Parameters of fused silica and the NLC E7.
\r\n\tAtherosclerosis is a systemic disease. Some 60% of patients with peripheral artery disease will have ischaemic heart disease, and 30% have cerebrovascular disease. Within five years of diagnosis, 10-15% of patients with intermittent claudication will die from cardiovascular disease. Therefore, management begins with the identification and modification of risk factors that are common to peripheral artery disease, heart disease, and stroke. Treatment goals include reducing cardiovascular risk and improving functional capacity. Revascularization is indicated for persistent symptoms.
\r\n\tThe main objective of the book is to deal with peripheral arterial disease in the most diverse aspects. Addressing issues such as pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, clinical aspects, treatment, and prognosis.
\r\n\t
Terahertz (THz) science and technology have advanced significantly over the last 3 decades. Applications are abundant in topics such as material characterization, data communication, biomedicine, 3D imaging, and environmental surveillance [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. These developments were hampered as crucial quasi-optic components such as phase shifters [6, 7, 8, 9], phase gratings [10, 11, 12], modulators [13, 14], attenuators [15], polarizers [16, 17], and beam splitters [18, 19, 20, 21] in the THz range are still relatively underdeveloped.
\nTo control the properties of electromagnetic waves at all wavelengths, periodic structures such as gratings are frequently employed. In the THz frequency range, gratings with various periods have been used for tailoring few-cycle pulses [22]. Gratings have also been used as couplers and filters [23]. Tunable THz devices based on an optically and electrically controlled carrier concentration in quantum-well structures have been demonstrated. However, these devices have a limited range of tunability and must be operated at cryogenic temperatures far below room temperature [24, 25, 26]. The potential of gratings with liquid-crystal-enabled functionalities was recognized 2 decades ago [27]. Recently, the focus has been on various tunable THz devices, such as phase shifters, filters, and switches that are controlled electrically or magnetically, employing liquid crystals, primarily nematic liquid crystals (NLCs) [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Previously, we demonstrated a magnetically controlled phase grating for manipulating THz waves [10]. This is based on magnetic-field-induced birefringence of the NLCs employed [34]. Nonetheless, electrically controlled phase gratings are generally regarded as desirable for many applications. Therefore, we also proposed and demonstrated an electrically controlled phase grating involving NLCs for THz waves [11]. However, the theoretical analysis was not described in detail and the issue of insertion loss was not touched upon in the previous communication.
\nBesides, there is an urgent need for THz beam steering devices for scanning the THz beam over the surface of targets to get full topological and spectral information, a metamaterial-based beam steerer has been demonstrated and achieved a maximal deflection angle of 6° [35]. Other groups employed highly-doped semiconductors, such as Indium antimonide (InSb) [36] and GaAs [37], so that the propagation properties of surface plasmons mode in highly-doped semiconductor slits can be tailored by changing the carrier density there [36]. On the other hand, the development of a reconfigurable THz antenna [38], which can electrically steer the THz beam or vary the beam shapes, are useful for applications, such as adaptive wireless, satellite communication networks, and automobile radar systems. The use of LC to construct a phase array for beam steering in millimeter wave range has also been reported recently [39].
\nIn this chapter, we report our comprehensive experimental studies on a phase grating for THz waves. In particular, we analyzed the insertion loss in such gratings and devised an approach for improving the loss by 2.5 dB over existing designs. Further, we demonstrated an electrically tunable phase shifter array to modulate the phase of THz beam. By applying different voltages on each part of the phase array, we can achieve a gradient in phase shift. Finally, it is shown that the incident THz wave can be steered toward a selected direction.
\nWe designed a binary phase grating consisting of alternating sections of two materials (fused silica and LCs) with different refractive indices. Figure 1 shows the schematic of a generic binary phase grating. The grating is periodic along the x-direction. The THz wave is assumed to be polarized along the x-axis and propagates along the y-direction. Each section of the grating can be considered a retarder that introduces a phase shift. The Jones matrix [40] associated with a particular retarder can be written as
\nSchematic of a generic binary phase grating consisting alternating sections with refractive indices of
where
where
For our design, we set
In Eq. (4),
For an ideal binary phase grating, the diffraction efficiency
where
where Δ
Because of the THz wavelength and THz beam size, the grating can have only a finite number of grooves. Further, the number of grooves
Let the frequency of the THz be centered at 0.3 THz or a wavelength of 1 mm, we designed
The diffraction efficiency of a phase grating with 10 (black dashed curve) and 40 periods (red solid line) is plotted as a function of the diffraction angle (for the first order).
When the relative phase difference between adjacent groves is tuned between π and 2π, the diffracted signals between the zeroth order and the first order have the maximal tunable range. This is illustrated in Figure 3 for a grating with 10 periods. For Δ
Diffraction efficiencies of a 10-period phase grating are plotted as a function of the diffraction angle for relative phase differences of π and 2π.
The design of the grating was based on the structure of the electrically controlled THz phase grating reported in our previous study [11]. This is shown schematically in Figure 4. The incident THz wave was assumed to be polarized in the y-direction. Orientations of the LC molecules for two possible configurations are shown (See Figure 4). The device was designed such that the frequency band of 0.3–0.5 THz would exhibit the highest zeroth-order diffraction efficiency.
\nStructure of the electrically controlled THz phase grating using nematic liquid crystals. ITO: Indium tin oxide; PI: Polyimide; LC: Liquid crystal molecules;
Parallel grooves with a period of 2.0 mm, width of 1.0 mm, and groove depth of 2.5 mm were formed by stacking indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated fused silica substrates; the refractive index of these substrates is 1.95 in the sub-THz frequency region (0.2–0.8 THz). The surfaces of the fused silica substrates were coated with polyimide (SE-130B, Nissan) and then rubbed for homogenous alignment. The grooves were filled with NLCs (E7, Merck) and sealed with a sheet of fused silica coated with N,N-dimethyl-N-octadecyl-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilyl chloride. At room temperature, E7 is a birefringent material with positive dielectric anisotropy. The LC molecules tend to be aligned parallel to the direction of the applied electric field when the applied voltage is greater than a threshold voltage. The effective refractive index of E7 [43],
A photoconductive (PC) antenna-based THz time-domain spectrometer (THz-TDS) [32, 44], was used for measuring the zeroth-order diffraction spectra of the device. Briefly, the pump beam from a femtosecond mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser was focused on a dipole antenna fabricated on LT-GaAs for generating a broadband THz signal, which was collimated and collected through the THz phase grating by using off-axis parabolic gold mirrors. A pair of parallel wire-grid polarizers (GS57204, Specac) was placed before and after the device under test. The zeroth-order diffraction of THz radiation was coherently detected by another PC antenna of the same type as that of the THz-TDS and grated by ultrafast pulses from the same laser.
\nIn the second set of experiments, the broadband THz signal was filtered by using a metallic hole array to obtain a quasi-monochromatic wave centered at 0.3 THz and with a line width of 0.03 THz [45]. The diffraction pattern of this beam produced by a grating with various nematic LC orientations was detected and mapped by a liquid-helium-cooled Si bolometer, which was at a distance of 20 cm from the device and located on a rotating arm that could be swung with respect to the fixed grating. The bolometer had an aperture with a diameter of approximately 2.5 cm.
\nTo estimate the insertion loss of the THz grating, we regarded the device as a stack of parallel-plate waveguides. The ITO conductive film was not an ideal conductor. We recently showed that for a conductivity of 1500–2200 Ω−1·cm−1, the complex refractive indices of ITO are 20−70 for
and
\nwhere
We have also designed an electrically tunable phase shifter array which can function as the THz beam steerer. Figure 5 shows the structure of the phase shifter array, which is constructed by alternately stacking a number of NLC layers and electrodes. Voltage sources are connected to the electrodes to apply control voltages to each NLC layer. The effective refractive index,
Schematic structure of the electrically controlled THz phase shifter array for beam steering. (a) Set-up of the beam steering experiment. The relationship between the steering angle,
The device was designed such that, when no voltage was applied, the NLC molecules are aligned along the y-direction. In this case, the effective refractive index equals to that of the ordinary component of light in the LC,
where
where λ is the corresponding wavelength of THz wave. Accordingly, the THz wave can be steered by the control voltage. The phase shift Δ
where 2
In this work, we used the 550-μm-thick Teflon sheet as the spacer and the 100-μm-thick copper foil as the electrode. The copper foil was coated with PI Nissan SE-130B on both sides and rubbed for homogeneous alignment along y-direction before applying the voltage. The 18 NLC layers and 19 electrodes were stacked up alternately. The total thickness of the device was 12.1 mm, which corresponded to the size of the aperture,
The threshold voltage
For studying THz beam steering, we modified the THz-TDS by employing a 1 m-long single mode fiber (F-SF-C-1FC, from Newport Corp.) to guide the femtosecond laser directly to the detecting antenna. This way, the optical path remained fixed when the detecting arm was moved as the THz beam was steered. The schematic diagram of the setup is shown in Figure 6. The detection assembly was 20 cm away from the device and located on a rotation arm that can be swung with respect to the fixed device. This system was much more stable and convenient to use than the one employing the bolometer.
\nImproved THz-TDS. Probe beam is guided with a 1 m long optical fiber directly to the antenna. The detection assembly is located on a rotatable arm and can be moved without changing the optical path.
We studied zeroth-order diffracted THz pulses by the phase grating for both ordinary and extraordinary waves were described in Ref. [11].
\nExperimentally, the diffraction efficiency of diffracted signals,
In the FDTD simulation, we analyzed the grating structure as a stack of rectangular-shaped waveguides. Neglecting conductive and magnetic loss of the materials involved, the Maxwell-Faraday and Maxwell-Ampere equations can be expanded in the Cartesian coordinates as
\nwhere
Simulation results for (a) an incident THz wave that is yet to enter the device, (b) and (c) THz waves at two positions in the grating, and (d) a THz wave that has emerged from the grating.
To illustrate performance of the grating, experimental and FDTD simulation results of the zeroth-order diffraction efficiencies of the phase grating operated at four values of applied voltage are plotted as a function of frequency in Figure 8 (reproduced from [11] with permission). Note that the experimentally measured diffraction efficiency was the highest near 0.3 THz, in agreement with the designed frequency. For an ordinary wave at 0.3 THz, the phase difference between fused silica and E7 was close to 2π. Therefore, the transmission of the grating was higher. The THz wave was mainly concentrated in the zeroth order. By contrast, for extraordinary waves, the phase difference was close to π. Furthermore, the diffraction efficiency was lower for the zeroth order because the THz wave was mostly diffracted into the first order.
\n(a) FDTD simulation and (b) experimental results of the frequency dependence of the zeroth-order diffraction efficiencies of the phase grating operated at four values of applied voltages. (
The experimental and FDTD simulation results are in general agreement. In Figure 8(a, b), there are, however, some discrepancies in efficiencies and peak positions. This is expected as the thickness of the fused silica plates in the grating assembly varies by ±0.1 mm. To check, we calculated diffraction efficiencies of gratings with dimensions of 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6 mm using the FDTD software for the o-ray and e-ray, respectively. Further, a structure with random arrangement of sections with deviations of 0.1 mm centered around 2.5 mm was also studied. The results are shown in Figure 9. Clear shifts are observed in the curves. Therefore, we inferred that the experimental results are reliable.
\nFDTD simulation result showing the diffraction efficiency as a function of the frequency for the phase grating of different thicknesses (see text): (a) o-wave and (b) e-wave.
Because of the periodically arranged ITO films in the grating, our device could be considered a wire-grid polarizer for the THz wave. Only a THz wave polarized perpendicular to the grooves could pass through the electrically tuned phase grating. The measurement result is shown in Figure 10. The extinction ratio of the device shows the ratio of the transmitted THz signals polarized parallel and perpendicular to the grooves is better than 1:100 at ~ 0.3 THz.
\nExtinction ratio of a sample. The data curve shows the proportion of THz-polarized transmitted signals parallel and perpendicular to the grooves.
In Figure 11, we present the intensity profiles of the diffracted 0.3 THz beam polarized in the y-direction. Data are shown for the grating biased from 0 to 90 V. The corresponding effective indices of refraction vary from 1.58 to 1.71. A diffraction maximum was detected at
Diffraction efficiencies of the grating biased at several values of applied voltages are plotted as a function of the diffraction angle for the 0.3 THz beam. Solid lines are theoretical curves.
When the E7 molecules were aligned such that the refractive index was
Figure 12(a, b) show the diffraction efficiencies of the zeroth and first orders as a function of the refractive index of E7 and
Diffraction efficiency as a function of the refractive index of E7 and the applied voltage for the (a) zeroth order and (b) first order. The theoretical calculation results and experimental results are shown by the curves and dots, respectively.
Alternatively, these results indicate that the beam splitting ratio can be tuned and varied as a function of the refractive index of the nematic liquid crystal, E7. This is illustrated in Figure 13.
\nBeam splitting ratio as a function of the refractive index of E7. The theoretical calculation results and experimental results are shown by the curve and dots, respectively.
The theoretical calculation results and the experimental results are shown by the curve and dot symbols, respectively in Figure 13. The results indicate that the beam splitting ratio of the zeroth order to the first order can be tuned from 10:1 to 3:5.
\nInsertion loss is a critical parameter for THz devices. We have experimentally and theoretically studied the insertion loss of two classes of devices. Figure 14(a) shows the diffraction efficiency of a grating with a thicker base (
Diffraction efficiency of the devices with bases of (a)
The thickness of the ITO film we used was approximately 200 nm. According to [46], the conductivity
Material | \nFused silica | \nE7 ( | \nE7 ( | \n
---|---|---|---|
3.80 | \n2.50 | \n2.92 | \n|
0.008 | \n0.095 | \n0.041 | \n|
tan | \n0.0021 | \n0.038 | \n0.014 | \n
Parameters of fused silica and the NLC E7.
The estimated loss value was obtained from Eqs. (9) and (10). For the grating with a larger base component (
Phase grating | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Driving voltage | \n0 V ( | \n90 V ( | \n0 V ( | \n90 V ( | \n
(Estimated insertion loss) Conductor loss Dielectric loss Total | \n\n 4.7 dB 4.3 dB 9.0 dB | \n\n 7.8 dB 4.9 dB 13 dB | \n\n 2.3 dB 3.2 dB 5.5 dB | \n\n 3.8 dB 3.1 dB 6.9 dB | \n
Measured value | \n8.0 dB | \n10 dB | \n6.1 dB | \n7.4 dB | \n
Insertion loss of phase gratings.
Therefore, if a grating device without a base (
For gratings using LCs, the response time of the device is a concern. The voltage-on and voltage-off times were measured by subjecting the device to a pulse signal. Figure 15(a, b) shows the normalized power as a function of the driving voltage in the voltage-on and voltage-off states, respectively. We defined the rise time as the duration for which the driving voltage was turned on for reducing the power to 37% of the maximum. The fall time was defined as the duration for which the driving voltage was turned off for increasing the power to 63% of the maximum. The rise and fall times of the grating were found to be approximately 23 and 290 s, respectively. The phase grating responded slowly because of the thick LC layer used. Consequently, the present device is not suitable for applications that require fast modulation. However, the device is appropriate for instrumentation or apparatuses that require, for example, a fixed beam splitting ratio with occasional fine tuning.
\nResponse times of a phase grating: (a) voltage-on state and (b) voltage-off state.
The response time of the voltage-off state depended only on the material properties and cell thickness. Therefore, it cannot be shortened by applying a higher electric field. To shorten the response time, LCs with birefringence than E7 can be used. Alternatively, dual-frequency LCs can be employed; the use of dual-frequency LCs has been discussed in previous papers [51, 52, 53, 54]. Dual-frequency LCs show high dielectric dispersion, and their dielectric anisotropy is frequency dependent, resulting in a change in sign at the crossover frequency. Dual-frequency materials in which the crossover frequency is a few kilohertz and changes markedly over the range are commercially available. Dual-frequency LCs would enable the operation of phase gratings in a nonzero applied voltage state.
\nWe have studied the phase shift experienced by the THz wave propagating through the grating in which the control voltages were applied equally to all NLC layers. Figure 16 shows the measured THz waveforms for biasing voltages varied from 0 to 28.8 Vrms. It is obviously that the pulses delay increase as applying voltages increased, as the NLC molecules re-orientate gradually from ordinary to extraordinary refractive index.
\nTHz signal delay in time domain. Delay time increases as applying voltage increases.
By applying Fourier transform on the waveforms in Figure 16, we obtained the phase shift as a function of frequency. This is shown in Figure 17. The phase shift increased with increasing applying voltages as expected. Figure 18 is a plot the phase shift at 0.3 THz as a function of the control voltage. Above the threshold voltage, 1.20 Vrms, the phase shift rapidly increases with the applying voltage. The maximum phase shift reached approximately 11.24 rad. This value is in close agreement with the calculated value.
\nSpectra of phase shift of THz signal. Phase increases as applying voltage increases.
Phase shift at 0.3 THz as a function of the control voltage.
We measured the beam steering characteristics of the phase-shifting array with the modified THz-TDS shown in Figure 6. Although the applying voltage should be adjusted layer-by layer for beam steering, only nine values of control voltages were available to be applied to each NLC block consisting two NLC layers. As the phase shift Δ
\n | Applied voltage (Vrms) | \nPhase shift (rad) at 0.3 THz | \n
---|---|---|
0 | \n0 | \n|
1.32 | \n1.41 | \n|
1.44 | \n2.81 | \n|
1.57 | \n4.22 | \n|
1.77 | \n5.62 | \n|
2.18 | \n7.03 | \n|
2.96 | \n8.43 | \n|
4.88 | \n9.84 | \n|
28.80 | \n11.24 | \n
Control voltage and corresponding phase shift at 0.3 THz.
The experimental results demonstrating beam steering are shown in Figure 19.
\nTHz signals before steered at
In the above figure, (a) shows the THz signal before transmitted to the device, and (b) and (c) show the THz signal transmitted through the device with ordinary and extraordinary refractive indices at
Spectra of THz signals before steered at
In this work, we review our theoretical and experimental studies on electrically controlled LC-based phase gratings for manipulating THz waves. This device can be used as a tunable THz beam splitter, and the beam splitting ratio of the zeroth-order diffraction to the first-order diffraction can be tuned from 10:1 to 3:5. An FDTD simulation was performed to investigate the diffraction effect of the phase grating. The experimental and simulation results were in general agreement. The signal losses of the device were discussed. It was observed that the insertion loss could be reduced by reducing the thickness of the fused silica plates in the base component of the device. The rise and fall times of the grating are approximately 23 and 290 s, respectively. The slow response could be accounted for because of the thick LC layer employed. Consequently, it is not suitable for applications that require fast modulation. However, the device is appropriate for instrumentation or apparatuses that require, for example, a fixed beam splitting ratio with occasional fine tuning. The use of highly-birefringent NLCs or dual-frequency LCs could alleviate the problem somewhat. Besides, we demonstrated a grating-structured phase shifter array that can be used as the THz shifter and THz beam steerer. A phase shift as large as 11.24 rad was achieved. Using a designed voltage gradient biasing on the grating structure, broadband THz signal below 0.5 THz can be steered by as much as 8.5°. The experimental results are in good agreement with theoretical predictions.
\nThis work was partly supported by the National Science Council of Taiwan (104–2221-E-007-093-MY3), the Academic Top University Program of the Taiwan Ministry of Education, and the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA2386–13–1-4086). Chia-Jen Lin is now with Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company. Contributions by Mr. Chuan-Hsien Lin are gratefully acknowledged.
\nThe flight control system of a military aircraft is determined by the control surfaces installed on the airplane body that are balanced movements coordinated by a flight control system that drives an aircraft around the three axes of motion, as shown in Figure 1 [1, 2]:
Yaw
Pitch
Roll
Axes of motion of a military aircraft.
Main forces acting on a military aircraft in straight and level flight or any other type of aircraft in straight and level flight [3] are shown in Figure 2.
Main forces acting on a military aircraft.
To take off and to keep in flight, a military aircraft must meet the following conditions: the
Primary flight control surfaces of a modern military aircraft are shown in Figure 3.
Primary flight control surfaces of a modern military aircraft.
Flaperons are flight control surfaces on the rear wing of a military aircraft used as flaps during takeoff and landing maneuvers when the aircraft has a low speed. Flaperons are also used as ailerons to roll aircraft; therefore, the flaperons combine the functions of flaps and ailerons.
Leading-edge slats are used to increase the aircraft lift during takeoff and landing maneuvers when the aircraft has a low speed.
The horizontal stabilizer provides stability for the military aircraft, and it can be slowly rotated to act as an elevator (both for pitch control).
The two vertical stabilizers provide the stability of the military aircraft around the vertical axis. The two rudders ensure the control of the yaw movement of the military aircraft.
As the flight speed of military aircraft has increased continuously, it was necessary to develop new flight control systems. The old flight control system with mechanical links from the pilot control column (yoke) and rudder pedals to the control surfaces is using the power of the pilot’s arms and legs to directly move the control surfaces.
The first major step in the development of flight control systems for military aircraft is the fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system [2, 4], which is designed as a multiredundant system. The command imposed by the pilot with a side stick/rudder pedal or by autopilot is converted into electrical signals to a flight control computer (FLCC), which interprets and sends wired electrical commands to the electrohydraulic actuators of each control surface and receives electrical signals from the motion transducer of each control surface. To increase flight safety, each flight control computer has a flight envelope embedded in it (a computer program made by specialized engineers) that eliminates dangerous maneuvers for the aircraft structure and the life of the crew on board while maintaining the aerodynamic stability of the aircraft in any situation or maneuvers allowed by the flight envelope.
The latest major step in the evolution of military aircraft flight control systems is the fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system consisting of the replacement of copper wires with fiber-optic cables, which have an even much lower weight and a much higher capacity to carry digital information (light or photons). The command imposed by the pilot with a side stick/rudder pedal or by autopilot is converted into light signals to the flight control computer and from here to the electrical or electrohydraulic actuators of each control surface and receives light signals as feedback from the motion transducer of each control surface. The flight computer of the fly-by-light flight control system has a flight envelope embedded in it, which eliminates dangerous maneuvers for the aircraft structure and the life of the crew on board while maintaining the aerodynamic stability of the aircraft in any situation or maneuvers allowed by the flight envelope [2, 6]. The Fly-by-Light flight control system is designed as a multi redundant system.
The old pilot-control flight control system with mechanical links is shown in Figure 4. The pilot directly moves all the control surfaces using the control column (yoke) or rudder pedals with the strength of his arms or his legs. The pilot also feels the resistance to the movement of all these control surfaces.
Pilot-control flight control system with mechanical links.
As the flight speed of a new military aircraft increased continuously from subsonic velocities to supersonic velocities, and the aircraft was designed aerodynamically unstable to increase their maneuverability in the air, it was necessary to continuously develop new and modern flight control systems.
The first major step in the development of aeronautical technologies for flight control systems of military aircraft is the fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control designed as a multiredundant system. The command imposed by the pilot with a side stick/rudder pedal or by autopilot is converted into electrical signals sent by copper wires to a flight control computer, which interprets and sends wired electrical commands to the electrohydraulic actuators of each control surface and receives (feedback) electrical signals from the motion transducer of each control surface to provide self-corrective action, as shown in Figure 5. Initially, the data sent by copper wires were analog, but later these were transformed into digital signals to avoid any communication errors.
Fly-by-wire flight control system for a military aircraft.
The fly-by-wire flight control system has a much lower weight than the previous flight control system because all the mechanical connections have been replaced by thin copper wires. Other advantages of this new control system are lower weight, better reliability, damage endurance, and very efficient control of a high-speed very maneuverable military aircraft designed unstable just to increase its maneuverability [2].
The fly-by-wire system is the flight control system that processes the flight control inputs made by the pilot or autopilot using flight computers and submits suitable electrical signals by copper wires to each actuator of the flight control surfaces [2]. The fly-by-wire system means that the pilot inputs do not directly move the control surfaces as explained above, but the pilot must have an effort simulator when moving the side stick/rudder pedal to feel the command. Instead, the inputs are read by a computer, which, in turn, determines how to move the control surfaces to perform the pilot’s maneuvers as well as possible, controlled by the active flight envelope containing flight control laws implemented in it by specialized engineers [2, 6], as shown in Figure 5.
Another definition of fly-by-wire is a flight control system of an aerospace vehicle in which information is completely transmitted by electrical means via copper wires [2, 4].
The flight envelope refers to the properties of use in the safe parameters of a military airplane. The airplane is manufactured to fly at different parameters of all the kinds of different natures set exactly in advance by engineers. These parameters refer, for example, to the maximum speed, the maximum altitude, the maximum climb rate, etc [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
In the past, there have been aircraft near-accidents or even crashes due to malfunctioning sensors that have transmitted incorrect data to the flight control computer. That is why it is very important to consider multiredundant sensor circuits in the design process to compare provided information. Overall, it should be noted that the introduction of automation and computers onboard aircraft has significantly reduced the possibility of human error.
The protection software included in the flight envelope automatically prevents pilots’ unsafe actions and helps them stabilize the airplane. The fly-by-wire flight control system ensures the suppression of air disturbance and, consequently, reduces the fatigue loads and increases the comfort of the crew on board and ensures an optimized trim setting and, consequently, drag reduction.
In 1972, at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center, the first digital fly-by-wire flight control system without a mechanical backup was successfully utilized.
Neil Armstrong, a former research pilot at Dryden, played an important role after his historic Apollo 11 lunar landing. NASA’s DFBW program consisted of 210 flights and lasted 13 years [2, 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
The Dryden DFBW program has changed the way engineers design and pilots fly commercial and military aircraft. Aircraft equipped with fly-by-wire systems are safer, more reliable, easier to fly, more maneuverable, and more fuel-efficient while having lower maintenance costs [2, 5, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
The second major step in the development of the fly-by-wire system is the F-16 Fighting Falcon, originally developed by General Dynamics (now Lockheed-Martin) and is a proven compact, single-engine, multirole fighter airplane and the World’s first fly-by-wire combat airplane [14, 20, 21] presented in Figure 6.
Digital fly-by-wire system [
Since the F-16A’s first flight in December 1976, this highly maneuverable air-to-air combat and air-to-surface attack airplane has provided mission versatility and high performance for the U.S. and allied nations at a relatively low cost. The F-16 pilot maintains excellent flight control through the airplane’s fly-by-wire system. The pilot sends electrical signals via a side stick/rudder pedal to flight computers and then to the actuators of flight control surfaces, such as ailerons and rudders. The flight computers constantly adjust the inputs to enable stability in level flight and high maneuverability in combat, inside the flight envelope. The side stick/rudder pedal allows the pilot to easily and accurately control the airplane during high G-force of combat maneuvers [14, 20, 21].
The F-16 was the first production airplane to use fly-by-wire technology. To improve maneuverability, the F-16 was designed to be aerodynamically unstable or to have relaxed static stability (RSS). To make the flight of this lightweight fighter airplane smoother, the F-16 has a flight control computer (FLCC) that manages the flight control system [14, 22].
The fly-by-light (FBL) system installed on military aircraft, using fiber-optic cables, has multiple advantages highlighted below, which provide tactical and safety advantages for the military aircraft and its crew [23].
The structure of a fiber-optic cable [24, 25] is presented in Figure 7.
The fiber core is made of very high-purity optical glass or special plastic, and its thickness (9 μm/50 μm/62.5 μm), depending on the desired transmission spectrum, is less than the thickness of the human hair (about 70 μm).
The cladding of an optical fiber has a thickness of 125 μm.
The coating of an optical fiber has a thickness of 250 μm.
The strengthened layer of an optical fiber has a thickness of 900 μm, which contains a tight buffer wrapped in aramid yarn.
The outer jacket of an optical fiber has a diameter of 1.2 mm/1.6 mm/2.0 mm/3.0 mm.
Fiber-optic cable structure [
Owing to their qualities, fiber-optic cables are extensively used in telecommunications and data networks (Internet). In recent years, more and more countries and companies have implemented the FBL system for military and commercial aircraft [23].
The fiber-optic cables are used in fly-by-light (FBL) flight control systems of the aircraft, and they replace the copper cables previously used in fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control systems [26, 27, 28].
For this reason, the advantages of using optical fibers are highlighted, as shown in Figure 8 and the following explanations [27, 29].
Advantages of using fiber-optic cables [
The fiber-optic cable provides a multitude of benefits and redundancy too. The flight control computer has also a flight envelope embedded in it (a computer program made by engineers) that eliminates dangerous maneuvers for the aircraft structure and the life of the crew on board while maintaining the aerodynamic stability of the aircraft in any situation or maneuvers allowed by the flight envelope.
The fiber-optic cable has a
The use of a fiber-optic cable to replace the copper wire will significantly reduce the weight of the new fly-by-light system, and therefore, it will reduce the weight of the entire aircraft.
Fiber-optic cables are characterized by the
Multiple light signals can be carried by the fiber-optic cable over much longer distances, without degrading the quality of the multiple light signals, since the signal sent through the optical fiber is much less likely to be altered during transmission, compared to the copper wire.
The core of fiber-optic cables is made of glass, which makes it
The fiber-optic cables are
Consequently, the weight of a flight control system using fiber-optic cables (FBL) is significantly reduced compared to the FBW system.
The fiber-optic cables do not heat up because they transmit only light signals (photons).
The fiber-optic cable is
The fly-by-light (FBL) system installed on military aircraft, using fiber-optic cables, has multiple advantages highlighted above, which provide tactical and safety advantages for the military aircraft and its crew.
The architecture of the fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system for a modern military aircraft is presented in Figure 9 [23], and it is like the structure of an FBW system, but there are significant differences between the two systems (FBL and FBW) [29], as presented below:
The fiber-optic cable is replacing the copper wires.
The fiber-optic cable does not heat up because it transmits only light signals (photons).
The fiber-optic cable has a high bandwidth; therefore, the number of cables is reduced, and the weight of the flight control system is also reduced.
The fiber-optic cable is unaffected by electromagnetic interference (EMI); therefore, the cables can be positioned near electronic devices, near weapons, or even fuel tanks in the aircraft.
The fiber-optic cable is unaffected by electromagnetic pulse (EMP) generated by nuclear detonation, and the FBL system recovers in a few minutes after explosions that generated strong radiation; therefore, the aircraft can be used in the war zone if the mentioned explosions did not hit the aircraft directly.
The flight control computer has a high capacity, and it is designed with open architecture for both components, that is, hardware and software, so that it can be easily adapted depending on the tactical situation, the type and quantity of weapons loaded, the type of missions, etc.
The fly-by-light flight control system for a modern military aircraft [
A list of known aircraft using the fly-by-light system is presented below.
The A-7D test aircraft, equipped with the complete fly-by-light system flew first on February 7, 1975 and then on March 24, 1982, in California, USA [23].
The Kawasaki XP-1, a Japanese maritime reconnaissance aircraft, had its first flight in September 2007, and it has the distinction of being the first operational aircraft in the world to use a fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system [23].
On March 18, 2018, Gulfstream demonstrates the fly-by-light aircraft control system, during a nearly 75-minute flight [26].
China intends to use the fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system for the sixth-generation fighters [28].
India is developing research to use the fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system for the sixth-generation fighters for the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), an Indian program to develop fifth- to sixth-generation fighter aircraft for the Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy [23].
Many companies, such as Boeing and Airbus, are interested in implementing the fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system on new aircraft or if they have the opportunity when modernize existing aircraft [23].
Flight control systems for military aircraft have had and still have a very rapid evolution based on the needs of the air force in each country, on the rapid scientific and technical evolution that allows new and new improvements of military flight control systems. As presented, military aircraft are designed to be aerodynamically unstable to give them superior maneuverability in training or during air combat with enemy armed forces.
During the air maneuvers, the aerodynamic forces developed on the control surfaces and the fuselage of the military aircraft are very large, which requires strong, very fast, but also very safe flight control systems, considering the huge cost of these aircraft.
To make the flight control systems very secure, they are designed as multiredundant systems, and the actuators with which the control surfaces are operated are dimensioned to exceed the aerodynamic forces in any situation.
Of all the systems presented and analyzed, the most advanced, the lightest, and with increased protection from electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is the fly-by-light (FBL) flight control system.
In addition, the fiber-optic cable used in the fly-by-light flight control system has a much higher bandwidth, and a very high transfer speed of multiple signals, with the speed of light, it is incredibly difficult to intercept the signal without sectioning the cable, and finally, the diameter of the fiber-optic cable is smaller, which makes it possible to design a multiredundant flight control system without significantly increasing the weight of military aircraft.
The best flight control system for military aircraft is by far the fly-by-light (FBL) system, due to its extraordinary features highlighted above.
From the creation of the first aircraft (the Wright brothers, in [30]), or even earlier, pioneer inventors used empirical mechanical flight control systems to take off, fly, and land with aircraft designed by them. Since then, flight control systems have evolved continuously, at a very fast pace, as flight speed has steadily increased and the sound barrier has been overcome several times nowadays.
The fly-by-wire flight control system is much lighter than the previous flight control system because all the mechanical connections have been replaced with thin copper wires. Other advantages of the control system are lower weight, better reliability, damage resistance, and highly efficient control of a high-speed and highly maneuverable military aircraft, unstable designed to increase its maneuverability.
The fly-by-light flight control system uses fiber-optic cables and is widely used in data and telecommunications networks. Recently, glass has been replaced with special clear plastic that helps reduce weight even more significantly. Due to its major advantages, the fly-by-light flight control system is increasingly used in military aircraft as well as in commercial aircraft [16, 31, 32, 33].
Because the fly-by-light system has low weight, high bandwidth, compact size, and resistance to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic pulses (EMP), it is expected to become the next generation of flight control systems as it offers immunity to new more hostile military environments.
The work was carried out within contract no. 8 N/2019, code PN 19 01 04 01, supported by the Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Digitalization.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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There are several ways to apply robust optimization and the choice of form is typical of the problem that is being solved. In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]},{id:"51131",doi:"10.5772/63785",title:"Survey of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms for Deep Learning Training",slug:"survey-of-meta-heuristic-algorithms-for-deep-learning-training",totalDownloads:3160,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Deep learning (DL) is a type of machine learning that mimics the thinking patterns of a human brain to learn the new abstract features automatically by deep and hierarchical layers. DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. Thereafter the possibilities of applying meta-heuristic algorithms on DL training and parameter optimization are discussed.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Zhonghuan Tian and Simon Fong",authors:[{id:"1952",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Fong",slug:"simon-fong",fullName:"Simon Fong"},{id:"186166",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhonghuan",middleName:null,surname:"Tien",slug:"zhonghuan-tien",fullName:"Zhonghuan Tien"}]},{id:"51209",doi:"10.5772/62472",title:"A Review and Comparative Study of Firefly Algorithm and its Modified Versions",slug:"a-review-and-comparative-study-of-firefly-algorithm-and-its-modified-versions",totalDownloads:2941,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Firefly algorithm is one of the well-known swarm-based algorithms which gained popularity within a short time and has different applications. It is easy to understand and implement. The existing studies show that it is prone to premature convergence and suggest the relaxation of having constant parameters. To boost the performance of the algorithm, different modifications are done by several researchers. In this chapter, we will review these modifications done on the standard firefly algorithm based on parameter modification, modified search strategy and change the solution space to make the search easy using different probability distributions. The modifications are done for continuous as well as non-continuous problems. Different studies including hybridization of firefly algorithm with other algorithms, extended firefly algorithm for multiobjective as well as multilevel optimization problems, for dynamic problems, constraint handling and convergence study will also be briefly reviewed. A simulation-based comparison will also be provided to analyse the performance of the standard as well as the modified versions of the algorithm.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Waqar A. Khan, Nawaf N. Hamadneh, Surafel L. Tilahun and Jean\nM. T. Ngnotchouye",authors:[{id:"180330",title:"Dr.",name:"Surafel",middleName:null,surname:"Tilahun",slug:"surafel-tilahun",fullName:"Surafel Tilahun"},{id:"180784",title:"Dr.",name:"Waqar Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"waqar-ahmed-khan",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed Khan"},{id:"185148",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hamadneh",slug:"nawaf-hamadneh",fullName:"Nawaf Hamadneh"},{id:"185149",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean M. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ngnotchouye",slug:"jean-m.-t.-ngnotchouye",fullName:"Jean M. T. Ngnotchouye"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1272,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6859,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1713,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"74032",title:"Wavelets for EEG Analysis",slug:"wavelets-for-eeg-analysis",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter introduces the applications of wavelet for Electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. First, the overview of EEG signal is discussed to the recording of raw EEG and widely used frequency bands in EEG studies. The chapter then progresses to discuss the common artefacts that contaminate EEG signal while recording. With a short overview of wavelet analysis techniques, namely; Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD), the chapter demonstrates the richness of CWT over conventional time-frequency analysis technique e.g. Short-Time Fourier Transform. Lastly, artefact removal algorithms based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and wavelet are discussed and a comparative analysis is demonstrated. The techniques covered in this chapter show that wavelet analysis is well-suited for EEG signals for describing time-localised event. Due to similar nature, wavelet analysis is also suitable for other biomedical signals such as Electrocardiogram and Electromyogram.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Nikesh Bajaj",authors:[{id:"326400",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikesh",middleName:null,surname:"Bajaj",slug:"nikesh-bajaj",fullName:"Nikesh Bajaj"}]},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2845,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human Activity, Pollutants, Reduced Risks, Population Growth, Waste Disposal, Remediation, Clean Environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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