\n\nλ\n\nz\nl\n\n\n\n\n\n. The operators \n\nC\n\n·\n\n\n and \n\nS\n\n·\n\n\n stand for cosine and sine Fresnel integrals, respectively [5, 6], and they are calculated as
Numerical evaluation of cosine and sine Fresnel integrals given in Eq. (8) is calculated by adaptive Lobatto quadrature [77].
\n
In the standard algorithm, diffraction field of each point is obtained by evaluating Eq. (8). Then, superposition of those fields is performed to obtain CGH. As a result of this, computational complexity of diffraction field calculation is too high to have real-time applications. As a solution to the computation time problem, we present a fast algorithm to calculate 2D kernel, \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n, based on LUT and parallel processing.
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3. Proposed algorithm for fast calculation of CGH
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Fast computation of diffraction field and improved quality of reconstructed 3D object are essential issues in H3DTV. As a solution to those problems, we propose a method based on calculation of 2D kernels \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n without evaluating sine and cosine Fresnel integrals. To achieve fast calculation, precomputed LUT is utilized, and the diffraction field of the 3D object can be obtained by scaling and superposing the 2D kernels \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n as
where \n\n\n\nψ\n̂\n\n\n2\nD\n,\nz\n=\n0\n\n\n\n denotes the estimated diffraction field of the 3D object on the SLM and \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n is the 2D kernel which denotes the diffraction field of \n\n\nl\nth\n\n\n point of the 3D object on SLM. 2D kernel \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n2\nD\n\n\n\n is calculated by multiplying 1D kernels \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n1\nD\n\n\n\n from LUT as shown in Eq. (5). Each 1D kernel \n\n\nK\n\n\nα\nl\n\n,\n1\nD\n\n\n\n represents the diffraction field on SLM from specific depth along longitudinal axis. A simple arithmetic operation is used for speeding up data fetching from the LUT. As result of this, total computation time of the diffraction field can be improved in terms of data fetching. By increasing the number of precomputed 1D kernels in LUT, we can achieve better diffraction field estimations for proposed method, but it causes to allocate more memory space. Hence, we apply different sampling policies along longitudinal axis to optimize memory space allocation. In the first sampling policy, uniform sampling along longitudinal axis is performed. In the second sampling policy, we sample the parameter \n\n\nα\nl\n\n=\n\n1\n\n\nλ\n\nz\nl\n\n\n\n\n\n uniformly. Thus, we have nonuniform sampling along the longitudinal axis.
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4. Simulation results
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Performance assessment of the proposed diffraction field calculation method is obtained by implementing different scenarios, but a few of them are presented to give an insight to the reader. Two major performance evaluation criteria are taken into account: total computation time of the CGH and the normalized mean square error (NMSE) on the reconstructed object. NMSE on the reconstructed object can be calculated as
where \n\n\nψ\n\n2\nD\n,\nz\n=\n\nz\n0\n\n\n\n\nn\nm\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nψ\n̂\n\n\n2\nD\n,\nz\n=\n\nz\n0\n\n\n\n\nn\nm\n\n\n denote reconstructed objects at \n\nz\n=\n\nz\n0\n\n\n plane from the diffraction field calculated by the standard and the proposed algorithms, respectively. Simulated scenario for a CGH is illustrated in Figure 2.
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Figure 2.
An illustration of simulated optical setup. The SLM employed in the setup has \n\nN\n\n and \n\nM\n\n pixels along \n\nx\n\n- and \n\ny\n\n-axes, respectively. Transversal axis sampling is indicated by \n\n\nX\ns\n\n\n. The variable \n\n\nz\n0\n\n\n determines the distance between SLM and the closest point light source of the 3D object.
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First, a 3D point cloud object is generated in computer environment. The generated 3D object has \n\n3144\n\n points which are distributed over the space. The volume occupied by the object has \n\n\nx\ne\n\n=\n2.8\nmm\n\n, \n\n\ny\ne\n\n=\n4.1\nmm\n\n, and \n\n\nz\ne\n\n=\n4.1\nmm\n\n extensions along \n\nx\n\n-, \n\ny\n\n-, and \n\nz\n\n-axes. There is a distance between the object and the screen, and it is taken as \n\n\nz\n0\n\n=\n61.6\nmm\n\n. We assume that simulated SLM has \n\n100\n%\n\n fill factor and pitch distance \n\n\nX\ns\n\n\n is taken as \n\n8\n\nμm\n\n. Also, the simulated SLM has \n\n512\n\n pixels along both \n\nx\n\n- and \n\ny\n\n-axes, respectively. We assume that green laser is employed for illumination purpose; hence the wavelength is taken as \n\n532\n\nnm\n\n.
\n
The proposed algorithm is implemented by using two platforms: MATLAB and Visual C++. To have shorter computation time for diffraction fields, we utilize CUDA libraries and parallel computation power of GPU. The assembled computer system has i5-2500 CPU at 3.3 GHz, 4GB RAM, and a GTX-680 GPU to run the algorithm. Operating system of the computer is chosen as 64-bit Windows 7.
\n
Generally, off-the-shelf SLMs have pixelated structure, and phase parts of the calculated diffraction fields are used for driving the SLM. When the pixelated structure of SLM is not taken into account in CGH calculations, it is not easy to differentiate focused and unfocused parts of the reconstructed 3D objects. An illustration of such a result can be seen in Figure 3a. As a result of the similarity in focused and unfocused parts, the quality of the reconstructed object is decreased significantly. On the contrary, the difference between focused and unfocused parts in the reconstructed 3D object is clear when the proposed method is used in diffraction field calculation. Those results can be seen easily in Figure 3b.
\n
Figure 3.
A point cloud object which has six parts and each part is located at different depths along the longitudinal axis. The leftmost piece is reconstructed in both of the figures shown above: (a) reconstruction of the 3D object from the CGH obtained without taking into consideration the pixelated structure of SLM and (b) reconstruction from the CGH calculated by the proposed algorithm.
\n
Furthermore, numerical and optical reconstructions are very similar to each other, and that similarity in the reconstructions can be seen in Figure 4.
\n
Figure 4.
(a) Optical reconstruction of a point cloud object and (b) numerical reconstruction of the same object given in (a).
\n
To calculate the diffraction field in the standard method, we need to perform cosine and sine Fresnel integrals for each pixel on SLM and for each point light source in 3D object. As a result of this, computational complexity of the standard method is extremely high, and CGH is calculated at \n\n2701.10\n\ns\n\n. Significant improvement in computation time can be achieved when the proposed algorithm is employed in CGH calculation. When we use LUT-based method for the same scenario which is mentioned above, we need \n\n8.15\n\ns\n\n to calculate the CGH. Further improvement in computation time can be obtained if the presented algorithm is implemented in parallel on a GPU. Although, significant gain on the computation time of CGH is obtained by using LUT, there will be negligible amount of error on the reconstructed objects, because of having finite number of kernels and the quantization effect along the longitudinal axis. The performance of the proposed method is summarized in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
3D object = 3144 points; \n\nλ\n=\n532\n\nnm\n;\n\n N = M = 512; \n\n\nX\ns\n\n=\n8\n\nμm\n\n\n
\n
Computation time (s)
\n
NMSE
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Standard method
\n
2710.10
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
LUT
\n
8.15
\n
0.08
\n
\n
\n
LUT: parallel processing by using four cores
\n
7.08
\n
0.08
\n
\n
\n
LUT: parallel processing by using GTX-680
\n
0.08
\n
0.08
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Performance assessment of the proposed algorithm in terms of NMSE.
Proposed algorithm utilizes LUT which has 1D precomputed kernels for 125 different sampling points along longitudinal axis.
\n
By increasing the number of kernels in LUT, we can improve error performance of the algorithm without having any extra computational load, but there is an increase in the size of the required memory. As a result of this, installed memory space may not be enough to perform the diffraction field calculations. To overcome memory allocation problem, we use another sampling policy in generation of LUT. Two different sampling policies along the longitudinal axis are proposed. The first sampling policy is based on uniform sampling of longitudinal axis. The second sampling policy is related to uniform sampling of \n\n\nα\nl\n\n\n. Hence, there will be nonuniform sampling along the longitudinal axis. Tables 2 and 3 summarize performances of the sampling policies in terms of NMSE and required memory allocation by the precomputed LUT. As it can be seen from Tables 2 and 3, when the size of the LUT is fixed, uniform sampling policy along longitudinal axis provides better NMSE performance than nonuniform one.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
3D object = 3144 points; \n\nλ\n=\n532\n\nnm\n;\n\n N = M = 512; \n\n\nX\ns\n\n=\n8\n\nμm\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
Number of 1D kernels
\n
NMSE
\n
Memory allocation (kB)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
83
\n
0.068
\n
332
\n
\n
\n
92
\n
0.061
\n
368
\n
\n
\n
103
\n
0.054
\n
412
\n
\n
\n
118
\n
0.048
\n
472
\n
\n
\n
137
\n
0.039
\n
548
\n
\n
\n
165
\n
0.034
\n
660
\n
\n
\n
206
\n
0.026
\n
824
\n
\n
\n
274
\n
0.020
\n
1096
\n
\n
\n
411
\n
0.014
\n
1644
\n
\n
\n
821
\n
0.006
\n
3284
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Performance of the proposed algorithm according to the number of kernels used in LUT, NMSE, and allocated memory space.
LUT is formed by uniform sampling of depth parameter along longitudinal axis. Each element in 1D kernels is represented by four bytes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
3D object = 3144 points; \n\nλ\n=\n532\n\nnm\n;\n\n N = M = 512; \n\n\nX\ns\n\n=\n8\n\nμm\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
Number of 1D kernels
\n
NMSE
\n
Memory allocation (kB)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
83
\n
0.127
\n
332
\n
\n
\n
92
\n
0.114
\n
368
\n
\n
\n
103
\n
0.104
\n
412
\n
\n
\n
118
\n
0.088
\n
472
\n
\n
\n
137
\n
0.077
\n
548
\n
\n
\n
165
\n
0.062
\n
660
\n
\n
\n
206
\n
0.051
\n
824
\n
\n
\n
274
\n
0.038
\n
1096
\n
\n
\n
411
\n
0.025
\n
1644
\n
\n
\n
821
\n
0.013
\n
3284
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Performance of the proposed algorithm according to the number of kernels used in LUT, NMSE, and allocated memory space.
LUT is formed by uniform sampling of \n\n\nα\nl\n\n\n parameter. Each element in 1D kernels is represented by four bytes.
\n
In terms of calculated numerical errors, there should be a significant amount of deviation between reconstructed objects from CGHs obtained by standard and proposed method, but it is not easy to differentiate the reconstructions visually. Illustrations of numerically reconstructed objects by using both methods are shown in Figure 5a and b, respectively. To see the difference between to reconstructions, we subtract two reconstructions from each other and then take the magnitude of that difference. Then, we scale difference image linearly between 0 and 255 to improve the visibility of insignificant deviations. Those deviations can be seen in Figure 5c. Most of the deviations are in the unfocused region, and those deviations will not decrease the quality of the reconstruction. As a result of this, the proposed algorithm provides successful results.
\n
Figure 5.
(a) Magnitude of the reconstructed object at \n\nz\n=\n\nz\n0\n\n\n from the diffraction pattern calculated by standard algorithm and (b) by the proposed algorithm. (c) Magnitude of the difference between the reconstructed objects given in (a) and (b). Please note that image is scaled linearly from 0 to 255; thus the insignificant differences may become visible.
\n
Performance assessment of the presented algorithm is tested by optical reconstructions as well. For that purpose, we assembled an optical setup which is shown in Figure 6. Green laser with \n\nλ\n=\n532\n\nnm\n\n is used as a coherent light source, and HoloEye Pluto phase-only SLM is employed as a dynamic display device. A couple of optically reconstructed objects are shown in Figure 7.
\n
Figure 6.
Assembled optical setup for optical experiments.
\n
Figure 7.
Optically reconstructed 3D objects: (a) hand (b) propeller.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Two major problems in H3DTV systems can be called as decreasing the computation time of CGH and improving the quality of the reconstructed object. Using fast algorithms in diffraction field calculations will be helpful to decrease the computation time, but most of those fast algorithms impose some approximations that decrease the quality of the reconstructed object. In this work, we propose a diffraction field calculation algorithm that paves the way to achieve real-time calculations of diffraction fields from point cloud objects. In the meantime, the quality of the reconstructed objects is improved by taking into account the pixelated structure of SLM. Also, the proposed method can be run in parallel on a GPU. Performed numerical and optical experiments provide similar results. The proposed method utilizes precomputed LUT to decrease the computational load. To store the precomputed LUT, we need significant amount of memory allocation, and optimization of the occupied memory space is obtained by having two different sampling policies along the longitudinal axis. In the first sampling policy, LUT is formed by having uniform sampling along longitudinal axis. In the second one, nonuniform sampling is applied. When we fix size of the LUT, better NMSE performance is obtained by uniform sampling policy. As a result of this, when we use uniform sampling policy in computation of LUT, we need to allocate less amount of memory to store it.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey project under grant EEEAG-112E220 and Marmara University Scientific Research Fund project under grant FEN-A-130515-0176.
\n
\n',keywords:"computer-generated holograms, holographic display, real-time holography, spatial light modulators, 3D visualization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67013.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67013.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67013",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67013",totalDownloads:426,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 1st 2019",datePrePublished:"May 23rd 2019",datePublished:"September 25th 2019",dateFinished:"May 7th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Holographic three-dimensional television systems provide a natural 3D visualization. Fast calculation of the diffraction field from a three-dimensional object is essential to achieve video rate. In the literature, there are myriads of fast algorithms for diffraction field calculation from three-dimensional objects, but most of them omit the pixelated structure of the dynamic display devices which are used in the reconstruction process. In this chapter, the look-up table-based fast algorithm for diffraction field calculation from a three-dimensional object for a pixelated dynamic display device is presented. Real-time diffraction field calculations are obtained by running the algorithm in parallel on a graphical processing unit. Performance of the algorithm is evaluated in terms of computation time of the diffraction field and the normalized mean square error on the reconstructed object. To have optimization on the required memory space for the look-up table, two different sampling policies along the longitudinal axis are implemented. Uniform sampling policy along the longitudinal axis provides better error performance than nonuniform sampling policy. Furthermore, optical experiments are performed, and it is observed that both numerical and optical reconstructions are similar to each other. Hence, the proposed method provides successful results.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67013",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67013",book:{slug:"holographic-materials-and-applications"},signatures:"Gokhan Bora Esmer",authors:[{id:"288671",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gokhan Bora",middleName:null,surname:"Esmer",fullName:"Gokhan Bora Esmer",slug:"gokhan-bora-esmer",email:"gokhanbora@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Calculation of diffraction pattern used in driving SLM with pixelated structure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Proposed algorithm for fast calculation of CGH",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Simulation results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. 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DOI: 10.1109/JDT.2016.2553440\n'},{id:"B56",body:'Haist T, Schönleber M, Tiziani HJ. Computer-generated holograms from 3D-objects written on twisted-nematic liquid crystal displays. Optics Communications. 1997;140:299-308. DOI: 10.1016/S0030-4018(97)00192-2\n'},{id:"B57",body:'Yu L, Cai L. Iterative algorithm with a constraint condition for numerical reconstruction of a three-dimensional object from its hologram. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 2001;18(5):1033-1045. DOI: 10.1364/JOSAA.18.001033\n'},{id:"B58",body:'Rosen J, Brooker G. Digital spatially incoherent Fresnel holography. Optics Letters. 2007;32(8):912-914. DOI: 10.1364/OL.32.000912\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Muffoletto RP, Tyler JM, Tohline JE. Shifted Fresnel diffraction for computational holography. Optics Express. 2007;15(9):5631-5640. DOI: 10.1364/OE.15.005631\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Abookasis D, Rosen J. Computer-generated holograms of three-dimensional objects synthesize from their multiple angular viewpoints. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 2003;20(8):1537-1545. DOI: 10.1364/JOSAA.20.001537\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Shi L, Huang F-C, Lopes W, Matusik W, Luebke D. Near-eye light field holographic rendering with spherical waves for wide field of view interactive 3D computer graphics. Journal ACM Transactions on Graphics. 2017;36(6):236-1-236-17. DOI: 10.1145/3130800.3130832\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Park J-H. Recent progress in computer-generated holography for three-dimensional scenes. Journal of Information Display. 2017;18(1):1-12. DOI: 10.1080/15980316.2016.1255672\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Chang C, Xia J, Jiang Y. Holographic image projection on tilted planes by phase-only computer generated hologram using fractional Fourier transform. Journal of Display Technology. 2014;10(2):107-113. DOI: 10.1109/JDT.2013.2285174\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Gao C, Liu J, Li X, Xue G, Jia J, Wang Y. Accurate compressed look up table method for CGH in 3D holographic display. Optics Express. 2015;23(26):33194-33204. DOI: 10.1364/OE.23.033194\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Murano K, Shimobaba T, Sugiyama A, Takada N, Kakue T, Oikawa M, et al. Fast computation of computer-generated hologram using Xeon Phi coprocessor. Computer Physics Communications. 2014;185(10):2742-2757. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpc.2014.06.010\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Jackin BJ, Miyata H, Baba T, Ohkawa T, Ootsu K, Yokota T, et al. A decomposition method for fast calculation of large scale CGH on distributed machines. In: Laser Applications to Chemical, Security and Environmental Analysis; 13-17 July 2014; Seattle, Washington, USA. 2014. DOI: 10.1364/AIO.2014.JTu4A.51\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Zhao Y, Cao L, Zhang H, Tan W, Wu S, Wang Z, et al. Time-division multiplexing holographic display using angular-spectrum layer-oriented method. Chinese Optics Letters. 2016;14(1):010005-1-010005-5. DOI: 10.3788/COL201614.010005\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Zhao Y, Cao L, Zhang H, Kong D, Jin G. Accurate calculation of computer-generated holograms using angular-spectrum layer-oriented method. Optics Express. 2015;23(20):25440-25449. DOI: 10.12364/OE.23.025440\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Kovachev M, Ilieva R, Benzie P, Esmer GB, Onural L, Watson J, et al. Holographic 3DTV displays using spatial light modulators. In: Onural L, Ozaktas HM, editors. Three-Dimensional Television: Capture, Transmission, Display. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin; 2008. pp. 529-556. DOI: 978-3-540-72532-9\n'},{id:"B70",body:'Katkovnik V, Astola J, Egiazarian K. Discrete diffraction transform for propagation, reconstruction, and design of wavefield distributions. Applied Optics. 2008;47(19):3481-3493. DOI: 10.1364/AO.47.003481\n'},{id:"B71",body:'Katkovnik V, Migukin A, Astola J. Backward discrete wave field propagation modelling as an inverse problem: Toward reconstruction of wave field distributions. Applied Optics. 2009;48(18):3407-3423. DOI: 10.1364/AO.48.003407\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Esmer GB. Fast computation of Fresnel diffraction field of a three dimensional object for a pixelated optical device. Applied Optics. 2013;52(1):A18-A25. DOI: 10.1364/AO.52.000A18\n'},{id:"B73",body:'Esmer GB. Performance assessment of a fast and accurate scalar optical diffraction computation algorithm. 3D Research. IEEE; 2013;4(1):1-7. DOI: 10.1007/3DRes.01(2013)2\n'},{id:"B74",body:'Esmer GB. Algorithms for fast calculation of scalar optical diffraction field on a pixelated display device. In: IEEE AFRICON 2013; 9-12 September 2013; Mauritius: IEEE; 2013. DOI: 10.1109/AFRCON.2013.6757704\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Esmer GB. Real-time computation of diffraction fields for pixelated spatial light modulators. Optics Express. 2015;23(10):12636-12647. DOI: 10.1364/OE.23.012636\n'},{id:"B76",body:'HoloEye. PLUTO phase only spatial light modulator reflective [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://holoeye.com/spatial-light-modulators/slm-pluto-phase-only/\n\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Gander W, Gautschi W. Adaptive quadrature revisited. BIT Numerical Mathematics. 2000;40(1):84-101. DOI: 10.1023/A:1022318402393\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gokhan Bora Esmer",address:"bora.esmer@marmara.edu.tr",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Since the conception of the term “epigenetic landscape” by Conrad Waddington in 1940, the field of epigenetics has rapidly evolved with technological advances. In the study of embryonic development, it was observed that a single gene has the ability to produce different phenotypes, so epigenetics was used to describe the mechanisms through which that happens [1]. Today, epigenetics is defined as the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression through addition and removal of chemical groups to nucleotides and proteins rather than the alteration of the genetic code itself [2]. The human genome contains approximately 3 billion bases of nucleotides and they are compacted into chromosomes in the nucleus via histone proteins. About 146 base pairs of nucleotides are wound around core histone octamers and are sealed with the linker histone (H1) to form a nucleosome. The linker histone connects multiple nucleosomes in the chromatin. The core histone octamers consist of two dimers of H2A-H2B and a tetramer of H3-H4 proteins [3]. These core histones contain two regions namely: the histone fold and the histone tails. The C-termini of H2A and N-termini of other core histones protrude out of the fold to form histone tails and are commonly subjected to epigenetic modifications [4]. DNA and RNA also undergo epigenetic modifications, and these modifications control gene expression and maintain genomic integrity. Epigenetic enzymes can be broadly categorized into three components: the writers, the erasers, and the readers. Writers are enzymes responsible for adding the modifications, erasers remove it, and readers recognize it. These modifications include but are not limited to methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, GlcNAcylation, and SUMOylation [5].
DNA mainly undergoes methylation, and this occurs through the action of a family of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT2, DNMT3a, and DNMT3b). DNMTs covalently modify DNA by catalyzing the transfer of methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) to the C5 position on a cytosine ring. DNA methylation mostly occurs in CpG islands, a region of the DNA rich in cytosine and guanine base repeats [6]. This modification to the DNA functions to repress transcription when it occurs in gene promoters and regulates splicing when it occurs in gene bodies [7]. DNA methylation is a reversible mechanism, which can be either passive through reduced DNMT1 activity during DNA replication or active through activity of its erasers, DNA demethylases. For instance, the ten-eleven translocation proteins (TET 1/2/3) are human demethylases that catalyze the oxidation of 5-methyl-cytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine [8]. Following DNA methylation, often readers such as the family of methyl binding domain proteins recognize the methylation marks to drive transcriptional repression [9].
RNA is also methylated on C5 position of cytosine (m5C) and N6 position of adenosine ring(m6A) by family of RNA methyltransferases such as Dnmt2, NOP2/Sun, Mettl3, and Mettl14. RNA methylation can be reversed by these RNA demethylases: fat mass and obesity associated protein (Fto) and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase alkB homolog 5 (AlkBH5) [10]. Methylation modification on RNA is interpreted by readers such as the YTH domain family, and they mediate RNA splicing, export, stability, maturation, decay, secondary structure switch, and translation [11]. There have also been reports of RNA acetylation by NAT10 acetyltransferase, which functions to promote mRNA stability and efficiency in translation [12].
Moving up the central dogma, lysine and arginine residues on histone proteins are mostly subjected to various post-translational modifications by their respective epigenetic enzymes to either activate or repress transcription. Although the focus of this chapter is histone methylation, histone acetylation will be briefly discussed. Histone methyltransferases (HMTs) and histone acetylases (HATs) are the writers of histone methylation and acetylation, respectively. HMTs can be further subdivided into lysine methyltransferase (KMT) and protein arginine methyltransferase (PRMT) [13]. The families and functions of HMTs will be further explored in this chapter. On the other hand, several HATs have been discovered, with the major ones being the GNATs (Gcn5-N-acyltransferases), the MYST families, and p300/CBP [5]. These enzymes catalyze the transfer of acetyl group from acetyl Co A to the side chain amino group on histone lysine residues, inducing transcriptionally active chromatin [13]. Histone deacetylases and histone demethylases are involved in reversing the histone modifications discussed above. The families of lysine-specific histone demethylase 1 (LSD1) and Jumonji histone demethylases (JMJD) mediate the removal of methyl groups from histone through respective mechanisms [13, 14]. Readers of histone methylation include protein containing the MBT, PHD, chromo, Tudor, double/tandem Tudor, Ankyrin Repeats, zf-CW, WD40, and PWWP domains [15].
Given this array of epigenetic enzymes and their broad spectrum of function in regulating several gene expression in humans, the roles of epigenetic enzymes have been implicated in tumorigenesis. The epigenome of cancerous cells has widespread changes in DNA methylation and histone modification patterns [16]. For instance, hypermethylation of CpG islands in the promoter of chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 5 (CHD5), a chromatin remodeler, was observed in colon, breast, hepatocarcinoma, cervix, and glioma cell lines [17]. This results in the downregulation of CHD5, which plays a tumor suppressive role in cells. Similarly, hypomethylation of DNA at promoters of oncogenes such as insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) has been observed in breast and colon cancers. The differential methylation patterns on promoters of tumor suppressors and oncogenes mediated by increased/reduced activity of DNMTs and TETs enzymes have been used as biomarkers to predict the predisposition of individuals to cancer [18]. Also, aberrant expression of histone acetyl transferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) has been linked to tumor development. Studies have shown that that p300/CBP acts as a coactivator with c-Myb to activate the transformation of fusion oncoproteins in myeloid leukemia [19]. Increased expression of HDACs was reported in gastric, prostate, colon, and breast carcinomas, and this results in repression of tumor suppressor genes like cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, see p21 [20]. Of all the histone modifications, histone methylation dysregulation is mostly attributed to poor prognosis in several cancers, which we will further elaborate in detail in Section II “Histone Methyltransferases in Cancer.”
As these epigenetic enzymes’ activity has been altered in cancer and contributes to the genomic instability in cancer cells, it is crucial to develop targeted therapeutic treatments to restore their normal function. Aside from surgery, some common treatment options for cancer patients can be broadly categorized as thus: chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and precision medicine/targeted therapy [21]. These classes of treatments are not mutually exclusive and can be used in concert for treating cancer patients. Among these different therapeutic approaches, targeted therapy is the future for cancer treatment. Targeted therapy involves the use of drugs that target a specific biological molecule/pathway or drug treatment that requires genome profiling of an individual before it can be administered [22]. For optimal development of drugs for targeted therapies, it is important to identify a well-defined biological target whose activity contributes to one to several hallmarks of cancer including propagating growth signals, evading immunosurveillance, cell death resistance, activating metastatic programs, suppressing antigrowth signals, inducing angiogenesis, and enabling immortal replication of cells [23, 24]. For example, cancer patients whose tumors are driven by high activity of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling can be treated with specific monoclonal antibodies or small molecule kinase inhibitors antagonizing the aberrant signaling, and thereby reducing tumor proliferation [25]. Similarly, targeting an epigenetic enzyme, PRMT5, which is highly expressed in gastrointestinal cancers, with small molecule inhibitor, PR5-LL-CM01, was shown to slow down cancer cell growth and invasion in vitro [26]. The limitations of targeted therapies include cancer cell resistance to drug treatment by activating a parallel pathway or sometimes targets can undergo mutation, making drug accessibility to target difficult [27].
Given the myriad of biological targets that have been discovered to mediate cancer progression, there has been increasing interest in the development of small molecule inhibitors capable of decreasing the activity of those targets. Small molecules are intracellular targeting compounds with low molecular weight of less than 900Da. They can modulate their target activity as an agonist or antagonist [23]. The growing interest in the use of small molecules for drug development is not only due to their small size, which enables easy permeability into the cell, but also their desirable pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, longer shelf life, and easy synthesis [28]. Several small molecule modulators have been developed into drugs to treat various types of cancers. The range of small molecule inhibitors developed to enable tumor regression can be broadly categorized into small molecule kinase inhibitors, proteasome inhibitors, metalloproteinases and heat shock protein inhibitors, and apoptosis targeting inhibitors [29]. The most common small molecule inhibitors, kinase inhibitors, have been used to inhibit the several protein kinases whose activity is dysregulated in cancers. The first tyrosine kinase inhibitor drug, Imatinib, is a small molecule ATP analog that competitively inhibits Bcr-Abl fusion protein kinase activity in chronic myeloid leukemia patients [30]. Similarly, a number of small molecule inhibitors targeting epigenetic enzymes implicated in tumorigenesis are in development or have been FDA approved for cancer treatment. For instance, drugs like belinostat and romidepsin are HDAC inhibitors that are FDA approved for the treatment of lymphoma [31]. After the first clinical trial in 2014, tazemetostat, an EZH2 small molecule inhibitor, moved to phase 2 clinical trial and was fast tracked by FDA in 2017 for the treatment of follicular lymphoma [32]. The use of tazemetostat for treatment of epithelioid sarcoma in adults 16 years and above was also granted accelerated approval by the FDA. These examples, among many others, show the potentials of epigenetic modifiers as a druggable target for cancer treatment. More of these small molecule inhibitors for histone methyltransferases will be explored later on in this chapter. However, challenges in the clinical application of certain small molecule inhibitors as drugs remain due to their off-target effects or development of resistance by cancer cells [29].
2. Histone methyltransferases in cancer
As we mentioned above, epigenetic enzymes, including histone methyltransferases, are novel targets for cancer therapy. In this section, we will review the role of histone methyltransferases in cancer.
2.1 Lysine methyltransferases
Lysine methylation of histones was first characterized in the 1960s [33, 34] and was initially described as an “irreversible” post-translation modification. This dogma was challenged by the discovery of histone demethylases by Shi et al. indicating a dynamic function of methylation allowing the addition and removal of methyl groups [35]. The proteins responsible for the addition of methyl groups to histones are known as lysine methyltransferases (KMTs). KMTs are broadly defined as SET [Su(var)3-9, Enhancer of Zeste, Trithorax] domain-containing proteins and non-SET domain-containing proteins [36]. The only non-SET domain-containing KMTs identified so far are DOT1 (disrupter of telomeric silencing 1) family members, which methylate K79 of histone H3 and which also do not share structural similarities with SET-containing proteins [37, 38, 39]. KMTs act by catalyzing the transfer of 1~3 methyl groups to lysine residues of histone and non-histone proteins through the addition of the cofactor S-adenosyl methionine (SAM), which acts as a methyl donor group [40]. In the case of SET domain-containing proteins, SAM interacts and orients with a lysine residue of the substrate histone tail within the catalytic pocket of the SET domain. Then, a tyrosine residue acts to deprotonate the ε-amino group of the lysine residue, which allows the lysine chain to nucleophilically attack the methyl group of the SAM molecule, transferring the methyl group to the lysine side chain [41]. In the case of non-SET domain-containing KMTs, the enzyme DOT1 acts to methylate a lysine residue in the histone core [40]. As we described above, histone methylation is a critical epigenetic modification of chromatin that can impact genomic stability, alter expression of different genes, determine cell lineage, alter DNA methylation, as well as control cell mitosis [42].
SET-containing proteins have been characterized in greater detail than non-SET-containing proteins. SET domain proteins are characterized as seven families of the superfamily of KMTs: SUV39, SET1, SET2, EZ, RIZ, SMYD, and SUV4-20 [36]. There are also several SET domain proteins that do not fall into these groups including SET7/9 and SET8 [36]. The SUV39 family has been characterized the most out of these groups of KMTs. Specifically, Schizosaccharomyces pombe Cryptic loci regulator 4 (CLR4), human SUV39H1, and murine SUV39H2 were among the first identified SET domain protein lysine methyltransferases characterized when their sequence homology between their SET domains was discovered. These proteins methylate lysine 9 of histone H3 (H3K9) [43]. SET1 and SET2 complexes are involved in the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme [44, 45]. TSET1 acts to tri-methylate H3K4 and is associated with early gene transcription as opposed to SET2-mediated methylation of H3K36, which is associated with later transcriptional elongation of downstream genes. The mammalian nuclear-receptor-binding SET domain-containing protein (NSD1, a member of the SET2 family) has an important function in methylation of H3K36 and H4K20 in development [46]. Lu et al. in our research group also reported that NSD1 could methylate non-histone protein, NF-κB, at K218/221 of its p65 subunit, leading to the activation of NF-κB and its downstream target gene expression [47, 48, 49, 50]. Another example is SETDB1, a H3K9 methyltransferase, which is amplified in primary tumors of lung cancer patients and contributes to the invasive phenotype of tumor cells [51]. Additionally, SETDB1 methylates H3K9 in euchromatin, and is also required for development [52]. Human SET7/9 acts to mono-methylate H3K4 [53]. Furthermore, SET domain enzymes’ functions are not specifically tied to histone methylation. Human SET7/9 methylates K189 on transcription factor TAF10, which increases RNA polymerase II affinity and transcriptional activity, thereby expression of TAF10-dependent genes [54]. SET7/9 is also involved in p53 methylation, which increases its stability [55]. These examples described are only a few of the many SET-containing proteins of which over 50 different proteins have been discovered [56]. While SET domain proteins are typically referred to as histone lysine methyltransferases, it may be more accurate to refer to them as protein lysine methyltransferases due to their identification of non-histone targets for these KMTs.
These examples of SET and non-SET domain-containing proteins exhibit the importance of KMTs in the regulation of histone and non-histone proteins. Therefore, it is not surprising that dysregulation of KMT function can result in dysregulation of cellular functions. Specifically several KMTs have been associated with tumorigenesis of several different cancers.
H3K9 methyltransferases SETDB1 and G9a are both known to have roles in gene silencing and embryo development [57]. G9a regulates cancer metabolism in several types of cancer [58]. Overexpression of G9a is associated with worse prognosis in patients with prostate cancer. Intriguingly, G9a knockdown in breast and lung cancer has been shown to promote E-cadherin expression and thus tumor metastasis [59, 60]. Moreover, G9a’s higher expression predicts higher mortality of ovarian cancer patients [61] and is reported to be associated with cell growth and proliferation in neuroblastoma [57]. Furthermore, G9a has been shown to have a critical role in the development of pancreatic carcinoma and acute myeloid squamous cell carcinoma. G9a-dependent repression of genes is also associated with development of leukemia as well as squamous cell carcinomas [57]. SETDB1 is another H3K9 methyltransferase reported to play a role in numerous types of human cancer. SETDB1 is involved in regulation of several cellular processes, including apoptosis, DNA damage repair, and regulation of transcription factors [62]. SETB1 is associated with oncogenic activity and is upregulated in several cancers including lung cancers, gliomas, and prostate cancer [63, 64, 65, 66]. For instance, in lung cancer, overexpression of SETDB1 promotes invasiveness and knockdown reduced lung cancer cell growth. In gliomas, cell proliferation was reduced by suppression of SETDB1. In prostate cancer, downregulation of SETDB1 led to reduced cellular proliferation, migratory ability, and invasive ability.
EZH2 (Enhancer of zeste homolog 2), a H3K27 methyltransferase, plays an important role in transcriptional repression [36]. EZH2 plays a critical regulatory role in as many as 46 types of human cancer [57, 67]. Typically, EZH2 is overexpressed in cancers, and its high expression has been linked to worse patient survival. For instance, EZH2 downregulation in breast cancer can block cell growth and survival [68]. Moreover, EZH2 knockdown inhibits invasive ability and cellular proliferation in prostate cancer [69]. Additionally, EZH2 has also been shown to have roles in gliomas and renal cell carcinoma, wherein decreased EZH2 expression reduces cellular proliferative ability and promotes apoptosis [70].
Another example is SMYD3 (SET and MYND domain-containing 3). It is a KMT that methylates H3K4 and is extremely important for initiation of transcription. High SMYD3 activity is indicative of an epigenetic signature of active enhancers [71]. SMYD3 knockdown in colorectal cancer can impair cellular proliferation [72]. In breast cancer, knockdown of SMYD3 also inhibits cell growth, and overexpression can promote carcinogenesis by regulation of the Wnt signaling pathways [73]. Additionally, reduction of SMYD3 expression in prostate cancer inhibits cellular proliferation, migration, and colony formation [74].
H3K36 methylation is critical for transcriptional elongation, and H3K36 methyltransferases have been identified to play important regulatory roles in several types of cancer. NSD1, a H3K36 KMT, is involved in prostate cancer androgen receptor transactivation, which results in prostate tumorigenesis [75]. Overexpression of NSD1 in neuroblastoma reduces cellular growth ability and colony formation [76]. NSD1 has also been reported to play a role in myelomas and lung cancers [57]. As we described above, our lab also found that NSD1 activates NF-κB to induce its target gene expression. The function of these genes is frequently involved in oncogenic phenotype, or cytokine, chemokine secretion [47]. Another example is H4K20 methylation, which is reported to be important for gene transcription. For example, overexpression of methyltransferases of H4K20 SUV420H1 and SUV420H2 is associated with decreased cell invasiveness in breast cancer, and knockdown increases epithelial to mesenchymal transition [77].
DOT1, the only known H3K79 methyltransferase and non-SET containing KMT, also plays an important role in cancer development. DOT1 is involved in cell survival and colony formation in several forms of leukemia [78]. The activity of human DOT1L (hDOT1 like) methyltransferase is compromised in mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) and is required for maintaining proliferative state of transformed cells [79]. Also, downregulation of DOT1 in lung cancer can cause cell cycle arrest and reduce cellular proliferation [80].
Together, these examples show several of the pathways regulated by KMTs and also highlight the critical importance of tight regulation of these pathways wherein dysregulation of KMTs can result in promotion of tumorigenesis.
2.2 Protein arginine methyltransferases
In contrast to KTMs, there is another important family of protein methyltransferases, namely, protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs). It is a family of nine members (PRMT1-9) and specifically catalyzes the methyl transfer from SAM to the guanidine nitrogen (ω-NG) of the arginine residues of protein substrates [81]. After the donation of methyl groups, SAM forms S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (AdoHcy, SAH) and methylarginine is produced [81]. There are three forms of methylarginine recognized in mammalian cells: ω-NG-monomethylarginine (MMA), ω-NG, NG-asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), and ω-NG, N’G-symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) [82]. The family of PRMTs is categorized into three major types: type I, II, and III. Type I and II PRMTs first catalyze the formation of MMA, and then type I PRMTs (PRMT1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8) further catalyze the formation of ADMA, while type II (PRMT5 and 9) would instead catalyze the production of SDMA. For type III PRMTs (PRMT7), they only catalyze the formation of MMA [83]. These three types of PRMTs methylated similar substrates, such as histone, but they also can catalyze different non-histone substrate proteins. Additionally, although the majority of PRMTs methylate glycine-arginine-rich (GAR) motifs in their substrates [84, 85], some of them display a preference of methylation on the proline-glycine-methionine rich (PGM) motifs in substrate proteins such as PRMT4 [86, 87], while PRMT5 is characterized with the methylation of both types of motifs in proteins [86, 88].
PRMTs are widely expressed in mammalian cells and regulate primary cellular processes, including cell proliferation and differentiation. The abnormal expression of some types of PRMTs such as PRMT1, 4, 5 and 6 frequently leads to tumorigenesis and malignancy.
PRMT1 was the first protein arginine transferase recognized in mammals and assumes the large fraction of arginine transferases activity in mammalian cells [89, 90]. It has been reported that PRMT1 is related to various kinds of cancer. Le Romancer et al. suggested that PRMT1 governed the interaction of estrogen receptor α (ERα) with steroid receptor coactivator proteins (Src), the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) [91]. PRMT1-mediated ERα methylation is integral for the activation of the Src-PI3K-FAK signaling pathway [91]. In their subsequent report, the authors further demonstrated arginine methylation of ERα by PRMT1 might remarkably activate protein kinase B (PKB, also known as AKT) [92]. Another example is methylation of Axin by PRMT1. Cha et al. showed that arginine methylation of Axin by PRMT1 may activate the WNT pathway by destabilizing Axin and promote tumorigenesis [93, 94]. Importantly, it is reported that methylation of meiotic recombination 11 (MRE11, also known as MRE11A) and p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) by PRMT1 can block the DNA repair pathway, contributing to cancer progression [95, 96]. MRE11 combines with DNA repair protein RAD50 and Nijmegen breakage syndrome 1 (NBS1) to form MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 complex (MRN complex). The mammalian MRN complex plays significant role in repairing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Yu et al. reported that the deficiency of arginine methylation of MRE11 in its GAR motif resulted in exonuclease and DNA-binding defects and finally failing to repair DNA damage [96]. Interestingly, Boisvert et al. found that 53BP1 could not relocalize to DNA damage sites and γ-H2AX formation was decreased in fibroblasts treated with methylase inhibitors [95, 97]. Moreover, Mitchell et al. discovered that depletion of PRMT1 affected the length and stability of telomere [98]. Since dysfunction of both DNA repair pathway and telomere maintenance is known to be the cause of cancer, deregulation of PRMT1 may lead to tumorigenesis by these pathways.
In addition to PRMT1, another PRMT member, PRMT4 (also known as CARM1), is reported to be tightly associated with estrogen-mediated oncogenesis of breast cancer through the upregulation of transcription factor E2F1 expression [99]. Moreover, CARM1 is suggested to be overexpressed in human colon cancer and exert a crucial role in Wnt signaling through mediating the action of β-catenin on Wnt target genes as a transcriptional coactivator [100]. Moreover, c-fos is a proto-oncogene and overexpressed in a set of cancers. Some groups reveal that PRMT4 regulates transcriptional activation of c-fos, and that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), c-fos target genes, are significantly downregulated in CARM1-deficient cells [101]. Therefore, arginine methylation by PRMT4 is related to multiple oncogenic signaling pathways.
An important PRMT member that plays a critical role in cancer is PRMT5. As a primary type II PRMT, PRMT5 functions in the presence of other binding partners, such as MEP50. Hou et al. discovered that E-cadherin expression was remarkably repressed by SNAIL and PRMT5 recruited by bridge molecule AJUBA, which was favorable for tumor metastasis [102]. It was also reported that p53 can be methylated on multiple arginine sites by PRMT5 in response to DNA damage [103]. Scoumanne et al. proposed that PRMT5 inhibition may promote cancer cells to progress toward apoptosis under chemotherapy/radiotherapy [104]. Moreover, Cho et al. found methylation of E2F1 by PRMT5 weakened its ability to promote apoptosis and repress proliferation, indicating PRMT5 overexpression may enhance cancer cells’ growth and survival [105]. It is well known that continuous NF-κB activation exists in most cancers. Our group uncovered that PRMT5 dimethylated the p65 subunit of NF-κB at arginine 30 (R30) to activate NF-κB pathway [106], an important transcription factor that is involved in the progression of many cancers. Also, PRMT5 is reported to promote its own overexpression in several cancers through a feedback loop involving NF-κB signaling [107].
Besides the PRMTs we discussed above, PRMT6 is widely taken as a transcriptional repressor. Neault et al. reported that embryonic fibroblast cells from the PRMT6 knockout mouse were subjected to a premature senescence, while the cellular senescence can be rescued in PRMT6 and p53 double knockout mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells [108], affirming growth suppression effect of excess p53 due to PRMT6 deficiency. Thus, PRMT6 actively suppresses p53 cascade to promote tumorigenesis in cancer.
Taken together, many members in the PRMT family have shown essential role in cancer development and progression. Thus, it is unsurprising that these PRMTs have become the rising targets in cancer therapeutics in recent years.
3. Discovery of small molecule inhibitors for histone methyltransferases in cancer treatment
3.1 Screening assays for epigenetic drug discovery
The timeline of drug development from conception of the idea to a feasible drug available in the market for treatment of diseases takes between 12 and 15 years and can cost up to $1billion [109]. Drug discovery process begins with identifying a druggable biological target that contributes to a disease progression. These targets can be identified through text mining from online databases, microarray data mining using bioinformatic tools, proteomic data mining from proteomic databases, and chemogenomic data mining, which involves simultaneous exploration of multiple cell phenotypes by screening small molecules from chemical libraries to a number of biological targets [110]. Then, promising or known targets can be validated in vitro and in vivo to confirm that their activity influences phenotype associated with a disease. This step is followed by screening or high throughput screening (HTS), which describes the process of sifting through compound libraries for molecules with high affinity for a target of interest [111]. The two approaches of developing assays for compound library screening are the biochemical target-based approach and the cell-based approach. Biochemical target-based approach is often employed as the primary screening assay in epigenetic compound screen because it allows the direct monitoring of ability of a target activity as opposed to cell-based assays wherein changes in cell phenotypes are measured [112]. Listed below are some of screening assays used in the preclinical development of drugs for epigenetic enzymes.
AlphaLISA is a high throughput screening approach used to analyze and measure post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and concentrations of analytes. The robust, highly sensitive, reproducible, miniaturized, scalable, and automated nature of AlphaLISA assays earned them their widespread application in research and drug discovery. The principle behind AlphaLISA technology is based on the mechanism of another methodology, Luminescent oxygen channeling immunoassay (LOCI). LOCI involves chemiluminescent reaction of a singlet oxygen transfer and was developed in 1994 by Ullman et al. to quantify latex particle binding [113]. Similarly, AlphaLISA assays employ biotinylated antibody bound to streptavidin donor beads and an acceptor bead bound to a second antibody. These antibodies are specific to different epitope on a protein (could also be product of a bimolecular interaction or a modified protein). The binding of these antibodies to the proteins brings the donor and the acceptor bead into proximity of at most 200nm. Upon excitation of donor beads at 680nm, a singlet oxygen is excited from the donor bead and this triggers singlet oxygen reaction with the chemical dyes (thioxene and europium) on the acceptor bead, which results in chemiluminescent emission at 615nm [114, 115]. Multiplate readers equipped with AlphaLISA screen detections can be used to record signals. A systematic method used to validate the quality of HTS assay output like AlphaLISA is called the Z-factor. The Z-factor is calculated by accounting for the positive and negative controls’ mean signal-to-mean background ratio. Hence, in the design of AlphaLISA assay, to ensure quality control, wells containing maximum signal and no signal solution mix must be included [116]. This assay is widely optimized to screen for small molecule modulators for different epigenetic enzymes. For example, in our lab, Prabhu et al. used an optimized AlphaLISA screen protocol to identify a lead compound capable of targeting PRMT5, and subsequently, the compound was shown to be more potent in reducing pancreatic and colon cancer cells’ proliferation compared to another commercially available compound EPZ015666 [26]. Not only is this assay used to screen for compounds for epigenetic targeted therapy, but also they uncover new roles of different epigenetic enzymes in cancer. Consequently, together with other assays, it was uncovered using AlphaLISA HTS assay that an inhibitor of G9a lysine methyltransferase, A-366, limits cell growth and differentiation in leukemic cells [117]. Potent small molecule inhibitors for EZH2, a methyltransferase known to silence tumor suppressor genes, are also being identified using this particular HTS assay [118]. AlphaLISA kits specific for histone methyltransferase modifications, among many other epigenetic enzymes, are commercially available for research and drug development purposes [119].
3.3 FRET (Förster/fluorescent resonance energy transfer) assay
Discovered in 1946 by Theodor Förster, FRET is cell-based assay that enables real-time observance of molecular interactions within cells [120]. This phenomenon depends on the proximal interaction (1-10nm) of a donor fluorophore and an acceptor fluorophore, whereby upon excitation, the donor fluorophore transfers energy to the acceptor, increasing its emission wavelength [121] (Figure 1). The measure of FRET is taken as the ratio of the intensities of the donor/acceptor fluorophore. Although highly sensitive in distance, FRET assay does not permit the level of sensitivity and high throughput as AlphaLISA [122]. A type of FRET, FLIM-FRET (fluorescence lifetime imaging FRET) was used to conduct epigenetic biomarker screening in ER-positive breast cancer cell line and patients. The utilization of FRET in this study was based on the presence of certain histone modifications around ERα in the nucleus. Consequently, the assay revealed H3K27ac and H4K12ac interaction with ERα, making HATs a potential therapeutic target in compound screening [123]. Another study optimized TR-FRET (time-resolved FRET) for high throughput screening, following the treatment with HDAC inhibitors, to detect the methylation levels of histone 3(H3) in U-2 OS cells using terbium-tagged antibodies specific to a particular H3 modification and green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged H3 [124].
Figure 1.
Schematic demonstrating the use of FRET for epigenetic screen. In the presence of histone methyltransferase and its methyl donor, SAM, a GFP-tagged Histone 3 becomes methylated on lysine-9 (K9) and undergoes FRET as terbium (Tb) conjugated antibody binds to the monomethylated K9 (K9me). This leads to increased GFP emission at 540nm wavelength (Right arm of the diagram), demonstrating the occurrence of K9 methylation. In contrast, when in the absence of K9 methylation mediated by HMTs, due to the addition of potent HMT inhibitors (Lower arm of the diagram), FRET does not occur as K9 cannot be methylated and thereby the antibody cannot bind to its epitope. As a result, the wavelength of GFP will be at lower end of the emission spectra, 520 nm.
3.4 In silico screen
In silico screening or virtual screening is a common method used in drug discovery as a pre-filtering method for identifying promising compounds that can be used for experimental studies. Drug development using this method of screening is estimated to save approximately $130 million and 0.8 years per drug [125]. The approach to virtual screening can be broadly divided into structure-based methods and ligand-based methods. Structure-based approach encompasses docking candidate molecules against available 3D structure of the target protein. When there is no crystal structure of the target protein, ligand-based approach is more useful because it relies on the screening of bioactive ligands of a similar chemical structure [126]. This approach is similar to pharmacophore-directed homology modeling: a process that involves superposing known active ligands for structurally similar targets and then extracting matching chemical properties of the ligand that are required for their bioactivity. Pharmacophore from different bioactive molecules can be generated using commercially available software such as HipHop, PHASE, DISCO, HypoGen, among others [127].
In computer-aided design of epigenetic drugs, there are a plethora of databases like ZINC containing over 35 million compounds available for screening. Other databases like SPECS, Chembridge, and Enamine have been used to identify inhibitors for most subsets of histone methyltransferases [128]. Molecular dynamics simulation also aids in drug discovery as they are employed to understand the conformational changes in the different domains of a target protein [129]. For instance, a study developed analogs of eosin, a template molecule known for having anti-methyltransferase activity, using pharmacophore methods. These molecules were docked on to PRMT1, SET7, and CARM1, and the AutoDock analysis revealed that compounds that target SAM substrate-binding site were more active in PRMT1 and CARM1 while those that target lysine and co-factor binding site were more promising in SET7 [126].
4. Current small molecule inhibitors of histone methyltransferases
Development of small molecule inhibitors for histone methyltransferases has garnered remarkable attention over the past years due to their combined efficacy and potency in various cancer treatments. In this section, we will discuss small molecule inhibitors of a few HMTs that have either shown promising results in preclinical development, clinical trial stage, or that have been FDA approved.
4.1 Small molecule inhibitors of EZH2
As aforementioned, EZH2 is a lysine methyltransferase that is overexpressed and found to contribute to many cancer progressions including but not limited to breast, prostate, colon, ovarian, liver, bladder, lymphoma, skin, and lung cancer. The overabundance of EZH2 causes hypersilencing of genes that restrain proliferation and promotes differentiation [67]. As a result, several studies have been conducted to understand the mechanism of action and structure of the enzyme so that appropriate drugs can be developed to inhibit its aberrant activity. For example, FDA has approved the use of tazemetostat (EPZ6438) (Table 1), an EZH2 small molecule inhibitor, for the treatment of epithelioid sarcoma (not qualified for resection) in 16 years and above patients. Tazemetostat has an inhibition constant (Ki) of 2.5nM and works by competitively inhibiting SAM binding site on EZH2 [32]. Another small molecule inhibitor, CPI-1205 (Table 1), completed phase 1 clinical trial for B-cell lymphoma and solid advanced tumor and is in phase 1b/2 clinical trial for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) [130, 131]. Furthermore, another potent small molecule inhibitor, GSK2816126 (Table 1), which showed remarkable preclinical potential entered phase 1 clinical trial for the treatment of lymphoma and solid cancers but proved to be unsuitable target for inhibiting EZH2 due to its unfavorable pharmacokinetic profile [132]. More than 50 small molecule inhibitors for EZH2 are in preclinical development [133]. A few are highlighted in Table 1.
List of representative small molecule inhibitors for EZH2, hDOT1L, and PRMT5.
4.2 Small molecule inhibitors of hDOT1L
There are over 20 hDOT1L small molecule inhibitors and can be categorized into four groups based on their mode of action: (i) SAH(S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine)-mimicking compounds; (ii) benzimidazole or (iii) urea group-containing compounds; and (iv) carbamate-containing compounds [143]. The activity of human homolog of yeast DOT1L or hDOT1L is mostly dysregulated in a subset of acute myeloid leukemia that has MLL gene translocation. This results in an onco-MLL protein which aberrantly recruits hDOT1L to the promoter of MLL target genes. Together with other transcription factors, hDOT1L drives the overexpression of HoxA9 and HoxA7 which leads to leukemia [141]. Hence, the need for inhibitors of hDOT1L. The first potent inhibitor of this HMT was EPZ004777 (Table 1), but it failed to progress through clinical development due to poor pharmacokinetics [139]. Another small molecule inhibitor, EPZ5676 (pinometostat) (Table 1) with Ki of less than 0.08nM, was shown to have improved pharmacokinetics and has now completed phase 1 clinical trial [138].
4.3 Small molecule inhibitors of PRMT5
PRMT5 is overexpressed in a several types of cancers. There are currently over 50 PRMT5 small molecule inhibitors, and PRMT5 is emerging as a hotspot for cancer targeted therapy [144]. Some small molecule inhibitors of PRMT5 are currently undergoing assessment in phase 1 clinical trial for non-Hodgkin lymphomas and solid cancers include GSK3326595 and JNJ-64619178 (Table 1). PRMT5 has also been implicated in the progression and metastasis of pancreatic and colon cancer. As a result, a lead compound, PR5-LL-CM01 (Table 1), has been discovered by our group to have more potent inhibitory properties compared to EPZ015666 in pancreatic and colon cancer cells [114]. However, EPZ015666 showed high potency in vitro and in mantle lymphoma cells with an IC50 of 22nM (Table 1) [145]. Another potent inhibitor of PRMT5, LLY-283 (IC50 = 20 nM) (Table 1) showed an outstanding inhibition of breast, lung, skin, ovarian, and hematological cancer cells’ proliferation [142].
5. Conclusion, perspective, and future directions
Taken together, in this chapter, we discussed the important roles that epigenetic enzymes play in a variety of cancers. We also summarized several popular methods currently used for screening small molecule inhibitors of epigenetic enzymes. As shown in Table 1, we provided a list of representative small molecule inhibitors of HMT that are either FDA approved, or at preclinical or different stages of clinical trials. Notably, compared to the well-developed HDAC small molecule inhibitors, the development of small molecule inhibitors for HMTs is a rising and cutting-edge drug development area. We can envision that in the next 5~10 years, intense attention will continuously be drawn to the discovery of HMTs small molecule inhibitors. We have no doubt that many HMTs small molecule inhibitors will be shifted into clinical trials, more will be approved by FDA, and most likely, more members of HMTs will be targeted for cancer treatment. Additionally, it is very possible that novel HTS methods will emerge, which will further accelerate the discovery of anti-HMTs drugs. Moreover, it is viable that the clinical indications of HMTs small molecule inhibitors could be further expanded to other diseases beyond cancer. In summary, the development of new classes of anti-HMTs drugs will offer brand new and exciting opportunities for diseases treatment.
Acknowledgments
This publication is made possible, in part, with support from NIH-NIGMS Grant (#1R01GM120156-01A1) (to TL), and NIH-NCI Grant (#1R03CA223906-01) (to TL).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest.
\n',keywords:"cancer, drug discovery, epigenetics, histone methyltransferases, small molecule inhibitors",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72479.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72479.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72479",totalDownloads:224,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 14th 2020",datePrePublished:"July 24th 2020",datePublished:"February 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"June 13th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality in the United States. There are several therapeutic regimens employed to mitigate the mortality rate of cancer. This includes the use of chemotherapy, radiation, immunotherapy, and precision medicine/targeted therapy. Targeted therapy involves the use of drugs that target a specific pathway or biomolecule compromised in cancer for cancer treatment. Aberrant expression of epigenetic enzymes has been well documented for their contribution in driving tumorigenesis and other cancer hallmarks. Hence, there is an urgent need for novel drug discovery and development in epigenetics to help combat various cancer morbidities. Herein, we review the roles and consequences of dysregulated function of several epigenetic enzymes, with a focus on histone methyltransferases (HMTs). Additionally, we discussed the current efforts made in the development of small molecule inhibitors for a few representative HMTs implicated in different cancers. Furthermore, the common screening assays used in discovering potent small molecule inhibitors were also detailed in this chapter. Overall, this book chapter highlights the significance of targeting HMTs in different cancers and the clinical application potentials/limitations faced by the developed or emerging small molecule inhibitors of HMTs for the purpose of cancer therapy.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72479",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72479",signatures:"Aishat A. Motolani, Mengyao Sun, Matthew Martin, Steven Sun and Tao Lu",book:{id:"7015",title:"Translational Research in Cancer",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Translational Research in Cancer",slug:"translational-research-in-cancer",publishedDate:"February 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Sivapatham Sundaresan and Yeun-Hwa Gu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7015.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-535-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-534-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-837-3",editors:[{id:"187272",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivapatham",middleName:null,surname:"Sundaresan",slug:"sivapatham-sundaresan",fullName:"Sivapatham Sundaresan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"218030",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Tao Lu",slug:"tao-lu",email:"lut@iupui.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"218088",title:"BSc.",name:"Matthew",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",fullName:"Matthew Martin",slug:"matthew-martin",email:"mm217@umail.iu.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"323400",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Annie",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Annie Sun",slug:"annie-sun",email:"sun19@iu.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"323670",title:null,name:"Aishat A.",middleName:null,surname:"Motolani",fullName:"Aishat A. Motolani",slug:"aishat-a.-motolani",email:"amotolan@iu.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"323671",title:null,name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Steven Sun",slug:"steven-sun",email:"wzstevensun@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Histone methyltransferases in cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Lysine methyltransferases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Protein arginine methyltransferases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Discovery of small molecule inhibitors for histone methyltransferases in cancer treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Screening assays for epigenetic drug discovery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 AlphaLISA screen (amplified luminescent proximity homogeneous assay-linked assay)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 FRET (Förster/fluorescent resonance energy transfer) assay",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 In silico screen",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Current small molecule inhibitors of histone methyltransferases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1 Small molecule inhibitors of EZH2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Small molecule inhibitors of hDOT1L",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3 Small molecule inhibitors of PRMT5",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. 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A novel small-molecule antagonizes PRMT5-mediated KLF4 methylation for targeted therapy. eBioMedicine. 2019;44:98-111'},{id:"B145",body:'Chan-Penebre E, Kuplast KG, Majer CR, Boriack-Sjodin PA, Wigle TJ, Johnston LD, et al. A selective inhibitor of PRMT5 with in vivo and in vitro potency in MCL models. Nature Chemical Biology. 2015;11(6):432'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Aishat A. Motolani",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, USA
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, USA
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, USA
Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, USA
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IntechOpen’s team of Scientific Advisors supports the publishing team by providing editorial and academic input and ensuring the highest quality output of free peer-reviewed articles. The Boards consist of independent external collaborators who assist us on a voluntary basis. Their input includes advising on new topics within their field, proposing potential expert collaborators and reviewing book publishing proposals if required. Board members are experts who cover major STEM and HSS fields. All are trusted IntechOpen collaborators and Academic Editors, ensuring that the needs of the scientific community are met.
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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
\\n\\n
Chemistry
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
\\n\\t
Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
\\n\\t
Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
\\n\\t
Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\\n\\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\\n
\\n\\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\\n\\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\\n\\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\\n\\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\\n
\\n\\n
Engineering
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\\n\\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\\n\\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\\n\\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\\n\\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\\n\\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\\n
\\n\\n
Materials Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\\n\\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\\n\\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\\n\\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\\n
\\n\\n
Mathematics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\\n
\\n\\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\\n\\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\\n
\\n\\n
Physics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\\n\\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\\n\\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\\n
\\n\\n
Robotics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\\n\\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\\n\\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\\n
\\n\\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\\n\\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\\n\\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\\n
\\n\\n
Environmental Sciences
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\\n\\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\\n\\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\\n\\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\\n
\\n\\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\\n\\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\\n\\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\\n
\\n\\n
Medicine
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\\n\\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\\n\\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\\n\\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\\n
\\n\\n
Ophthalmology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\\n\\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\\n\\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\\n\\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\\n\\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\\n\\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\\n\\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\\n
\\n\\n
Gastroenterology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\\n\\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
\\n\\n
Hematology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
\\n\\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
\n\t
Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
\n
\n\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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