Classification of nanophase materials.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"934",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Allergic Diseases - Highlights in the Clinic, Mechanisms and Treatment",title:"Allergic Diseases",subtitle:"Highlights in the Clinic, Mechanisms and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The present Edition "Allergic diseases - highlights in the clinic, mechanisms and treatment" aims to present some recent aspects related to one of the most prevalent daily clinical expression disease. The effort of a group of outstanding experts from many countries reflects a set of scientific studies very promising for a better clinical care and also to the treatment and control of the allergy. This book provides a valuable reference text in several topics of the clinical allergy and basic issues related to the immune system response. The inflammatory reaction understanding in allergic disease is clearly evidenced, as well as new strategies for further researches.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0227-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6872-0",doi:"10.5772/1441",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"allergic-diseases-highlights-in-the-clinic-mechanisms-and-treatment",numberOfPages:568,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0d8961a0f59ba85124b525aee52a4d8c",bookSignature:"Celso Pereira",publishedDate:"March 14th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/934.jpg",numberOfDownloads:85761,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:113,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 20th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 17th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 24th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"66336",title:"Prof.",name:"Celso",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"celso-pereira",fullName:"Celso Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66336/images/system/66336.png",biography:"Prof. Celso Pereira, MD, Ph.D., is head-chief of the Clinical Immunology Unit and Clinical Herbal Medicine in Clinical Practice, Medicine Faculty, Coimbra University, Portugal. He is also a graduated specialist in immuno-allergy and has developed clinical activity at Coimbra Surgical Center. His main activities include clinical practice, education (pre and postgraduate), and clinical and laboratory research. He was president of the Immuno-Allergy Board of the Portuguese Medical Association. He is the coordinator of some Portuguese clinical guidelines and a member of the national committee for the diagnostic procedures for allergy and clinical immunology and the national committee for COVID vaccination. His scientific interests include research in the mechanisms of respiratory allergy, specific immunotherapy, and medicinal plant applications.",institutionString:"Faculty of Medicine University of Coimbra",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1035",title:"Clinical Immunology",slug:"immunology-allergology-and-rheumatology-clinical-immunology"}],chapters:[{id:"31770",title:"New Challenges for Old Diseases: The Impact of -Omics Technologies in the Understanding of Allergic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/25636",slug:"new-challenges-for-old-diseases-the-impact-of-omics-technologies-in-the-understanding-of-allergic-di",totalDownloads:2825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Blanca Cárdaba, Miriam Aguerri, David Calzada and Carlos Lahoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31770",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31770",authors:[{id:"63966",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",surname:"Cárdaba",slug:"blanca-cardaba",fullName:"Blanca Cárdaba"}],corrections:null},{id:"31771",title:"Expression of the Histamine H4 Receptor in Human Tissue",doi:"10.5772/26095",slug:"expression-of-the-histamine-h4-receptor-in-human-tissue",totalDownloads:2461,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Katsunori Yamaura, Masahiko Suzuki, Takao Namiki and Koichi Ueno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/31771",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/31771",authors:[{id:"65525",title:"Prof.",name:"Koichi",surname:"Ueno",slug:"koichi-ueno",fullName:"Koichi Ueno"},{id:"67778",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsunori",surname:"Yamaura",slug:"katsunori-yamaura",fullName:"Katsunori Yamaura"},{id:"67782",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiko",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"masahiko-suzuki",fullName:"Masahiko Suzuki"},{id:"67783",title:"Prof.",name:"Takao",surname:"Namiki",slug:"takao-namiki",fullName:"Takao Namiki"}],corrections:null},{id:"31772",title:"The Type I and Type II Receptor Complexes for IL-4 and IL-13 Differentially Regulate Allergic Lung Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/25650",slug:"the-type-i-and-type-ii-receptor-complexes-for-il-4-and-il-13-differentially-regulate-allergic-lung-i",totalDownloads:3769,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nicola M. 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\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
3D 2D 1D | \n\t\t\tCrystallites (equiaxed) Filamentary Layered (lamellar) | \n\t\t\tGas condensation Chemical vapor deposition Electrodeposition | \n\t\t
Classification of nanophase materials.
Compared to conventional materials, nanophase materials possess unique advantages with respect to properties and processing. [4] As grain size decreases down to the nanometer-size range, nanophase metals generally get stronger and harder, while nanophase ceramics show ductility, even superplasticity, at lower temperatures than conventional brittle ceramics. For example, 1000% increase in fracture stress, 2000% increase in magnetic susceptibility, 25% decrease in density, and 165% improvement in critical temperature for superconductivity have been observed in nanophase metals. [5] As an example, Figure 1 shows the stress–strain curve for a) nanophase (14 nm) Pd sample compared with that for a coarse-grained (50 μm) Pd sample and b) nanophase (25 nm) Cu sample compared with that for a coarse-grained (50 μm) Cu sample. [6] It shows that the yield stress for nanophase materials for these two materials is higher than the conventional material.
Stress–strain curve for a) nanophase (14 nm) Pd sample compared with that for a coarse-grained (50 μm) Pd sample, and b) nanophase (25 nm) Cu sample compared with that for a coarse-grained (50 μm) Cu sample. [6]
These unique properties arise because of the dramatic grain refinement and the novel characteristic of grain boundaries. Nanophase materials contain a high concentration of grain boundaries with random orientation, and consequently a substantial fraction of atoms lies in the interfaces. For example, when grain size is about 5 nm, there are approximately 1019 boundaries/cm3 with random orientation and 50% volume fraction of atoms at the interfaces. The volume fraction decreases to about 30% for 10 nm grains and to about 3% for 100 nm grains. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of a nanophase metal. [7]
The increase in strength of nanophase materials stems from the smaller grain sizes, which cause a change in the fundamental mechanism of plastic deformation. In conventional metals, the fundamental mechanism is dislocation migration, [8] where rows of missing atoms within the lattice (dislocations) migrate in the direction opposite of an applied stress. The result of this migration is that dislocations pile up on one side of the grain, and thus the grains themselves are deformed. The ease of migration of these dislocation lines is related to the length of the dislocation line; longer lines migrate more readily than shorter lines. [9, 10]
Schematic representation of an equiaxed nanocrystalline metal distinguishing between the atoms associated with the individual crystal grains (filled circles) and those constituting the boundary network (open circles). [11]
In conventional metals where grain sizes are large, these dislocation lines are very long and consequently can migrate readily. In nanocrystalline materials where grain sizes are very small, the dislocation lines are very short, and do not migrate readily. Dislocation migration is then effectively shut down as a mechanism of plastic deformation in nanocrystalline materials. Grain boundary sliding becomes the active mechanism of deformation in nanocrystalline materials. This mechanism of plastic deformation does not cause deformation of the individual grains. It is a higher-energy mechanism of deformation, yielding increased strength in nanocrystalline metals, and for nanophase ceramics it provides a mechanism for plastic deformation that formerly was not present. The increased ductility in ceramics can be attributed to grain boundary sliding and the higher rates of atomic diffusion in the less dense grain boundaries as compared to the crystalline grains.
The improved facture toughness of nanophase materials is related to the increased grain boundary fraction. Fracture toughness is defined as the ability of a material to resist cracking. Cracks nucleate in areas of stress concentration, which includes areas where dislocations pile up. If stress concentration sites can be relieved, cracks do not nucleate or propagate. The advantage of the increased number of grain boundaries in nanophase materials is that the stress concentrations are relieved because dislocations are introduced into the grain boundaries more quickly, and therefore they do not pile up.
The high-performance properties exhibited by nanophase materials have important implications for industry. For example, several tool companies are expected to introduce stronger, tougher, long-lasting cutting tools, drill bits, and wear parts composed of ultrafine grain cobalt/tungsten carbide composites. Some nanocomposites exhibit an unusual magnetic behavior called “giant magnetoresistance,” which is being considered for read/write information in storage devices and to make improved magnetoresistive sensors. Another application under consideration is solid-state magnetic refrigerators based on the mega caloric effect by which heat is reversibly absorbed and discharged when small ferromagnetic particles are aligned by magnetic fields. In addition, unusual magneto-optical characteristics of nanostructured iron oxide are expected to be applicable for high definition color copiers. [12] Production of nanophase materials typically involves two steps: powder preparation and powder consolidation. To better appreciate the required specifications of the starting powders, we will consider powder consolidation first.
Advance materials are processed in a manner similar to traditional ceramics, i.e., by compacting and firing powders as illustrated in Figure 3. The process that often follows powder preparation involves dispersing the powders in solution by adding organic polymers or surfactants. These highly concentrated suspensions are called slurries, or slips.
The final shape of the material is given when the slurry is either poured in a form (slip casting), spread onto a smooth surface (tape casting), or coated on a support. It is currently recognized that powder packing, which occurs during this stage, determines the structures that deve1op during sintering. After drying, the material (called “green” before firing) is sintered at a temperature and pressure that depends on particle size, composition, and sintering aids. Nanophase materials must be compacted and sintered at temperatures low enough to prevent grain growth and at the same time high enough so that sufficient sintering occurs to form dense, uniform polycrystalline materials. Typically, nanophase powders are consolidated by vacuum hot pressing or hot isotactic pressing at 600–1400°C and 70–210 MPa for 1–4 h. [13, 14] Figure 3 summarizes the evolution of the structure from the powder state to the sintered material.
Consolidation process of nanophase powders.
Depending on the method of synthesis a variety of nanocomposites of the type shown in Figure 4 can be produced. [15] Nanocomposites are made by dispersing nanometer-scale particles of one material either inside the grains of a second material or between the grains. Combinations in which both phases are equally fine (nano–nano composites) are possible. The advantages of, for example, nanosize-reinforced metal–matrix composites include a combination of high strength, high elastic modulus, high toughness and impact properties, low sensitivity to temperature changes or thermal shock, high surface durability, and low sensitivity to flaws.
Types of nano-composites possible by nanophase material synthesis methods. [15]
Defects that destroy the properties of the bulk nanophase material can nearly always be attributed to some specific event in the processing history. Strength-limiting effects can often be avoided if careful control is exercised over all aspects of processing, the most critical being the characteristics of the starting powder. The ideal characteristics of the starting powder for advanced materials are: [16]
Spherical shape (to improve packing)
Particle size below 100 mm in diameter
A narrow size distribution (to improve packing, avoid grain growth and maximize grain –density)
Freedom from agglomeration (to improve packing and minimize void fraction)
Highly controlled purity
Contamination and the presence of hard agglomerates are the major limiting effects, and are probably the most difficult properties to control during the powder preparation process, as will be discussed in the next section. Highly controlled purity is important because the quality of the bulk nanophase material depends directly on the purity of the starting powders. However, nanophase materials usually are very susceptible to contamination. For example, tungsten in nanosize phase – in contrast to conventional tungsten – is highly pyrophoric.
Freedom from agglomeration is important to improve stability of the structure and to significantly reduce sintering time and temperature. Hard agglomerates must be avoided since their presence gives rise to the formation of pores and flaws during sintering. The pores slow down the sintering process, limit densification, and reduce the strength of the material by acting as crack formation sites. Hard agglomerates are distinguished from weak agglomerates by necking (bridging) that occurs between particles. This necking is due to surface reactivity, surface growth, or sintering. It is the hard agglomerate, not the weak agglomerate that is undesirable. For example, to produce optimum parts from fine ceramics particles, the powder must be compacted to low void fractions such that near-net-shape parts are obtained after sintering. The poor packing characteristics of hard agglomerates make them of little use to the ceramic industry. [17]
The methods shown in Table 2 have been used with different levels of success to produce ultrafine particles. Only gas-to-particle conversion processes are described here because of their widespread use and potential for large-scale production of materials. See References 18, 19, 20, and 21 for a general review.
Gas-to-particle conversion processes refer to production of particles from individual atoms or molecules in the gas phase. The processes constituting the overall process are well understood qualitatively and are shown in Figure 5. By using any high-energy source such as a flame, joule (resistive) heating, plasma, sputtering, ion, electron or laser beams, or a hot wall reactor, condensable product atoms or molecules are formed. Depending upon the kinetics, thermodynamics, reactor design, and operating conditions, the product atoms/molecules self-nucleate and form molecular clusters. Over a very short period of time, a high concentration of clusters is formed.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
Mechanical grinding (Ball milling) | \n\t\t\tRepeated welding, fracturing, and rewelding of powders in a high-energy ball charge | \n\t\t\tControl of impurity content is difficult | \n\t\t|||
Aerosol methods | \n\t\t\tGas-to-particle | \n\t\t\tFlame reactor Furnace reactor Gas condensation Plasma reactor Laser ablation Sputtering | \n\t\t\tEvaporation of materials followed by condensation into ultrafine particles | \n\t\t\tNarrow size distribution, high purity, spherical and solid particles. Formation of hard agglomerates | \n\t\t|
Spray pyrolysis | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | High purity. Appropriate for multicomponent materials Solubility problems can exist. Low production rates | \n\t\t||
Film generation | \n\t\t\tDroplet deposition Chemical vapor deposition Solid participle deposition | \n\t\t\tProduces layered structures | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t | ||
Solution phase methods | \n\t\t\tReactants are diluted in an appropriate solvent, mixed together and particles are obtained by homogeneous precipitation | \n\t\t\tExtreme uniformity can be achieved. Applicable to limited range of compositions | \n\t\t|||
Solid phase methods | \n\t\t\tAchieved by mixing the reactants powders together and heating of ignited to high temperatures | \n\t\t\tStarting materials may be synthesized in pure forms | \n\t\t
Production methods of nanosized structures.
The newly formed clusters grow by condensation of atoms/molecules or by coagulation with other clusters. Early in the process, particles possess very high surface energy. Therefore, the rate of particle sintering is extremely fast and colliding particles rapidly assume a spherical shape. As particles grow further, surface energy decreases substantially, the rate of particle sintering becomes slow and collisions among particles result in irregularly shaped particles (agglomerates). Figure 6 illustrates the typical agglomerated structures obtained.
Processes occurring during powder production from aerosol processes.
Long agglomerates formed during synthesis of nanosize tungsten by flame synthesis. [22]
The primary advantages of gas-to-particle routes are small particle size, narrow size distribution, nearby spherical solid particles, and high purity. The disadvantages for most aerosol methods include low production rates, chemical inhomogeneities for multicomponent materials, high energy costs, and problems associated with hazardous gaseous reactants and by-products. A critical disadvantage is the formation of hard agglomerates in the gas phase when number densities are high.
Unlike other aerosol processes, flames have high production rates and low energy costs, and the potential for scale-up is well established. [23] Figure 7 illustrates the process of particle formation by flame synthesis. Reactants are brought to a high temperature reactor either premixed or separately (nonpremixed) in a coflow configuration. When the reactants reach the flame front, reaction takes place. The products of the reaction process are the desired materials are often a gas-phase by-product. The desired material follows the gas-to-particle route described above, yielding nanosized particles. However, due to the high particle number densities and steep temperature gradients present during the entire process, hard agglomerates are usually formed, and flames traditionally offer poor control over particle size and morphology.
Illustration of the flame synthesis methods to produce nanosized materials.
Some work has been performed to establish conditions to minimize agglomerate formation. Flagan and Wu [24] proposed controlling agglomeration in an aerosol reactor by maintaining a sufficiently low number concentration of primary nuclei and varying temperature along the reactor such that coagulation is minimized while condensation is maximized within the residence time of particles in the reactor. Zachariah and Dimitriou [25] noted that agglomerates are almost exclusively constructed from 10-30 nm primary particles and proposed controlling agglomeration by limiting the homogeneous nucleation rate in such a way that the 10-30 nm primary particles can grow by heterogeneous condensation. Thus, they developed a set of criteria for determining the onset of runaway nucleation as the criteria to control agglomeration. These methods have not been demonstrated experimentally and are not applicable to high number density, high production rate methods of synthesis such as flame synthesis.
Recently, Axelbaum et al. [26] successfully demonstrated control of agglomeration inflames with a novel particle encapsulation approach. Figure 8 illustrates this process. The basic approach is to allow the nucleation and growth of the primary particles to proceed normally but then encapsulate these particles, with an appropriate material, when they have grown to the required size and before they begin to agglomerate, thus producing encapsulated particles. These particles will agglomerate, but the primary particle within them will not. When the encapsulation is later removed, the resulting powder will contain only weakly agglomerated particles. Encapsulation is accomplished by either encapsulating the particles with a byproduct of the combustion process or with an additive chosen for this purpose.
The encapsulation process is triggered to occur thermodynamically, kinetically or through mixing. The encapsulating material must be chosen such that it can be completely removed by, for example, heat treating or washing. Another important advantage of the encapsulation method is that it could protect air sensitive nanophase particles from oxidation or contamination during subsequent handling.
Illustration of the particle coating method to control agglomeration during gas-to-particle formation process.
In previous sections it was stated that: 1) among the different methods of synthesizing nanosized powders, flame synthesis has by far the highest possible production rate, and it is the. only method in which scale-up to high production rates has been demonstrated, 2) hard agglomerates are usually formed during aerosol processes, particularly in flames, because of the high number densities and steep temperature gradients, 3) nanophase materials are very susceptible to contamination, 4) contamination and the presence of agglomerates destroys the properties of the nanophase bulk material, and 5) the encapsulation process could be an effective solution to control agglomeration, and to protect the primary particles from contamination.
The objectives of this work are to:
Demonstrate the applicability of the particle encapsulation method to the production of high purity, unagglomerated nano-particulates of tungsten (W) and tungsten titanium alloys (W-Ti) by flame synthesis.
Develop a Monte Carlo method to model particle dynamics in multi-component aerosols.
Apply the Monte Carlo method to study the processes occurring in two-component aerosols in order to understand the encapsulation process and evaluate approaches to optimize the encapsulation process as a solution to the particle contamination and agglomeration problems during the formation of nanosized powders in flames.
Specific objectives
In order to accomplish these objectives, several specific tasks must be performed:
Apply the particle encapsulation methodology to produce high-purity, unagglomerated nanoparticles of W, Ti, and W-Ti by flame synthesis. This step requires:
Selecting the appropriate reactants for the production of W
Adapting the existing burner for the production of W
Producing ∼20 g of nanosized W and W-Ti powder of optimal quality
Consolidating produced powder into bulk cylindrical pellets
Identify and describe the variables and mechanisms controlling the encapsulation process.
Formulate the mathematical equations that govern the physical processes occurring in flames and in multi-component aerosols. These processes include nucleation, condensation, and coagulation.
Establish an appropriate methodology to solve the mathematical model in terms of the variables of interest: particle size distribution and composition.
Validate the method of solution by comparing with analytical and experimental results available for simplified conditions.
Apply the mathematical model to a simplified flame configuration, where the general equations reduce to their simplest form. The simplified configuration is equivalent to steady state systems where gas-phase precursors react in 1D flame.
Describe the process of encapsulation under different conditions.
Identify the conditions that will inhibit or promote effective encapsulation.
Prescribe optimum operating conditions for the production of unagglomerated nanosized particles.
This document is organized in seven chapters with three appendices. Chapter 2 describes the production of high-purity, unagglomerated nanoparticulate of W, Ti, and W-Ti by flame synthesis. Chapter 3 contains the formulation of the model that describes the physical processes involved in multicomponent aerosols and the different methods that are available to solve the governing equations. Monte Carlo simulation is identified as the appropriate solution method for modeling multicomponent aerosol processes. Chapter 4 describes the Monte Carlo method developed to simulate coagulation. Chapter 5 describes the methodology used to model condensation processes and the coupling of coagulation and condensation. Chapter 6 provides a detailed description of the encapsulation process and explains the physics under which encapsulation occurs. Finally, Chapter 7 contains conclusions and recommendations for future work. Appendix A contains a heat transfer model to predict particle heating during condensation. Appendix B is a literature review about particle sintering, and Appendix C is a description of particle dynamics in colloidal systems.
Drought is a worldwide natural hazard and has a detrimental impact on society, the environment, and the economy [1]. Extreme hydrological events both high (flood) and low (drought) flow are of particular concern globally. Of these hydrological extremes, drought is the most complex and widespread [2]. It is one of the most common natural events that has devastating negative impacts on agriculture and water resources [3].
There is no universal definition for drought due to its complexity [4]. Therefore, meteorologists defined drought as a scarcity of precipitation [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; hydrologists have defined hydrological drought as scarcity of surface and subsurface water [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]; agriculturalists and agronomists defined agricultural drought as related to soil moisture deficiency [3, 16, 17] and sociologists and economists defined the overall welfare crisis of the society caused by drought to be socioeconomical drought [4, 18, 19, 20, 21]. These types of droughts have accumulating effects, thus meteorological drought results in losses, such as crop stress, predation by pests, and disease due to low moisture, to the agricultural systems while hydrological drought causes the shortage of water supply, decrease in reservoir water level and groundwater volume, lower irrigation and hydropower production [14]. The accumulation of meteorological and hydrological drought results in socioeconomical drought in which the overall ecosystem will be disturbed and human and animal lives will be negatively impacted and even lost [15].
Historically, Ethiopia has faced multiple seasonal drought events due to erratic rainfall and climate change [22]. The most drought-prone areas in Ethiopia are in Northeast Ethiopia and the Upper Blue Nile basin, including the Northern Tigray region, some parts of Amhara regions, such as South Wollo, North Wollo, South Gondar, and Afar Region, most parts of Somalia Region, and Eastern parts of Oromia Region [1, 3, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Drought in Ethiopia occurs at a recurrence interval of 3–10 years [1], and even though this frequent recurrence is common, there still lacks any firmly established drought mitigation measure for these events. Only short-term response efforts are provided in the form of food aid when food supplies have decreased significantly due to extended drought.
Meteorological drought analysis has been studied frequently, yet hydrological and agricultural drought analysis and monitoring are not studied adequately. It is thought that Ethiopia is a water tower in East Africa but water resource management over the region is not well developed. This aggravates the natural hazard, such as drought impact on human life. Hydrological drought has a great influence on water supply irrigation and power production by reducing the availability of surface and subsurface water. There are few dams and reservoirs in the country and most of them are hydropower plants. But there is a lack of water conservation to reduce drought impact when it occurs. Generally, drought monitoring and forecasting studies are untouched and need a thorough investigation to alleviate socioeconomic problems related to drought.
The objective of this review chapter is to assess the status of hydrological drought studies in Ethiopia by reviewing different previously studied article papers related to drought. A total of 24 article papers was reviewed and the master plan of the eight-river basin was also reviewed. Of these, only two papers were related to hydrological drought and the remains were about meteorological and other drought-related topics. This implies that hydrological drought studies in Ethiopia require further analysis, monitoring, and forecasting investigation. Therefore, it is important to do this kind of review to show the gap of drought studies over the region for future researchers, stakeholders, and planners to develop a suitable early warning system.
Ethiopia has an ample amount of water resources when compared to other African countries yet the development is still poor. There are 12 major river basins in the country which generate an annual runoff of 123 BM3 (Table 1). From these, Aysha and Ogaden river basins are dry and the Mereb and Denakle have insignificant streamflow over the year, the border basins from North to East direction (Figure 1). Eight river basins have a well-organized master plan, however, only the three river basins (Abbay, Awash, and Tekeze) are popularly studied for the development of irrigation, water supply, and hydropower projects. Different types of drought studies were also relatively studied in these river basins. In the Wabishebele river basin, one hydrological drought analysis was studied by Awas [26]. Abbay and Awash basins have good hydrometeorological data and are highly invested when compared to other river basins. This review is focused on the assessment of hydrological drought analysis and the drought mitigation approach of previous research in Ethiopia, related to drought.
River basin | Area (km2) | Annual runoff (BM3) | Terminus |
---|---|---|---|
Abbay | 199,912 | 52.6 | Mediterranean |
Awash | 110,000 | 4.6 | Within the country |
Baro | 75,912 | 23.6 | Mediterranean |
Genale Dawa | 172,259 | 5.8 | Indian Ocean |
Omo Gibe | 79,000 | 17.9 | Lake Turkana |
Tekeze | 82,350 | 7.6 | Mediterranean |
Rift Valley | 52,000 | 5.6 | Chew Bahir |
Wabishebele | 202,220 | 4.6 | Indian Ocean |
Mereb | 5900 | 0.26 | Sudanese Wetland |
Denakle | 64,380 | 0.86 | Within the country |
Aysha | 2223 | 0 | |
Ogaden | 77,120 | 0 | |
Characteristics of Ethiopian major river basins.
Source: River Basin Master Plan; Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity, Ethiopia.
Drought study information of Ethiopian river basins.
Seasonal variation of streamflow over Ethiopian river basins.
Spatially, the Abbay river basin is the largest and it covers 43.1% of the surface runoff of the country. The general characteristics of each river basin in the country are given in Table 1. In Ethiopia, there is a high seasonal flow and rainfall variation. As shown in Figures 2 and 3, Abbay and Omo gibe river basins have a high flow when compare to other river basins and overall the maximum flow is obtained during the summer season from June to August (JJA).
Ethiopia has 12 major river basins, most of which are transboundary rivers except the Awash river. The total surface water is estimated at 124 BM3 and the groundwater potential is estimated near 30 BM3 [28]. Up to 70% of the surface water is originated from the central and western highlands on the western sides of the Great Rift Valley flow to the west into the Nile river basin system that covers 39% of the landmass and the remaining 30% of surface water originated from eastern highlands flow into east that covers 61% of the landmass.
Mean monthly rainfall of eight river basins in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia is experienced severe drought problems for the last decades. According to Mohammed et al., the most drought years in North East Highlands of Ethiopia were 1984, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2007, and 2008 [1]. Bayissa et al. also found that 1984/85 and 2003/04 were the extreme drought years in the Upper Blue Nile basin in Ethiopia [29]. Based on EM-DAT, 2014, the most severe drought years in Ethiopia from 1900 to 2013 were 1965, 1969, 1973, 1983, 1987, 1989, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009, and 2012 with an average recurrence interval of 4 years [30]. Generally, the year 1984 was a bad drought event in Ethiopia and it was globally known. Here, all the above-stated drought years were analyzed based on meteorological drought indicators, especially standardized precipitation index (SPI) and palm drought severity index (PDSI).
To review the status of hydrological drought conditions in Ethiopia, important data were collected from the Ministry of Water, Irrigation, and Electricity, department of Basin Development Authority. The river basin master plan was thoroughly reviewed and previous drought-related studies in Ethiopia were also assessed.
During this review, 24 articles and conference papers related to drought studies in Ethiopia were collected. From these, nine papers are meteorological drought studies, seven papers are general drought impact studies, and the remaining eight were agricultural, hydrological, and socioeconomic drought studies (Tables 2 and 3). Surprisingly, except for some general drought studies related to drought impact over the country, other drought studies were conducted in some specific parts of the country. Especially meteorological drought studies were highly focused on the Abbay river basin (Upper Blue Nile) and Awash river basin. Agricultural and socioeconomic drought studies slightly tried to see the overall drought conditions in Ethiopia. However, these are also not studied in-depth.
No. | Author | Title | Drought Category |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Philip et al. [22] | Attribution analysis of the Ethiopian drought of 2015 | General |
2 | Belayneh et al. [2] | Long-term SPI drought forecasting in the Awash river basin in Ethiopia using wavelet neural network and wavelet support vector regression models | Meteorological |
3 | Yimer et al. 2017 | Meteorological drought assessment in northeast highlands of Ethiopia | Meteorological |
4 | Araya and Leo Stroosnijder, 2011 | Assessing drought risk and irrigation need in northern Ethiopia | General |
5 | Enyew et al. [27] | Assessment of the impact of climate change on hydrological drought in Lake Tana catchment, Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia | Hydrological |
6 | Edosa et al., 2010 | Drought analysis in the Awash river basin, Ethiopia | Hydrometeorological |
7 | USAID Report, 2018 | Economics of resilience to drought; Ethiopia analysis | Socioeconomic |
8 | Philip et al. [22] | The drought in Ethiopia, 2015 | General |
9 | Jjemba et al. | Extreme drought in Ethiopia stretches drought management systems | Socioeconomic |
10 | Gebrehiwot et al. [24] | Spatial and temporal assessment of drought in the Northern highlands of Ethiopia | Meteorological |
11 | Bayissa et al. [17] | Comparison of the performance of six drought indices in characterizing historical drought for the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia | Meteorological |
12 | Awass [26] | Hydrological drought analysis occurrence, severity, risks: the case of Wabishebele river basin, Ethiopia | Hydrological |
13 | EL Kenawy et al., 2016 | Changes in the frequency and severity of meteorological drought over Ethiopia from 1960 to 2013 | Meteorological |
14 | Bayissa et al. [29] | Spatio-temporal assessment of meteorological drought under the influence of varying record length: the case of Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia | Meteorological |
15 | Zeleke et al. [18] | Trend and periodicity of drought over Ethiopia | Meteorological |
16 | Teshome and Zhang [20] | Increase of extreme drought over Ethiopia under climate warming | General |
17 | Viste et al. [19] | Recent drought and precipitation tendencies in Ethiopia | General |
18 | Getachew et al., 2020 | Application of artificial neural networks in forecasting a standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index for the Upper Blue Nile basin | Meteorological |
19 | Getachew, 2018 | Drought and its impacts in Ethiopia | Socioeconomic |
20 | Temam et al., 2019 | Long-term drought trends in ethiopia with implications for dryland agriculture | Agricultural |
21 | Dawit et al., 2019 | Comparison of meteorological and agriculture-related drought indicators across Ethiopia | Meteorological and agricultural |
22 | Y.A. Bayissa et al., 2018 | Developing a satellite-based combined drought indicator to monitor agricultural drought: a case study for Ethiopia | Agricultural |
23 | IDA GRANT-H0280, 2011 | Emergency drought recovery project (EDRP) in Ethiopia | General |
24 | Sara Pantuliano and Mike Wekesa, 2008 | Improving drought response in pastoral areas of Ethiopia | General |
Summary of selected literature related to drought studies in Ethiopia for this review.
N0. | Basin | Article related to meteorological drought | Articles related to hydrological drought |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Abbay | 3 | 1 |
2 | Awash | 2 | |
3 | Omo-Gibe | 1 | |
4 | Rift Valley | 1 | |
5 | Tekeze | 2 | |
6 | Wabishebele | 1 |
Different types of drought studies status in each river basin.
Agricultural and socioeconomic drought studies were not focused on a particular river basin. Total 13 articles, including agricultural, socioeconomic, and general concepts, and drought impacts in Ethiopia were covered in some parts of the country without specifying a particular river basin.
Ethiopia has been affected by drought many times over the last few centuries. However, drought studies and mitigation measurement investigation are still limited. Although there are few drought studies in the country; it is insufficient. Especially agricultural, hydrological and socioeconomic drought studies are untouched. As shown in Table 4 and Figure 4, most drought studies in Ethiopia are focused on meteorological drought and other general drought-related impact assessments. Meteorological drought is highly varying within the short-period scale in a month depending on the precipitation variability. Therefore, drought analysis from a short-time scale may lead to an erroneous conclusion. But hydrological drought study requires a long-term time scale greater than 6-month cumulative drought conditions of the study area. Mostly hydrological drought analysis is conducted annually based on and above, which will give some concrete information about the drought situation of a particular study area. From this review, hydrological drought studies were covered only 8.33%, which implies that it needs further study (one article in Abbay subbasin and one article from Wabishebele basin). Almost 78% of the study were concentrated in North Eastern and Upper Blue Nile basin, Tekeze and Abbay, and Awash river basin and which is meteorological drought (Table 3). Two researchers have been studied, hydrological drought in Abbay and Wabishebele basins (Table 3). But the remaining six basins are still not studied. Now the government of Ethiopia is planning to transform from agricultural lead to industrial transformation. This will have achieved when the natural resource will be properly managed and utilized. Water is the central part of all infrastructures development. However, the master plan of major river basins in Ethiopia focused only on the potential assessment of irrigation and hydropower, and there is no drought trend analysis and future hydrological drought forecasting. Hydrological drought affects irrigation, water supply, hydropower, and other water-related sectors. So, it is important to study the historical hydrological drought characteristics, such as frequency, magnitude, duration, severity, and future probability of the basin streamflow to satisfy all demands.
Type of drought | Number of studies | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Meteorological drought | 9 | 37.5 |
Hydrological drought | 2 | 8.33 |
Agricultural drought | 3 | 12.5 |
Socioeconomic drought | 3 | 12.5 |
General related to drought impact | 7 | 29.16 |
Total articles reviewed | 24 | 100 |
Types of drought studies over Ethiopia.
Percentage of drought studies in Ethiopia (MD = meteorological drought, HD = hydrological drought, AD = agricultural drought, SED = socioeconomical drought, and GD = general drought-related studies).
As far as reviewed from the basins master plan report and previous pieces of literature, there is no method adopted to analyze the hydrological drought in the region. But for sustainable water resource development, mitigation measurements of the extreme hydrological events, such as floods and drought, are impropriated. Otherwise, simply constructing any structure in the basin alone may not be a solution to improve poverty over the country.
From the reviewed papers, 37.5% was covered meteorological drought analysis and monitoring studies, and agricultural drought studies were covered 12.5% (Table 4). Ethiopia is highly dependent on rainfed agriculture; so, meteorological and agricultural drought analysis, monitoring, and early warning system development are crucial. But still, there is no well-adopted drought analysis technique for a nationwide or a regional level. As a result, the development of drought early warning system has lacked. At the same time, hydrological drought analysis and monitoring is also key point for river basin development and water resource management. But due to its large input data requirement, hydrological drought study is not further investigated.
The socioeconomic of Ethiopia is continuously affected by frequent drought disasters. It is difficult to cope with subsequent years after drought has occurred. Up to 29.16% of the reviewed papers were related to drought impact, attribution, economics resilience to drought, extreme drought assessment, trend, and periodicity of drought in Ethiopia [4, 18, 19, 20]. Except for some articles, most of the reviewed articles were conducted in some parts of the country and did not give good information about the effect of drought in the country.
During any river basin master planning, considering extreme hydrological events, such as floods and drought, are the important issues for sustainable water resource development. Otherwise, simply focusing on the investigation and assessment of the available natural resources in a specific river basin and utilization of the resource will never bring development. Particular attention is to be given to drought-affected areas and conjunctive use of ground and surface water is encouraged. Aridity is the general characteristic of an arid climate and represents a (relatively) permanent condition, while drought is temporary. In an arid climate, drought can still occur when local conditions are even drier than normal. But 90% of the reviewed studies in Ethiopia were conducted on arid and semiarid areas of the region. Generally, hydrological drought study lacked in the country. Therefore, in the future, it is important to focus on hydrological drought monitoring and forecasting to achieve the sustainable utilization of available water resources in Ethiopia.
All the river basin master plan documents were freely accessed from the Ministry of Water, Irrigation, and Electricity of Ethiopia. Therefore, great gratitude is given to all the staff members of the ministry, especially for Basin Development Authority Department.
We declared that we have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this chapter.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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He is simultaneously working as a Researcher with Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science, Microbiology and Plant Nutrition (FA), Mendel University Brno and Institute of Environmental Studies, Charles University Prague, Czechia. \nHis research is focused on soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation mechanisms, plant-microbe interactions, biochar production, and utilization for agricultural crop production and environmental remediation. He is actively involved in bioremediation of contaminated soils using organic and inorganic amendments in addition to exploiting plant-microbe interactions. He has published over 50 refereed journal articles, many of which sought to explore the effectiveness of innovative soil amendments and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for improving crop performance and soil resilience under various abiotic stresses. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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