Selected papers referring to open spaces and relevant measures.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10007",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Propulsion - New Perspectives and Applications",title:"Propulsion",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Almost all animals move around frequently in space. Their aim is to walk and fly in search of food or to propagate their species. Thus, changing positions is important for creatures’ survival and maintaining the environment. As such, this book examines movement with a focus on force and propulsion. Chapters cover topics including rocket engines, electric propulsion, mechanisms of force, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83968-835-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-834-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-836-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87830",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"propulsion-new-perspectives-and-applications",numberOfPages:102,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"042ab0c0a8270b1bacf6a8e385601863",bookSignature:"Kazuo Matsuuchi and Hiroaki Hasegawa",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10007.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1413,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 16th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 3rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 2nd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"42387",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuuchi",slug:"kazuo-matsuuchi",fullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42387/images/system/42387.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kazuo Matsuuchi obtained his Ph.D. in Engineering from Osaka University, Japan, in 1976. In 1977, he served as a research assistant at the Institute of Structural Engineering, University of Tsukuba, Japan. He became a full professor at the same university in 1995. In 2012 he earned the title of Professor Emeritus and he is still active at the University of Tsukuba. Dr. Matsuuchi was a visiting professor at Khon Kaen University, Thailand, and a specially appointed professor at the Oguz Khan Engineering and Technology University of Turkmenistan.",institutionString:"University of Tsukuba",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Tsukuba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"321873",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Hasegawa",slug:"hiroaki-hasegawa",fullName:"Hiroaki Hasegawa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/321873/images/system/321873.png",biography:"In 1989, Dr. Hiroaki Hasegawa started as a research engineer working on research and development of ramjet and jet engines at the Japan Defense Agency. In 1998, he earned the title of senior research engineer at the same agency. He obtained a Ph.D. in Engineering from the University of Tsukuba, Japan, in 1999. Dr. Hasegawa was appointed a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Akita University, Japan, in 2002. He is currently a professor in the Department of Mechanical and Intelligent Engineering, Utsunomiya University, Japan.",institutionString:"Utsunomiya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Utsunomiya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"124",title:"Vehicle Engineering",slug:"vehicle-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"79180",title:"Introductory Chapter: Propulsion and Movement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101071",slug:"introductory-chapter-propulsion-and-movement",totalDownloads:102,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kazuo Matsuuchi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79180",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79180",authors:[{id:"42387",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Matsuuchi",slug:"kazuo-matsuuchi",fullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76789",title:"Hybrid Propulsion System: Novel Propellant Design for Mars Ascent Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96686",slug:"hybrid-propulsion-system-novel-propellant-design-for-mars-ascent-vehicles",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter briefly introduces hybrid rocket propulsion for general audience. Advantageous of hybrid rockets over solids and liquids are presented. This chapter also explains how to design a test setup for hybrid motor firings. Hybrid propulsion provides sustainable, safe and low cost systems for space missions. Therefore, this chapter proposes hybrid propulsion system for Mars Ascent Vehicles. Paraffin wax is the fuel of the rocket. Propulsion system uses CO2/N2O mixture as the oxidizer. The goal is to understand the ignition capability of the CO2 as an in-situ oxidizer on Mars. CO2 is known as major combustion product in the nature. However, it can only burn with metallic powders. Thus, metallic additives are added in the fuel grain. Results show that CO2 increase slows down the chemical kinetics thus reduces the adiabatic flame temperature. Maximum flammability limit is achieved at 75% CO2 by mass in the oxidizer mixture. Flame temperature is 1700 K at 75% CO2. Ignition quenches below the 1700 K.",signatures:"Ozan Kara and Arif Karabeyoglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76789",authors:[{id:"332637",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozan",surname:"Kara",slug:"ozan-kara",fullName:"Ozan Kara"}],corrections:null},{id:"74791",title:"Keeping the Dream Alive: Is Propellant-less Propulsion Possible?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95603",slug:"keeping-the-dream-alive-is-propellant-less-propulsion-possible-",totalDownloads:436,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"“Breakthrough” advanced propulsion can only take place with a correct understanding of the role of inertia in general relativity. Einstein was convinced that inertia and gravitation were the obverse and reverse of the coin. The most general statement of the principle of relativity, captured in his Equivalence Principle and the gravitational induction of inertia. His ideas and how they have fared are reprised. A rest mass fluctuation that is expected when inertia is gravitationally induced is then mentioned that can be used for propulsion. Recent work supported by National Innovative Advanced Concepts Phase 1 and 2 NASA grants to determine whether thrusters based on gravitationally induced inertia can actually be made to work is presented. A recent design innovation has dramatically increased the thrust produced by these Mach Effect Gravity Assist (MEGA) impulse engines.",signatures:"James F. Woodward",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74791",authors:[{id:"335130",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"James F.",surname:"Woodward",slug:"james-f.-woodward",fullName:"James F. Woodward"}],corrections:null},{id:"75849",title:"Introduction to Plasma Based Propulsion System: Hall Thrusters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96916",slug:"introduction-to-plasma-based-propulsion-system-hall-thrusters",totalDownloads:333,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Technically, there are two types of propulsion systems namely chemical and electric depending on the sources of the fuel. Electrostatic thrusters are used for launching small satellites in low earth orbit which are capable to provide thrust for long time intervals. These thrusters consume less fuel compared to chemical propulsion systems. Therefore for the cost reduction interests, space scientists are interested to develop thrusters based on electric propulsion technology. This chapter is intended to serve as a general overview of the technology of electric propulsion (EP) and its applications. Plasma based electric propulsion technology used for space missions with regard to the spacecraft station keeping, rephrasing and orbit topping applications. Typical thrusters have a lifespan of 10,000 h and produce thrust of 0.1–1 N. These devices have E→×B→ configurations which is used to confine electrons, increasing the electron residence time and allowing more ionization in the channel. Almost 2500 satellites have been launched into orbit till 2020. For example, the ESA SMART-1 mission (Small Mission for Advanced Research in Technology) used a Hall thruster to escape Earth orbit and reach the moon with a small satellite that weighed 367 kg. These satellites carrying small Hall thrusters for orbital corrections in space as thrust is needed to compensate for various ambient forces including atmospheric drag and radiation pressure. The chapter outlines the electric propulsion thruster systems and technologies and their shortcomings. Moreover, the current status of potential research to improve the electric propulsion systems for small satellite has been discussed.",signatures:"Sukhmander Singh, Sanjeev Kumar, Shravan Kumar Meena and Sujit Kumar Saini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75849",authors:[{id:"282807",title:"Dr.",name:"Sukhmander",surname:"Singh",slug:"sukhmander-singh",fullName:"Sukhmander Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"76364",title:"Estimation of Cumulative Noise Reduction at Certification Points for Supersonic Civil Aeroplane Using the Programmed Thrust Management at Take-off and Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97465",slug:"estimation-of-cumulative-noise-reduction-at-certification-points-for-supersonic-civil-aeroplane-usin",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The reduction of the cumulative noise level at certification points applying to the supersonic civil aeroplane is estimated in the paper. The reduction is obtained by using an programmed thrust management with Programmed Lapse Rate based on the variation of engine power setting at take-off and approach. The use of proposed programmed reduced noise thrust management requires a change of the conventional noise certification procedures as well as further implementation as fully automated system (Variable Noise Reduction System) into aircraft/engine control system. The main engine noise sources such as the fan and exhaust jet are taken into account in the estimation. It is shown that the cumulative noise level using proposed programmed thrust management is lower by 10.7–12.2 EPNdB than using the conventional engine thrust control as currently applied to subsonic jet aeroplanes at take-off and approach.",signatures:"Artur Mirzoyan and Iurii Khaletskii",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76364",authors:[{id:"335693",title:"Dr.",name:"Artur",surname:"Mirzoyan",slug:"artur-mirzoyan",fullName:"Artur Mirzoyan"},{id:"345912",title:"Dr.",name:"Iurii",surname:"Khaletskii",slug:"iurii-khaletskii",fullName:"Iurii Khaletskii"}],corrections:null},{id:"79119",title:"Thrust Force Generated by Heaving Motion of a Plate: The Role of Vortex-Induced Force",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100435",slug:"thrust-force-generated-by-heaving-motion-of-a-plate-the-role-of-vortex-induced-force",totalDownloads:122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To understand the force acting on birds, insects, and fish, we take heaving motion as a simple example. This motion might deviate from the real one. However, since the mechanism of force generation is the vortex shedding due to the motion of an object, the heaving motion is important for understanding the force generated by unsteady motion. The vortices released from the object are closely related to the motion characteristics. To understand the force acting on an object, information about momentum change is necessary. However, in vortex systems, it is impossible to estimate the usual momentum. Instead of the momentum, the “virtual momentum,” or the impulse, is needed to generate the force. For calculating the virtual momentum, we traced all vortices over a whole period, which was carried out by using the vortex-element method. The force was then calculated based on the information on the vortices. We derived the thrust coefficient as a function of the ratio of the heaving to travelling velocity.",signatures:"Kazuo Matsuuchi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79119",authors:[{id:"42387",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Matsuuchi",slug:"kazuo-matsuuchi",fullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7198",title:"Propulsion Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fd56f1620b0b201a3de0cd3f7e04d15c",slug:"propulsion-systems",bookSignature:"Alessandro Serpi and Mario Porru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217145",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Serpi",slug:"alessandro-serpi",fullName:"Alessandro Serpi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10810",title:"Modern Ship Engineering, Design and Operations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"579a9da63aca2172c0f0584328ae91c1",slug:"modern-ship-engineering-design-and-operations",bookSignature:"Carlos Reusser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10810.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"209816",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Reusser",slug:"carlos-reusser",fullName:"Carlos Reusser"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The insufficiency and high price of land have dramatically increased apartment living and as well as people’s willingness [1, 2] to settle in residential units over recent decades [3]. The gradual conversion of courtyard houses to apartments and residential units has led to changes in the function or removal of spaces embedded in Iranian lives [3], illustrated in Figure 1. The vacuum created by the incompatibility of new housing—a significant part of which includes residential complexes and buildings—has caused unfavorable changes in human life [4, 5]. The land price is a major issue that limits individuals’ choices, forcing them to buy units of a small size. Due to land prices, builders and designers prefer to eliminate open and semi-open spaces to increase and replace indoor spaces [3, 6, 7]. Thus, spaces such as indoor and outdoor communication spaces (e.g., balconies) are rarely seen, and the removal of such important spaces from human life is more prevalent nowadays. This modern norm overlooks the necessity of developing housing that conforms to the lifestyle of its residents. What’s more, the number of houses that can satisfy all the needs of Iranian families is too restricted. Thus, this research aims to investigate the removal or negligence of private open spaces that would ordinarily bring enjoyment to residents. Furthermore, this study seeks to share insights that will improve the quality of people’s life environments and ultimately help them benefit more from their home spaces. The research background indicates a gap on how to design balconies that satisfy the residents of residential buildings. A scientific study into this area could be utilized in future projects to help enhance the quality of such home environments (Figures 1–5).
Gradual transformation of Iranian traditional courtyard houses to new apartments.
Samples of Iranian traditional courtyard houses: (a) Abbasi House, Kashan, (b) Tabatabaei House, Kashan, (c) Pirnia House, Yazd, (d) Navab Vakil House, Yazd, (e) Borujerdis House, Kashan, and (f) Ameri House, Kashan; adopted from [
The second generation of Iranian houses with yard, adopted from [
Old apartments designed with terraces or balconies as private open spaces [ref: photos are taken and analyzed by researchers, 2019].
Younger than 5-year-old apartments designed with balconies as private open spaces [ref: photos are taken and analyzed by researchers, 2019].
For example, Einifar and Ghazizadeh [10] showed that designing outdoor spaces is less dealt with by designers; rather, their main focus being the interior space of the building, without paying enough attention to the spaces between the outdoor and indoor space. The authors discuss the necessity and importance of designing the lost and forgotten space of buildings like open space, and recommend that designers of residential complexes pay more attention to such spaces.
Extant studies on private open spaces consider a range of views on residential building spaces including behavioral, environmental, physical, perceptual, semantic, and esthetics. What sets the current research apart from past studies into this subject is its seeking which one of these factors is more influential in this statistical population.
Designers are obliged to see all the approaches in designing open spaces while at the same time pay close attention to the aspects regarded as important by the residents. One article [11] examined the three categories of perceptual-semantic, functional-behavioral and physical-environmental factors in a social-cultural context, with the balcony selected as a private open space between the residential unit and the residential area. The main question of this research was what factors affect the quality of the balcony as an intermediate space and what do people expect from its function in different socio-cultural backgrounds? Based on interview, they examined three residential complexes and presented a model containing six factors. The authors concluded that attention to the secondary functions and the multi-purpose nature of intermediate spaces should be among the primary concerns of planning and designing to enhance the quality of life in apartment housing.
Badeie [12], on the other hand, expressed her research findings from a philosophical point of view: wall space-separators are not necessarily the only effective separation and limitation, but the space instruction of walls is characterized by inferential definition of connectivity. Privacy creates protection, security, and confidentiality in the design of appropriate space frame of artifact environment on one hand and fortifies the dynamic and diverse capabilities of space components for coherence on the other hand. The research focused on enhancing the capabilities of walls in creating links and distance; the capabilities resulting from the concepts of privacy and connection enriched the walls’ functionality area in the construction of space (Figure 6).
Use of walls as space separators, by which links and distances can be made, adopted from [
Another research [13] emphasizes the need for intermediate spaces, asserting that joint spaces like balconies play the roles of both interior and exterior spaces and are regarded as the distance between outside and inside space. Also, Mir Shahzadeh [14] examined the role of the linking boundary space, such as balcony and porch, etc., in producing meaning.
Christopher Alexander reported a British study in the Architects Magazine (1957) concerning the balconies of apartments and small houses. He stated that two-thirds of people, for their own reasons, have never used balconies that lack privacy. And in “a pattern language” [15], a model is presented for balconies according to physical characteristics; yet only the quantitative aspect is considered in the book—for example, a minimum depth of 180 cm is considered for such spaces.
Pierre Bourdieu, a well-known French sociologist and anthropologist, also acknowledges that different lifestyles will create a distinction in the living space; the higher the social hierarchy, the higher the esthetic properties of space than its functional responses will be. Therefore, we will have distinct spaces based on necessity-favored need or luxury-favored need, an issue that can be reviewed in the balconies, but not in the present article [16].
Research by Mazandarani [17] investigating housing developments from past to present represents the foundations and status of the intermediate space. The importance of the spaces discussed in the article is underlined by the authors, and general rulings on the points that should be considered by the designers are presented. Unfortunately, there is no comprehensive discussion on balconies as discussed in article [17].
Among other international books in this field is the Book of Life between Buildings, which deals with the concepts of public open spaces, and the initial principles that can be used for intermediate spaces [18]. In the book Esthetics in Architecture [19], regarding the interactive spaces of interior and exterior, the author divides such spaces into three categories: (1) architecture without interaction with outside; (2) architecture with interaction with outside; and (3) modern architecture and border distortions.
In another study, in the chapter on zones and thresholds, the importance of focusing on the scopes that provide a correct definition of outside and inside space for the user of environment is presented. It is argued that humans create limits to understand that we belong within this environment and that we are safe. Furthermore, thresholds and passage spaces are places where the environment manifests itself. Stairs, the edges of roofs, gates, doors, balconies, windows, etc. are all regulators of this manifestation and control the penetrability of these borders. These design factors approve the space separation while at the same time create the possibility of physical and visual passages for people. Hence, the author expresses the necessity and importance of addressing such spaces, and expresses the role of such spaces in three parts: (1) use-oriented role (functional); (2) protective role, or a controlled space, through which the perspective can be seen. This role can be divided into two parts, social and physical; (3) the semantic role, being that the signs of each place, according to the common conventions and social traditions, have a special behavior in each corner and within the desired range. About the balconies, the author says: “Balconies are not practically considered as privacy zone and play the role of seeing and being seen more than the terrace and porches” [20].
Another book on this subject is the work of Rudolf Arnheim, which states: no spatial issue is as much an inherent characteristic of an architect’s work given that they should consider the inside and outside spaces as related concepts. That is, indoor and outdoor areas should be considered as components of one concept [21].
To summarize, Table 1 includes all the related literature.
Author or researcher | Year | Subject or title | Theoretical perspective | Approach |
---|---|---|---|---|
Swapan, et al. [22] | 2019 | Understanding the importance of front yard accessibility for community building: a case study of Subiaco, Western Australia | Front yards as semi-public-private areas can play an important role in the residents’ sense of community | Behavioral |
Reuben, et al. [23] | 2019 | Residential neighborhood greenery and children’s cognitive development | The whole study puts an emphasis on the contribution of surrounding open space greenery of residential buildings on the cognitive development on the children, who were raised in such places. | behavioral, environmental, esthetic |
Azad, et al. [24] | 2018 | Effect of housing layout and open space morphology on residential environments—applying new density indices for evaluation of residential areas case study: Tehran, Iran | Putting an emphasis on the vitality of presence of private or public open spaces and the importance of considering them in the construction laws. | Physical-environmental |
Milanović and Vasilevska [2] | 2018 | Influence of private open spaces on the quality of living in low-rise high density housing | The research focuses on the advantages of private open areas | Behavioral physical |
Einifar and Ghazizadeh [10] | 2010 | Typology of residential complexes of Tehran with open space measure | Importance of paying attention to lost spaces such as open spaces in residential buildings | Physical, behavioral |
Einifar and Ali Niaye Motlagh[11] | 2014 | Explaining the concept of outside-inside in in-between spaces of apartment housing “the case study of balcony in three types of Tehran residential complexes | Considering the secondary functions and multi-purpose nature, the intermediate spaces are among the planning, and design needs to improve the quality of life in apartment housing | Physical-environmental |
Badeie [12] | 2002 | Walls-privacy connection | Philosophical review of connection space | Meaning, behavioral |
Rezakhani [13] | 2013 | An introduction to the concept of joint in architecture based on Heidegger methodology of word etymology | Joint etymology | Meaning |
Mirshahzadeh, et al. [14] | 2013 | The role of boundary space in the creation of meaning | Semiotics approach in boundary-connection space | Esthetic, meaning |
Alexander [15] | 1977 | A pattern language: towns, buildings, construction | Physical examination | Physical |
Bourdieu [16] | 2013 | Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. | Effect of lifestyle on spaces | Behavioral |
Haeri Mazandarani [17] | 2009 | Home, culture and nature | Past developments have changed for the present day and represent the foundations of the space between them | Physical |
Gehl [18] | 2011 | Life between buildings: using public space | Expression of the rules of public open space | Behavioral, physical |
Grütter [19] | 2014 | Grundlagen der Architektur-Wahrnehmung | The division of architectural time periods regarding the relationship between inside and outside space | Physical, perceptional |
Von Mayes [20] | 2013 | Elements of architecture: from form to place | The importance of focusing on the scopes as the elements separating inside and outside | Behavioral, physical |
Rudolf Arnheim [21] | 1977 | The dynamics of architectural form | Relation between inside and outside and attention to this in architecture | Meaning, behavioral |
Bentley [25] | 1985 | Responsive environments: a manual for designers | The strong role of designers in designing flexible ways to keep track of the budget | Behavioral, meaning |
Lawson [26] | 2007 | Language of space | It addresses the issue of realm and perceptual mechanisms in space | Behavioral, meaning |
Selected papers referring to open spaces and relevant measures.
Researchers looked at these spaces from different perspectives. But, as it is clear to every researcher, architecture is not meaningful outside of its context and should be designed and developed on the basis of its main context and social, cultural, and physical conditions.
Therefore, this study tries to help architects to define and explode a specific context in order to have optimal design of open spaces in residential buildings of a neighborhood. By using factors that have been previously investigated and extracted by previous studies, this research uses the case study the Kuye Nasr neighborhood to examine the lifestyle of the residents of the residential buildings. It considers the physical conditions of the buildings, the instructions and rules for improving their design quality, and the desirability of open spaces within residential buildings (balconies). The abovementioned factors will be then evaluated and the results will be available to designers as executable and functional factors.
It should be noted that during the research process, it was found out that the residents of residential buildings in Kuye Nasr were more concerned about the functional aspect of balconies. Hence, this component has been emphasized more than several other factors influencing the usefulness of balconies. The main questions that this research tackles are what factors can satisfy the residents of the Kuye Nasr residential buildings regarding their balconies, and what is the association between the influential factors in the desirability of private open spaces?
To achieve this, the concerns, needs, and opinions of the residents of Kuye Nasr were determined through a field study and interviews, based on which a number of factors were extracted. The validity of such factors was then examined by means of a questionnaire; those factors with a higher statistical weight were presented as features that should be applied by designers of balconies.
The interior of each place is distinguished from the exterior and the surrounding environment by various spatial elements. People have always lived in both outside and inside environments and must be active between these two poles. Consequently, both of these currents cannot be separated, but it is possible that the impact of one of them outweighs the impact of the other. In fact, the kind of governing relationship between the external and internal environment is determined by the spatial relationships between these elements. The structuring and arrangement of these relationships (relations between inside and outside) result from the contradiction between them; that is to say, the separation of a protective shelter from the surrounding area on one hand, and the establishment of the relationship between the two locations on the other hand, are essential for human life. This contradiction is revealed only when the characteristics of the inside and outside location are compared. In spite of these contradictions, there are relations between the inside and outside. According to Christian Norberg Schulz, the relations and conditions governing these two create the art of architecture [19].
Many activities take place around low-rise residential buildings with direct access to the outside. What’s more, there is a flow between the inside and the outside; for instance, in order to know what is going on outside, residents can quickly step out or drink a cup of coffee on the stairs. While multi-story buildings, have less inhibiting them from stepping outside and being among their residential community [18].
Therefore, the role and influence of the intermediaries of the outer and inner space (such as the balcony) are not only undeniable, but also quite significant. Hence, by eliminating or ignoring each of them, the interfacing of the inner and outer spaces is disturbed and the quality of spatial sequencing is declined. Therefore, maintaining the identity of such spaces and optimizing their architectural design is of great importance today.
The border between the closed space and the surrounding open space can be understood as the interface of two worlds. The set of elements—the main function of which is to keep the open space from being enclosed— is called a building and plays a significant mobilizing role in the integration of the interior and exterior space. The best example of such spaces is in traditional Iranian architecture. Semi-open spaces have played an important role in traditional architectural spacing in the past and in the Iranian traditional architecture. The appearance and geometry of these spaces get their models from the features of their own surroundings, and these areas have hosted a range of individual and social activities. This character has been constructed simultaneously in the building in past architecture; modern semi-open spaces do not invite such human interactions and past times as they did in the past and generally lack architectural value. Today, semi-open spaces can be a good way to link human life with nature [1].
In Iranian homes, there is always a space between open and closed spaces. Indoor spaces between closed and open spaces are spaces that provide a variety of facilities for activities of the home and the community; such a presence offers a new connection with nature, light, and climate. Indoor spaces in Iranian homes have varied sizes and functions and are as important as open and closed spaces [27, 28]. Having said that, the presence of indoor spaces in the space organization of contemporary houses has dropped significantly. In some cases, the presence of a porch toward the yard creates a usable connector space between the open and closed space. In the upper floors, the covered terraces and balconies are the covered spaces. These spaces usually are not used completely, and in many cases they are presented as an abandoned floor. Although the balconies and terraces today are located along closed spaces, people prefer not to occupy them due to an undesirable view. Rather, residents typically use balconies as a storage. Nevertheless, these balconies can provide both the perspective and light from the northern and southern fronts for closed areas of contemporary houses [17] (Figure 7).
Areas that are located between the inner and the outer spaces of Iranian houses are highlighted in the images, adopted from [
Many resources that provide designers with information on how to design spaces also include a series of criteria and components about the design of balconies; for example, Neufert et al. stated that balconies are effective factors in increasing the attractiveness of residential units. Balconies also create a space for some activities, such as outdoor play area for kids that can be easily monitored [29]. Furthermore, balconies can be used to rest, sunbathe, study, eat, etc. In addition to the bio-functional aspects required, a space for the flower box in each part of the balcony is needed [30].
According to the Housing Design Handbook on Balconies Under Regulation and Principles, balconies should cater to the following uses: children’s play space, a space for drying clothes, a space for sitting, gardening and planting, keeping pets, etc. [31].
Time Savers Standards for Building Types presents residents’ opinions on what a balcony is ideally used for: people who have discussed much about the balconies and their positive role have emphasized the pleasure of using and sitting outside. In addition, they emphasize the visual expansion of life space and the opportunity to grow plants and use the balconies to store equipment [32].”
Therefore, the following uses are extracted from the studies on the design of balconies: “children playing, relaxing, sunbathing, studying, eating, keeping flowers and plants, drying clothes, sitting, keeping animals, and warehousing equipment.” However, the factors mentioned are very general and it cannot be said that it is definitely welcomed by the residents in the specified neighborhood in which the research is carried out. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain an estimation of these factors and the factors extracted from the interview section, evaluate them quantitatively in the statistical population, and assess their external validity.
The collection method of influential factors in the design of private open areas was discussed in the previous section (interviewing the residents of Kuye Nasr residential buildings and surveying balcony design studies). All collected factors are categorized into six groups as dependent variables, which can affect the quality of a space like a balcony. The components are classified based on a theoretical framework shown in Figure 8.
Influential components in increasing the desirability of private open spaces.
This is a system based on balance and harmony. Regularity, balance, and fit are perceived and viewed automatically by the viewer and recognized for its beauty [19]. The beauty factors of balcony and the presence of greenery on the balcony belong to this category.
These aspects include the hierarchical ordering and functional domains, access hierarchy, spatial hierarchy, and the hierarchy of various functions forming the communication between inside and outside spaces [33]. The functional structure of space affects the occurrence of behaviors in the environment and is simultaneously affected by the behaviors and anticipation of their occurrence [11]. Hanging clothes, sitting in the open air, cooking or barbecuing, smoking, using tools, entertaining children, enjoying a safe space, and escaping people are in this category.
The environment and behavior are so intertwined that it is difficult to separate them. Therefore, human behavior should be defined in an environmental context. In the past, the environment was considered as an independent variable that affected behavior, shaped it, and created it. Consequently, one of the implications of this traditional approach is that human authority over the environment must be limited and the environment must be coordinated with people in a constant and unchanging form. Recently, however, research has been emphasized to have flexible and variable designs for the environments. In fact, people are now the cause of environmental change and are not limited to environmental influences [34]. Climate factors, tranquility and comfort of the balcony, and balcony orientation fall into this category.
Physical factors include physical and visual order, balance in open and closed environments, walls, and physical bordering structure [35]. Proportional factors and the area of the balcony are included in this category.
The most common approach to human psychology is one that considers several inner processes: perceptual reactions to the environment (how people understand and organize environmental stimuli and react to them), emotional and motivational states associated with environmental stimuli (psychological pressure and negative or positive emotions), and cognitive reactions to the environment (estimates of affluence, complexity, and meanings of the environment). This component considers humans as beings that have internal processors and deals more with mental and psychological processes than with obvious behavioral responses [34]. This factor is related to the human mental perception of the living environment. Visual communication, scale, and proportions, creating the sense place attachment and the sense of separation from space, visibility, and perspective from outside to inside and from inside to outside belong to this category of communication. The perception of sky, earth, buildings, surrounding spaces and, in general, the surroundings and relationship with them actually develop through giving meaning to the environment. This component is completely subjective before becoming an objective one [11]. Factors such as the security of the balcony space and the connection of the balcony to the sky fall into this category.
Therefore, based on the title of this article, “Effective factors on desirability of private open spaces in residential buildings”—independent components in a six-class categorization, in line with the following model in Figure 9— have a linear effect on the desirability of private open spaces as a dependent variable.
Theoretical model of desirability of private open areas including five main aspects including physical, behavioral, environmental, perceptual semantic, and esthetic aspects.
The next section investigates the role of the abovementioned components as influential independent factors in the design of a desirable balcony and introduces the methods and statistical patterns used to explore it, a summary of which is shown in Table 2.
Statistical methods and tests | Application | Type of statistical method |
---|---|---|
Frequency and rate of frequency | Describing demographic variables, describing main questions and variables | Descriptive statistics |
Spearman correlation, chi-square test, one sample chi-square, Friedman rankings | Testing hypotheses | Inferential statistics |
Statistical methods.
Kuye Nasr is the name of one of the northwestern neighborhoods of Tehran located in district 2. The main street of Kuye Nasr (Gisha), stretching approximately 1.5 km, directly connects two main highways to each other. Kuye Nasr has well-organized even and odd streets with English architecture and a complete grid-system urban structure with a total of 41 streets.
The reason for choosing this neighborhood as the case study of the research is the systematic grid texture of the district, which caused the lands in this area to be segmented north-south (regular northern and southern streets). Hence, the research and presentation of this proposal is more targeted and systematic compared to situations where buildings are studied in organic texture or other urban structures. Therefore, by distributing the questionnaire in a homogeneous statistical society, the final result will be generalizable and will have a greater external validity in the statistical population (Figure 10).
Aerial map of the neighborhood, adopted from [
The present research is categorized as applied research using quantitative method [36] and, using the results of the study, seeks to help improve and optimize the behaviors, products, structures, and patterns used by human societies.
The researcher photographed residential buildings in the intended texture to primarily extract the design factors of buildings. Next, using the interview method, the researcher collected the views and opinions of the residents of the residential buildings (the statistical population) regarding balconies; the optimal design factors for such spaces were collected by default. In order to ensure and assess the validity of the default factors, statistical studies (quantitative research method through the questionnaire tool and analysis of these data through SPSS 23) were implemented.
This quantitative research method was adopted, in the form of a questionnaire distributed among people over the age of 20 who were living in the area. After the required data was collected, the principles, methods, and results of statistical analysis were used to study the validity and generalizability of hypotheses in the neighborhood.
The statistical population of the study includes the building residents in the Kuye Nasr neighborhood. The reason for choosing Kuye Nasr as the statistical population is the systematic grid texture of the neighborhood, which has led the lands to be segregated as northern and southern (regular northern and southern streets); therefore, the research and presentation of this proposal are more targeted and systematic compared to situations where buildings are studied in organic textures or other urban structures. Therefore, by distributing the questionnaire in a more homogeneous statistical society, the final result will be more generalizable and will have a greater external validity in the statistical population.
The research sampling method was a simple random sampling method. That is, from 20 alleys with even numbers and 20 alleys with odd numbers, two or three residents were selected randomly. After introducing the researcher and purpose of the study, the questionnaires were distributed. In total, 100 questionnaires were completed and analyzed.
The validity of the questionnaire was tested by a non-statistical method; specifically, through confirmation by a number of experts. Experienced professors and PhD students in the field of architecture reviewed and approved each item on the questionnaire.
Cronbach’s alpha was used for the three-item questions. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability of the questionnaire. The most commonly used method for calculating reliability is the Cronbach alpha, which is called the alpha coefficient. The general rule is that the Cronbach alpha value of a scale should be at least 0.7 [37]. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire is indicated in Table 3.
Variables | Cronbach’s alpha |
---|---|
Reliability | 0.78 |
Reliability through internal consistency method (Cronbach’s alpha).
As can be seen, Cronbach’s alpha value of the questionnaire is higher than the criterion 0.7, which confirms the reliability of the questionnaire.
A field study of the current balconies in the apartments or houses available in the site (Figures 11, 12) indicates that a large percentage of balconies on the first floors, which have easier access to the street or alley, are changed due to security concerns. That is, the balconies have lost their original form, creating a special irregularity in the facade (as indicated in the figures below). The residents, for example, have fenced the balconies or have covered the open sides, so that they are safer and cannot be seen when they are on the balcony. Therefore, it can be concluded that it is best to design the balconies of the first floors in such a way that security is considered as a significant point in the design. It should be designed such that it does not require future changes by residents.
(a) Northern apartment. (b) Southern apartment.
(a) Southern apartment. (b) Northern apartment.
During their interviews, building residents were asked to identify their primary concerns regarding the balconies so that the researcher can start designing the questionnaire with an appropriate initial perception.
The following requirements of residents in terms of using balconies are as follow: hanging clothes, planting flowers, cooking, having a spare section for putting kitchen appliances that are better kept in the open air, children’s playing, having a view to beautiful landscapes, ventilation, and connecting balconies with kitchen (Figure 13).
Sample plan of a balcony connected to the kitchen, drawn by authors.
The connection between kitchen and balcony is one of the main suggestions and requests made by Nuye Kasr building residents. During the interview process, the following reasons were extracted:
The connection of the open space (balconies are almost the only open space available to the units) and cooking allows easier access to foodstuff and dining when barbecuing, as well as better ventilation of the kitchen while cooking.
A space for sitting and drinking tea, having food, etc.; such a place is better to be connected to the kitchen.
Access to kitchen appliances that are best protected in the open air.
Proximity and easy access of the kitchen to the balcony to irrigate the plants on the balcony.
A place for hanging clothes in the open air and easy access to the kitchen; nowadays, washing machines are embedded in this space.
All of the abovementioned arguments indicate that balconies are better placed and more efficient when connected to the kitchen. Thus, it can be concluded that in the intended neighborhood, the functional dimension of the balcony is highly regarded.
Analysis of questions related to the main research hypothesis indicates that the presence of spaces, such as balconies, is essential in modern residential housing. A total of 99 out of 100 people who answered to the questionnaire agreed with the necessity of a balcony presence in their residential units. The results in Table 4 also illustrate that the significance level of chi-square is less than the assumed value of 0.1, thereby confirming the hypothesis.
Analysis of the demographic part of the questionnaire shows that tenants and homeowners do not differ in their need for a balcony, indicating the importance of designing balcony for residential houses of both types of economic situations. As shown in Table 5, the significance level of the chi-square independent test is 0.507 and is more than the assumed value of 0.10. This means that there is no significant relationship between the status of the residents of being tenant or owner and the need for a balcony.
The activities performed on balconies nowadays are ranked in Table 6.
Type of relationship | Chi-square value | Degree of freedom | Significance level |
---|---|---|---|
Necessity of balcony | 87.36 | 1 | <0.001 |
Chi-square test: investigating the necessity of balcony presence.
Type of relationship | Chi-square value | Degree of freedom | Significance level |
---|---|---|---|
Between owner or tenant and necessity of balcony | 1.356 | 2 | 0.507 |
Chi-square test: investigating the necessity of balcony from owner or tenant point of view.
Rank | Dimensions | Average score |
---|---|---|
1 | Plants | 5.5 |
2 | Hanging clothes | 5.43 |
3 | Sitting in the open air | 5.27 |
4 | Enjoying view | 5.12 |
5 | Cooking and barbecue | 4.80 |
6 | Smoking | 3.49 |
7 | Storage | 3.25 |
8 | Children’s activities | 3.09 |
Friedman test: ranking of activities carried out on the balcony.
The comparison of the average ratings (Table 6) shows that the highest average rating for flowering and planting activity is at 5.55, which means that this is the most common activity on balconies. The activity of hanging clothes with an average of 5.43 and sitting in the open air with an average rating of 5.27 are the next highest ranking activities. The lowest average rating (3.09) is for children’s activity, which indicates that children playing on the balcony have the lowest activity.
It should be noted that considerations such as balcony dimension and area, the presence of greenery on the balcony, the connection of the balcony with the sky, comfort and tranquility of the balcony area, balcony space security, not being observable on the balcony, functionality of the balcony, and the beauty of balcony are the influential factors in the satisfaction of residents of buildings of their desirable private open area.
This topic of desirability and sustainability of private open areas can be extended further based on the following directions:
Implementing new digital technologies including the Internet of things (IoT) [38] and geographic information system (GIS) [39, 40, 41] for monitoring and evaluating the space quality;
Adoption of open space desirability measures in different types of buildings in dense urban areas [42];
Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development of private open spaces to sustainable development of societies [43, 44];
Investigating the process, factors, barriers, drivers, and decision makers using NVivo for analyzing the desirability of open spaces [45, 46];
Analyzing the trend of private open spaces toward sustainable smart cities [46];
Promoting more integrative strategies between stakeholders to improve the quality of private open spaces [47, 48].
This study tries to find ways to optimize the private open spaces of residential buildings; to this end, the required results were obtained through the analysis of the data and with the help of quantitative methods. The results are presented in the form of logical propositions. Firstly, this study recommends that the designers of the Kuye Nasr residential buildings consider security issues so that first-floor residents can use such spaces without the need for changes or extensions to the building’s facade. Secondly, the functional features of balconies are of great importance to residents, and thus, its desirability factors should be paid close attention. Thirdly, the kitchen is the best and most welcoming space to be connected to the balcony. The kitchen offers the most suitable space connection in the buildings, in line with the functional aspect of the balcony. Fourthly, neighborhood building residents advocate for desirable factors including the presence of greenery on the balcony, the connection of the balcony with the sky, the tranquility and comfort of the balcony space, the security of the balcony, not being observable on the balcony, the functionality of the balcony, and beauty of the balcony. Finally, the present study ends with this question for future researchers: to what extent will the desirability of different parts of Iranian homes, which have been forgotten today or lack suitable quality, help improve the quality of their living spaces.
Democracy has formed the foundation of governance in the world, with every voter willing to express his/her views on the ballot [1, 2]. Elections have been held manually and electronically in both the developed and developing nations, some results have ended in contestations and wars erupting after the elections. Covid-19 has had a devastating effect on the political, social, and economic spheres in the world [3]. The way of running elections was also affected by this pandemic as nations sought to find ways of halting the spread of the disease. In developed nations countries like Estonia and other American states have been implementing Internet voting.
Africa is constituted by 54 countries with diversified democracies [4]. Eritrea is the only country that does not hold regular elections as has continuously postponed elections citing security threat from its neighbors Ethiopia and Djibouti. The African nations have diversified electoral systems, with some countries like Zimbabwe implementing first past the post and proportional representation, and South Africa, the proportional representation in their polls [5]. Most of the African countries hold regular manual elections as demanded by the United Nations Universal Declarations on elections.
The prospects for the growth of democracy in the 21st century in Africa depend on how the continent positions itself for value-adding services such as Internet voting. Covid −19 has forced the world to quickly develop and implement Information Communication Technologies (ICT) opportunities previously unimaginable. For Africa to take advantage of this, an effective enabling environment and use of ICTs is a particularly important contributor to modern democracy.
Internet voting is where a ballot is cast by the voter through the Internet [6]. The use of Internet voting gained popularity in Estonia since 2001. Estonia is the first country to carry out a successful pilot project in municipal elections in 2005. Estonia went on further to first use Internet voting in the 2007 parliamentary elections [7].
The four kinds of Internet voting are kiosk Internet voting, polling-place Internet voting, precinct Internet voting, and remote Internet voting (Canada-Europe Transatlantic [8]). Kiosk Internet voting involves the use of a computer at a specific location (an authorized internet polling station) that is controlled by election officials. This differs from a standalone electronic voting machine because the ballot is immediately transmitted over the Internet to the central vote-counting site. Polling-place Internet voting is conducted through the use of a computer at any polling station and is supervised by the usual election officials. Precinct Internet voting is very similar to polling-place voting except that it must occur at the voter’s designated precinct polling station (voters are only allowed to cast their ballots at polling stations where they are registered). Remote Internet voting is where a voter cast the ballot from the comfort of their homes or where the is Internet provision [9]. The advantages, disadvantages, and countries that are implementing Internet voting are shown in Table 1.
Internet Voting type | Advantages | Disadvantages | Countries implementing the system |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
| Australia (for military and persons with disabilities only), Austria, Canada, Estonia, Netherlands, Switzerland, USA (for the military-), UK (project canceled) |
|
|
| France |
|
|
| Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States of America |
|
|
| |
|
|
| Netherlands, United Kingdom |
As shown in Table 1, Internet voting is necessitated by the demographics of a country especially people living abroad who would want to exercise their democratic right but will not be residing within the citizenry country during an election. Chisinau [11] argues that Internet voting will allow voters to cast their ballots at the comfort of their homes or convenient places. Voting through the Internet is easier as voters can cast ballots using their own devices and there is no time wasted in long queues. Voters do not travel long distances, thus reducing transportation costs and can do other business chores. It allows for inclusivity as people living with disabilities or serious medical conditions can exercise their democratic rights. Internet voting will also allow those people who will be traveling or will be on duty during election day to cast their ballots anywhere in the world [12].
The disadvantage of Internet voting is that it consists of a large complex network which makes it difficult to monitor the entire network, thus posing a serious security threat. The monitoring of the network is very expensive of which there is no 100 percent guarantee that the network will be secure. Hackers could use malware to rig the outcome of the elections, by tampering with the way votes are submitted and counted or even casting votes for people who did not vote. Internet voting may be a source of conflict between political parties if one party considers that Internet voting might be beneficial to the other party/parties [12].
The critical socio-technical analysis [10] which is premised on analyzing an information system during the systems development life cycle was used to identify key factors in the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. By finding key factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa, it is expected that decision-makers would come up with strategies that support the successful implementation of such systems.
African Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) have been using manual systems in general elections for the past decades which has resulted in disputed elections, high operating costs affecting the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) because of systems and processes inefficiency. Only two countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Namibia have used polling stationed-based electronic voting machines which do not have Internet connectivity [13]. Covid-19 has not helped the situation either as countries have been forced into lockdowns, compelling nations to postpone elections. The introduction of Internet voting especially casting a ballot outside a polling station is the most difficult technological upgrade for an Electoral Management Body (EMB) as it involves the core of the entire electoral process [14]. This chapter investigated ‘why’ and ‘what’ factors were affecting the applicability of Internet voting in African general elections.
In this study, desktop research was used to collect data from 30 journals and other documentation about factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. The critical socio-technical analysis was then used to guide this study in the search and analysis of factors such as political, social, technical, legal, security, privacy, trust, and transparency affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. These factors were selected after critically analyzing contemporary issues in developing and developed countries successfully implementing, on trials or have abandoned the implementation of Internet voting.
While the benefits from Internet voting will guarantee the rights of citizens to exercise their democratic rights, the study discovered that no country in Africa is implementing Internet voting in general elections. The factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa are political, legal, social, technical, security, privacy, transparency, and trust.
Africa has the most number of people that flee their countries seeking greater opportunities from developing and developed nations [15]. Citizens from African countries migrate to other countries due to the effects of climatic changes, such as droughts, storms, and flooding. Other factors such as economic and political stability (wars) also force nationals to migrate to other countries seeking better opportunities [16]. The migration of people allows African countries to offer their citizens their democratic rights by allowing them to vote through the Internet. Some African governments also tend Internet shutdowns citing national security or curbing the spread of fake news during elections, for example, the Ugandan, Libya, Malawi, and Sudan Presidential elections [17] which makes it difficult to implement Internet voting.
The legal framework allows voters to exercise their rights during an election or absentee voting through the Internet [18]. For African citizens living abroad or who will be committed during election day to exercise their democratic right, there must be legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework empowers the EMB and other stakeholders to remove the element of mistrust, as the voting process is done within the confines of the law. At the moment no country in Africa is exploring the use of Internet voting rendering the introduction of such legislation a futile exercise.
African countries are still facing challenges in the implementation of mobile communication and Internet technologies [19]. Countries like Somalia, South Sudan, and Mozambique have often been affected by ravaging wars, which destroys infrastructure and forcing these countries into retarded economic growth. As shown in Table 1, the limitation in the Internet penetration factor is that the network service providers do not provide 100% service coverage. This makes it practically impossible to offer Internet voting within the country for national general elections as some other communities will be disadvantaged by failing to access the service to cast their ballots. The penetration of internet communication in Africa is very low at 43% as shown in Table 2. Countries like Kenya, Libya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Morocco, Seychelles, and Tunisia have a higher national Internet penetration factor. These countries can partially implement Internet voting in some of their regions. Other African nations especially that are below 50% like Eretria, Togo, Western Sahara, South Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Somalia will have difficulties in implementing Internet voting nationally.
Country | Estimated Population | Estimated Registered Voters | Estimated Voter population | Internet Users 31 December 2020 | Penetration (% Population) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
44,616,624 | 24,474,161 | 27,992,084 | 25,428,159 | 57.0% | |
33,933,610 | 4,992,399 | 5,967,849 | 8,980,670 | 26.5% | |
12,451,040 | 4,802,303 | 5,378,554 | 3,801,758 | 30.5% | |
2,397,241 | 924,709 | 1,444,142 | 1,139,000 | 47.5% | |
21, 497,096 | 2,395,226 | 2,497,500 | 4,594,625 | 21.4% | |
12,255,433 | 5,113,418 | 5,863,257 | 1,606,122 | 13.1% | |
561,898 | 392,731 | N/A | 352,120 | 62.7% | |
27,224,265 | 6,900,928 | 13,001,295 | 7,878,422 | 28.9% | |
4,919,981 | 1,954,433 | 2,005,942 | 557,085 | 11.3% | |
16,914,985 | 6,252,548 | 5,809,346 | 2,237,932 | 13.2% | |
888,451 | 313,647 | 474,387 | 193,700 | 21.8% | |
5,657,013 | 2,221,596 | 2,617,983 | 833,200 | 14.7% | |
92,377,993 | 40,371,439 | 44,138,661 | 16,355,917 | 17.7% | |
27,053,629 | 7,359,399 | 15,503,401 | 12,253,653 | 45.3% | |
1,002,187 | 215,687 | 609,344 | 548,832 | 54.8% | |
104,258,327 | 63,157,351 | 63,705,978 | 54,741,493 | 52.5% | |
1,449,896 | 325,555 | 417,365 | 362,891 | 25.0% | |
3,601,467 | N/A | N/A | 248,199 | 6.9% | |
1,172,362 | 546,784 | N/A | 665,245 | 56.7% | |
117,876,227 | 36,851,461 | 49,011,364 | 21,147,255 | 17.9% | |
2,278,825 | 680,194 | 1,177,350 | 1,367,641 | 60.0% | |
2,486,945 | 886,578 | 1,151,645 | 442,050 | 19.0% | |
31,732,129 | 17,027,641 | N/A | 14,767,818 | 46.5% | |
13,497,244 | 5,410,089 | 6,556,813 | 2,551,672 | 18.9% | |
2,015,494 | 645,085 | 935,920 | 250,000 | 12.4% | |
54,985,698 | 15,590,236 | 25,374,082 | 46,870,422 | 85.2% | |
2,159,079 | 1,254,506 | N/A | 682,990 | 31.6% | |
5,180,203 | 2,183,629 | 2,319,382 | 760,994 | 14.7% | |
6,958,532 | 1,509,218 | 4,029,365 | 5,857,000 | 84.2% | |
28,427,328 | 10,302,194 | 14,291,036 | 2,864,000 | 10.1% | |
19,647,684 | 6,859,570 | 10,030,988 | 2,717,243 | 13.8% | |
20,855,735 | 7,663,464 | 8,920,714 | 12,480,176 | 59.8% | |
4,775,119 | 1,417,823 | 2,125,242 | 969,519 | 20.3% | |
1,273,433 | 941,719 | 1,044,325 | 919,000 | 72.2% | |
279,515 | N/A | N/A | 107,940 | 38.6% | |
37,344,795 | 15,702,592 | 23,126,996 | 25,589,581 | 68.5% | |
32,163,047 | 13,153,088 | 13,554,684 | 6,523,613 | 20.3% | |
2,587,344 | 1,358,468 | 1,479,603 | 1,347,418 | 52.11% | |
25,130,817 | 7,446,556 | 9,623,301 | 3,363,848 | 13.4% | |
211,400,708 | 82,344,107 | 106,490,312 | 154,301,195 | 73.0% | |
901,686 | 110,968 | N/A | 608,000 | 67.4% | |
13,276,513 | 7,172,612 | N/A | 5,981,638 | 45.1% | |
6,086 | 2,309 | N/A | 2,300 | 37.8% | |
223,368 | 97,274 | 105,318 | 63,684 | 28.6% | |
17,196,301 | 6,683,043 | 8,071,074 | 9,749,527 | 56.7% | |
98,908 | 74,634 | N/A | 71,300 | 72.1% | |
8,141,343 | 3,178,663 | 3,284,182 | 1,043,725 | 12.8% | |
16,359,504 | 4,220,466 | N/A | 2,089,900 | 12.8% | |
60,041,994 | 25,809,443 | 37,372,792 | 34,545,165 | 57.5% | |
11,381,378 | 4,800,000 | N/A | 900,716 | 7.9% | |
44,909,353 | 13,126,989 | 19,667,400 | 13,124,100 | 29.2% | |
61,498,437 | 29,754,699 | 29,480,237 | 23,142,960 | 37.6% | |
8,478,437 | 3,738,786 | 4,645,140 | 1,011,837 | 11.9% | |
11,935,766 | 7,065,885 | 8,219,612 | 8,170,000 | 68.4% | |
47,123,531 | 8,219,612 | 8,219,612 | 18,502,166 | 39.3% | |
611,875 | N/A | N/A | 28,000 | 4.6% | |
18,920,651 | 6,698,372 | 7,331,669 | 9,870,427 | 52.2% | |
15,092,171 | 5,695,706 | 7,650,931 | 8,400,000 | 55.7% | |
1,373,486,514 | 590,296,163 | 43.0% | |||
6,502,279,070 | N/A | N/A | 4,463,594,959 | 68.6% | |
7,875,765,584 | 5,053,891,122 | 64.2% |
Internet users statistics for Africa.
There is a wide gap between the digital divide within the African nations especially between the urban and the rural community, the elderly, and the young generations [20]. The young generations have embraced technology as they use smartphones and laptops as communication and business tools. A large population in African countries live in rural communities. Some of these people cannot afford to buy gadgets, power, and data used for Internet services. There is also a lack of digital skills and literacy among the communities both in urban and rural setups especially among the elderly. The content or language used on the Internet makes it difficult for some African communities to comprehend the importance of using such services. Hence the use of Internet voting in African countries will be difficult because of the digital divide.
Internet voting should be secure for the results to be credible [21]. Key factors such as freedom, and equality during an election are important aspects of security requirements for Internet voting. The transmission of all voting data to servers or tabulation centers must be secure. All voting which is done whether on the Internet or otherwise should be granted the same status as any other vote cast in the same election. This means that each vote should be given the same weight as it also determines the outcome of an election [22]. Various encryption methods have been suggested for use with Internet voting including the blockchain [23]. African countries should have networks that can encrypt ballots cast over the Internet without the network being compromised, overloaded, or due to other disruptions like shutdowns.
With the use of Internet voting, an EMB has to ensure that each vote cast remains a secret. A free election means that the voter must not be coerced by public or private pressure. After voting through the Internet, the voters should have an acknowledgment for the candidate that they have voted for. All ballots cast through the Internet should be accorded the same secrecy as in manual systems [24]. If a ballot is cast, the voter’s identification details must be able to be authenticated and not linked to the ballot. The vote cast should also be accounted for in the outcome without identifying the voter. In Africa voter intimidation remains a serious challenge [25], thus through Internet voting, voters may be coerced to vote for undeserving candidates.
Trust in Internet voting can only be accepted if the results from this service are credible. The EMB should assure voters that their votes are secure and secret. To build trust voters should also be able to verify that all collected ballots were from eligible voters and that they have been accurately counted [26]. If Internet voting is to be implemented in African countries pilot testing has to be undertaken to allow voters to test the system before being fully implemented in a general election. To build trust among stakeholders (voters, activists, and media) an EMB should be transparent in all the activities involved with Internet voting. To avoid mistrust from the public, the stakeholders should be educated on how Internet voting works and also made to appreciate the qualities of the system. Relevant information should be availed in a language that can easily be understood by the public. The information should include full technical documentation of how the system is designed functionally and technically, all levels of software documentation, source code, and the technical and organizational environments where the system is hosted.
With the advent of the Covid-19 pandemic causing deaths, and unavoidable shutdowns, elections cannot be suspended indefinitely, decision-makers have to find alternative ways of conducting elections without compromising the health and safety of the electorate. Internet voting is one such method that may guarantee the health and safety of the electorate where voters can vote in the comfort of their homes. Decision-makers have to take note of the following during feasibility studies and implementation of Internet voting:
Politically, it is fundamental to foster a broad consensus among political parties for the implementation of Internet voting. This involves transparency where the relevant actors have a voice. Internet voting should be seen as politically neutral that is the new procedure should not benefit disproportionally given factions of the political spectrum [27]. For electoral results to be accepted by voters, Internet voting must produce an outcome that reflects the will of the people in an environment that establishes transparency and trust [14].
Technological and security concerns are often pointed to as the main concern of Internet voting [28]. To validate and verify the technological voting system the set of technological requirements have to be consulted systematically. In Africa, some voters live in remote areas but may also want to cast their ballots using the Internet. African countries have limited Internet infrastructure which should prompt governments to improve this area if its citizens are to benefit from Internet voting. The improvement on the infrastructure would also benefit an EMB during the voter registration process, as voters will be able to register through the Internet.
There have been numerous attacks of electronic voting systems over the Internet with the 2016 American Presidential election being the most contentious election of the decade [29]. The stakes of any general election are always high, which may create interests chief among them malicious actors-particularly in countries with specific geopolitical adversaries who may specifically create and deploy attacks or malware designed to manipulate the vote. In Africa, the use of Internet voting which has got limited transparency and audit trail may lead to manipulation and voter fraud. It will be very difficult to monitor votes cast over the Internet, to build trust among the citizens an EMB has to be trusted in pursuing its mandate.
Most electronic voting systems are now being developed with blockchain encryption [30, 31]. Blockchain technology is an end-to-end encryption method that secures ballots transmitted from voters’ private devices to a centralized tabulation facility. However, it has been observed that most serious vulnerabilities threatening integrity and secrecy of voting happen before ballots ever reach the blockchain. Voters may be coerced by family members or other pressure groups to vote in a certain way that does not reflect their will. It is also difficult to validate if the voter is the real one casting the ballot which is crucial to the credibility of an election. Estonia, for instance, has resolved this issue without blockchain by using e-ID cards. Blockchain technology also does not protect against -denial-of-service attacks that make servers unable to operate, does not protect information as it travels on the Internet, and does not make servers and infrastructure more resistant to advanced persistent threats. Despite improvements in encryption techniques, security will always remain a challenge for Internet voting.
The major social challenge is the digital divide as some parts of the population remain excluded from Internet voting and that gap exists in African countries regarding computer literacy and household Internet usage and availability. The ‘Digital transformation Strategy’ adopted by African countries in February 2020 should be pursued to narrow the gap between the digital divide in urban and rural communities and also narrow the ‘gender digital divide’ [32].
Currently, most African countries do not have any legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework should be put in place to allow for Internet voting, which should clearly state who is eligible and the reasons that support eligibility.
Despite low usage in Internet voting around the world, Estonia is the only country that has fully utilized this service in general elections. Table 3 highlights countries that have fully, partially, piloting and discontinued the use of Internet voting.
Internet voting used in General Elections | Partial use of Internet voting and Special cases | Planned to be piloted or Piloted but Discontinued or Never Used |
---|---|---|
Out-of-country residents also voted online in the 2016 Republican party primaries. | ||
In 2004, the | ||
One of the first experiments to introduce Internet voting was conducted by the Electoral Commission of the Volgograd Region during voting in Uryupinsk in 2009, and the Odintsovo district in 2010. | ||
Countries that use internet voting (use of internet voting outside of polling stations in politically binding elections).
The success of Internet voting depends largely on how it is perceived by the people meant to use it: citizens. For example, Internet voting is difficult to be transparent as compared to manual systems. The transparency and reliability of Internet voting have been questioned, as this is electronically done. Therefore, it is fundamental to know what their attitudes towards the implementation of Internet voting would affect them.
The applicability of Internet voting in Africa largely depends on how the nation’s willingness to adapt to new technology in the face of challenges such as political, legal, security, privacy, trust and transparency, the digital divide, and limited infrastructure. The successful experience of countries such as Estonia highlights the importance of a gradual, step-by-step design and implementation of Internet voting which may be used for benchmarking. It is also recommended that the perception of the citizens should be taken into consideration. African nations should also make an effort to improve the internal coverage of Internet services within their territories.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
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\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
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\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
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\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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Moreover, we review experimentally, analytically and numerically the types of heat pipes with their applications for electronic cooling in general and the computer cooling in particular. Summary tables that compare the content, methodology, and types of heat pipes are presented. Due to the numerous advantages of the heat pipe in electronic cooling, this chapter definitely leads to further research in computer cooling applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohamed H.A. 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Sohel Murshed"}]},{id:"50699",title:"Heat Pipe and Phase Change Heat Transfer Technologies for Electronics Cooling",slug:"heat-pipe-and-phase-change-heat-transfer-technologies-for-electronics-cooling",totalDownloads:3572,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The heat pipe is a well-known cooling module for advanced electronic devices. The heat pipe has many applications, particularly in electronics and related area such as PC, laptop, display, artificial satellite, and telecommunication modules. The heat pipe utilizes phase change heat transfer inside enveloped structures, where the working fluid evaporates in heated zone, and vapor moves to the condenser, and the condensed liquid is pumped back through microporous structure call wick. The performance of applicability in electronics of heat pipe is strongly dependent on the geometry, working fluid, and microstructure of wick. Therefore, it is worth considering the theory and technologies related to heat pipes for advanced electronics cooling. According to the purpose of this chapter mentioned above, the author considers fundamental aspects regarding heat pipe and phase change phenomena. First, the working principle of heat pipe is introduced. Important parameters in heat pipe are considered, and theoretical model for predicting the thermal performance of the heat pipe is introduced. In addition, design method for heat pipe is presented. Finally, applications of heat pipe to electronics cooling are presented. This chapter covers knowledge and state-of-art technologies in regard to heat pipe and phase change heat transfer. For a reliable operation of future electronics that have ultra-high heat flux amounts to 1000 W/m2, heat pipe and phase change heat transfer are essential. This chapter provides the most valuable opportunity for all readers from industry and academia to share the professional knowledge and to promote their ability in practical applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Chan Byon",authors:[{id:"178434",title:"Prof.",name:"Chan",middleName:null,surname:"Byon",slug:"chan-byon",fullName:"Chan Byon"}]},{id:"50421",title:"MEMS-Based Micro-heat Pipes",slug:"mems-based-micro-heat-pipes",totalDownloads:2778,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)-based micro-heat pipes, as a novel heat pipe technology, is considered as one of the most promising options for thermal control applications in microelectronic circuits packaging, concentrated solar cells, infrared detectors, micro-fuel cells, etc. The operating principles, heat transfer characteristics, and fabrication process of MEMS-based micro-grooved heat pipes are firstly introduced and the state-of-the-art of research both experimental and theoretical is thoroughly reviewed. Then, other emerging MEMS-based micro-heat pipes, such as micro-capillary pumped loop, micro-loop heat pipe, micro-oscillating heat pipe, and micro-vapor chamber are briefly reviewed as well. Finally, some promising and innovatory applications of the MEMS-based micro-heat pipes are reported. This chapter is expected to provide basic reference for future researches.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Qu Jian and Wang Qian",authors:[{id:"178950",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"jian-qu",fullName:"Jian Qu"},{id:"184907",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qian-wang",fullName:"Qian Wang"}]},{id:"50240",title:"Theoretical Derivation of Junction Temperature of Package Chip",slug:"theoretical-derivation-of-junction-temperature-of-package-chip",totalDownloads:2409,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Junction temperature is the highest operating temperature of the actual semiconductor in an electronic device. In operation, junction temperature is higher than the case temperature and the temperature of the part’s exterior. The difference is equal to the amount of heat transferred from the junction to case multiplied by the junction-to-case thermal resistance. When designing integrated circuits, predicting and calculating the chip junction temperature is a very important task. This chapter describes how to derive the junction temperature from the thermal transport model.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Professor Wei-Keng Lin",authors:[{id:"178475",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Keng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"wei-keng-lin",fullName:"Wei-Keng Lin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"554",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.