Saliva components and functions.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-966-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-965-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-967-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f86a9f720cc3ac0f1c385d0367ea89b9",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11624.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Waste, Reuse, Reduction, Soil Health, Recycling, Agriculture and Environment, Modelling and Simulation, Agro-Industrial Waste, Bioresource Processing, Processing and Management, Crop Residue, Forest Waste",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is a researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with fifteen years of field and academic experience, currently in charge of the Agricultural Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A renowned researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with 14 years of academic experience at Bahauddin Zakariya University. Winner of various prestigious fellowships, awards, and research grants. Published 250+ articles along with several books and chapters. Guest editor of seven ISI-SCI journals for publishers like SAGE, MDPI, and Frontiers.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.png",biography:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is an assistant professor and lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering from Nanjing Agriculture University, China, in 2015, and completed his postdoctorate in Agricultural Engineering from Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2020. He was awarded a fellowship from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Ph.D. studies and from the Chinese Government for post-doctoral studies. He earned a BSc and MSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He is the author of more than fifty journal and conference articles. He has supervised six master’s students to date, and is currently supervising six master and two doctoral students. Dr. Ahmad has completed three research projects with his research interest focusing on the design of agricultural machinery, agricultural waste management, artificial intelligence (AI), and agricultural bioenvironment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.png",biography:"Muhammad Sultan is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural\r\nEngineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan (Pakistan). He completed his Ph.D.\r\nand Postdoc from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy & Environmental\r\nEngineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese\r\nGovernment) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. He also did a Postdoc as\r\na Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advance Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in\r\nthe field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He worked for Kyushu University\r\nInternational Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years.\r\nCurrently, he is working on 4 research projects funded by the Higher Education\r\nCommission (HEC) of Pakistan. He has completed six projects in past in the field of\r\nagricultural engineering. He has supervised 10+ M.Eng. and Ph.D. thesis and 10+\r\nstudents are currently working under his supervision. He has published 120+ journal\r\narticles, 100+ conference articles, 13 book chapters, and 6 books. He is serving as guest\r\neditor for the journals like Sustainability (MDPI), Agriculture (MDPI), Energies (MDPI),\r\nAdvances in Mechanical Engineering (SAGE), Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering, and\r\nEvergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-\r\nefficient temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse,\r\nlivestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include desiccant air-\r\nconditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle),\r\nenergy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; wastewater treatment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10454",title:"Technology in Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",slug:"technology-in-agriculture",bookSignature:"Fiaz Ahmad and Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Often, xerostomia is accompanied by a decrease in salivary flow or hyposalivation with consequences such as oral lesions, alterations of taste, feeling of thick saliva, chewing problems, dental caries, dental demineralization, periodontal disease, salivary gland infection, cervical caries, fungal infections, and others [1]. Currently, the diagnosis and therapeutic methods for this condition are varied and it is difficult to achieve favorable results in all cases, since the etiology seems to be multifactorial where both local and systemic factors would participate [2, 3, 4, 5]. Although xerostomia may occur frequently in the general population, clear and defined tools for diagnosis and treatment are still needed. Today, patients suffering from xerostomia visit numerous health professionals to solve this complex condition that limits many functions of day-to-day life, and often does not find response or effective treatment. Regards the complexity of xerostomia and its importance in dental practice, this chapter reviews the relevant data about etiology, diagnosis, consequences, and the current available treatments to this condition.
Xerostomia (dry mouth, oral dryness, and mouth dryness) is the dryness of oral cavity and can be caused by lower salivary flow or the complete lack of saliva [6]. Based on the etiology, the xerostomia can be classified as true xerostomia (xerostomia vera, primaria), caused by the malfunction of the salivary glands and pseudo xerostomia or symptomatic xerostomia (xerostomia spuria, symptomatica), which is described as the subjective sensation of oral dryness, despite normal secretory function of the salivary glands [7]. The xerostomia, as a symptom, is more common in older populations, but its causes are not related to aging. It has been shown it is related to some specific diseases, drugs, or therapies associated [8]. The prevalence of xerostomia varies from 13 to 28% in older populations, and increases up to 60% in patients living in long-term care facilities [9, 10, 11].
Xerostomia, although not considered a disease, may imply the presence of changes directly related to the salivary glands or be the result of systemic diseases [12]. In order for a suitable treatment to be instituted in a timely manner, it is important to carry out a thorough evaluation of the patient with the dry mouth condition, determining, if possible, the cause of the xerostomia. The patients with xerostomia, who are present with salivary gland hypofunction, are at risk of many oral complications; the persistence over time of low rates of salivary secretion causes changes in the oral environment and affects the hard and soft tissues of the mouth. Xerostomia can also be a consequence of systemic disease and its recognition is a valuable aid in the treatment [13]. It is a potentially debilitating condition that can affect up to 1 in 5 oncology patients, with higher prevalence in women and the elderly. There is evidence that the use of multiple medications may increase the risk of xerostomia [13]. This symptom represents a strong impact on the quality of life of the people affected. Over 87.6% of people with xerostomia were worried if they had to spend the rest of their lives with the dry mouth sensation [14]. The dry mouth (xerostomia) sensation has a higher incidence on individuals over 60 years old (12–40%), up to three times higher than on younger adults. It does not seem to be directly related to the normal aging process, but to some chronic diseases or treatments [15, 16]. It is estimated that about 20–30% of the 20-year-old population has xerostomia and the cause may be the increased use of antidepressants, since xerostomia is associated with depression and anxiety. In United States, up to 40% of the 20-year-old population may have xerostomia. The high consumption of antidepressants and other medications, as well as alcoholic beverages and tobacco may explain the increase in people with this condition [17].
Although xerostomia, as a symptom, entails many problems for patients who suffer from it, especially in relation to their quality of life, the decrease in the amount of saliva due to its multiple properties is what brings more consequences at the oral level. Saliva is composed of 99% water and electrolytes. The rest of the composition is organic and includes immunoglobulins, digestive enzymes such as amylase and lipase, and antibacterial and antifungal enzymes, as well as mucins [14]. Ninety-three percent of its volume is secreted by the major salivary glands and the remaining 7% by the minor glands. Saliva production is controlled by the autonomous nervous system, mainly by parasympathetic nerve signals [18]. Saliva is very important for the preservation of general and oral homeostasis. It has a participation in digestives functions, cleaning, sense of taste, oral mucosa hydration, and defense of teeth trough pH control and its remineralizing potential. In addition, it has antimicrobial properties and controls the composition of oral microbiota by its antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal capacities [14]. A summary of the Saliva components and functions can be seen in Table 1.
Functions | Components |
---|---|
Digestion | Amylase, lipase, ribonucleases, proteases, water, mucins |
Phonation | Water, mucin |
Taste | Water, gustin |
Lubrication | Mucin, proline-rich glycoproteins, water |
Antimicrobial action | Lysozyme, lactoferrin, lactoperoxides, mucins, cystins, histatins, immunoglobulins, proline-rich glycoproteins, IgA |
Maintaining mucosa integrity | Mucins, electrolytes, water |
Cleansing | Water |
Buffer capacity and remineralization | Bicarbonate, phosphate, calcium, staterin, proline-rich anionic proteins, fluoride |
Preparing food for swallowing | Water, mucins Digestion Amylase, lipase, ribonucleases, proteases, water, mucins |
Saliva components and functions.
Several short and long-term conditions can interrupt salivary secretion, leading to xerostomia. Xerostomia can thus result from three basic causes:
Factors affecting the salivary center: psychological problems (stress and anxiety), Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease (changes in the ability to perceive oral sensations), menopause, and others;
Factors that alter nerve stimulation of saliva: encephalitis, brain tumors, smoking and dehydration (resulting from the deficiency of water intake, vomiting, diarrhea and polyuria), as well as the use of some drugs, including antihistamines, opioids, antidepressants, antiepileptics, anxiolytics, anticholinergics, antimuscarinics, and others;
Alterations in salivary gland function as a consequence of obstruction, infection (sialodenitis), glandular tumors, calculi (sialolithiasis), autoimmune diseases (Sjögren’s syndrome-SS-, rheumatoid arthritis, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and systemic lupus erythematosus), and chemotherapy or radiotherapy performed as cancer therapy for the head and neck area. The extent of injury induced by radiotherapy depends on the volume of irradiated glands and the total dose and technique used [15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
The objective of the diagnosis is to provide treatment as early as possible, thus minimizing side effects in patients suffering from xerostomia. In order to establish a diagnosis of xerostomia, a clinical history is essential to identify the possible etiological factors [24]. It is necessary to investigate its causes. Thus, three orders of factors need to be known: the occurrence of systemic diseases, medication, and the history of radiation therapy. Questions are asked to the patient, trying to find out if he feels the dry mouth sensation, whether he needs to wet his mouth, if he can eat a wafer without drinking water, if the tongue chews the food and clings to the teeth, and the daily water intake daily among other issues [24, 25]. The qualitative clinical diagnosis of xerostomia is made through the observation of clinical signs such as palpation of the salivary glands, observation of the oral mucosa and its hydration, cracked lips, saliva under the tongue, appearance and texture of saliva, the identification of caries, candidiasis and burning sensation, and others [26].
Several methods have been developed to evaluate the level of dryness of the mouth, the discomfort being the most used: sialography, sialochemistry, sialometry and scintigraphy, salivary gland biopsy, ultrasound, magnetic resonance, and computed tomography [19]. Sialography is a technique of imaging that involves the injection of a retrograde form of radiopaque material into the salivary duct system in order to define the anatomy of the glands. This test is very important to demonstrate the presence of nodules or sialectasis, but it has its disadvantages, such as: the difficulty of the technique, since it is invasive and the patient can react acutely or chronically with the contrast material. The biopsy of the major or minor salivary glands allows the detection of inflammatory infiltrations, acinar destruction and dilation of salivary channels with thick mucus, and sometimes fibrosis [27]. Ultrasound, magnetic resonance, and computed tomography are tests that may also contribute to the diagnosis of diseases of the salivary glands.
To establish the condition of the symptom or to evaluate a possible salivary glandular dysfunction, the most used mechanisms are the questionnaire of xerostomia developed by Fox et al. [11, 28] and the determination of salivary flow rate. Sialometry and scintigraphy (an imaging diagnostic method of nuclear medicine that allows the study of the physiology of the various organs) are complementary tests that must be performed in order to evaluate the involvement of the salivary glands in patients with xerostomia. Sialometry is a relatively common procedure in normal clinical practice and include determination of stimulated salivary flow rate (s-SFR), unstimulated salivary flow rate (u-SFR), palatal secretion (PAL), and parotid secretion (PAR). These measurements are the simplest methods of evaluating the salivary glandular function. It is essential to measure the salivary flow, that is, the amount of saliva produced per unit of time. Very low unstimulated and stimulated salivary flow rates or hyposalivation are defined as <0.1 and <0.7 mL/min, respectively [7]. At rest, secretion ranges from 0.25 to 0.35 mL/min and is mostly produced by the submandibular and sublingual glands [29]. Under stimulation, the parotids account for 50% of salivary volume [30]. Determining the stimulated and unstimulated salivary flow is a procedure to measure the amount of saliva it produces a person at a given time. Generally, the stimulated salivary flow is measured for 5 min and unstimulated salivary flow is measured for 15 min [31]. This kind of measuring has the advantage of being easily implemented, low-cost, and could be available to most of the population at risk [32]. The diagnosis of salivary gland dysfunction is based on data derived from the symptoms reported by the patient, clinical examination leading to verification of the clinical signs and determination of stimulated salivary flow [33]. A severe decrease in salivary flow may lead to a poor health-related quality of life, as well as a risk condition for the development of oral pathologies such as periodontal disease, caries, and candidiasis [29, 34, 35].
The most severe conditions with effect on the salivary flow are SS and radiotherapy in the head and neck area, with the prevalence of xerostomia in almost 100% in these cases. These conditions are characterized by a progressive loss of secretory cells, and thus a progressive decline in saliva production [36, 37]. Less severe conditions may be dehydration, smoking, and inflammation or infection of the salivary glands [12]. In older people, the most common cause of xerostomia is the use of medications because the vast majority of the elderly are being treated with at least one drug that causes salivary hypofunction [32]. A summary of the main causes of xerostomia can be seen in Table 2.
Systemic diseases | Sjogren’s syndrome, diabetes mellitus, Parkinson’s disease, encephalitis, brain tumors, Plummer Vinson disease, hypertension, HIV infection, systemic rheumatic diseases, sarcoidosis, Alzheimer’s disease, cystic fibrosis, aplasia, chronic tuberculosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, hemolytic anemia, malignant lymphoma, systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, pernicious anemia, hypothyroidism, amyloidosis |
Other causes of xerostomia (no drugs or systemic diseases) | Radiotherapy and chemotherapy, infections, inflammation, tumors and sialolithiasis in salivary glands, salivary gland excision, vitamin A deficiency, menopause, stress, anxiety, dehydration, neurological disorders, senility, oral sensory dysfunction, iron deficiency, folic acid deficiency, uremia, polyuria, diarrhea, mouth breathing, bone marrow transplantation, endocrine disorders, pancreatic insufficiency |
Systemic diseases and other causes of xerostomia.
The reduced salivary flow is commonly seen in the aging populations. This can be attributed to either age-related localized degeneration of salivary glands or systemic diseases [38, 39]. As the patient ages, the organs atrophy and often result in a decrease in salivary production. It was described that in older people the loss was about 30% of acinar cells, with substitution of secretory components by fibrous and adipose tissue [40]. Besides, there are changes in salivary levels of potassium, sodium, IgA, proline-rich protein, lactoferrin, and lysozyme in elderly [28, 40]. A reduction in salivary flow of older people was identified, even in those not using systemic drugs, suggesting a relation between salivary dysfunction and aging [41]. Smith determined that a stimulated salivary flow in healthy adults older than age 70 is lower than in adults under 50 [42].
The most common cause of xerostomia is the use of some systemic medications [43]. Several drugs are able to induce hyposalivation and xerostomia, but they rarely cause irreversible damage to the salivary glands. Over 400 medicines, many of them in common use, induce salivary gland hypofunction [44]. Some examples are: anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, antiemetics, antihistamines, antiparkinsonian, antipsychotics, bronchodilators, decongestants, diuretics, muscle relaxants, analgesics, sedatives and anti-hypertensives, and others (Table 3) [29]. The exact mechanisms whereby some drugs determine xerostomia or hyposalivation are still unknown. Salivary dysfunction associated to drugs may occur through anticholinergic, cytotoxic action, sympathomimetic, or by damaged ion transport pathways in the acinar cells [39, 45, 46]. Patients who consume a higher number of daily medications have been associated with complaints of xerostomia [47, 48]. The therapeutic and controlled doses of medications do not damage the salivary gland structure. For that reason, drug-induced xerostomia is reversible. The discontinued use of these drugs can restore salivary flow [49].
Medicine group | Examples |
---|---|
Anxiolytics | Lorazepam, diazepam |
Anorectic | Fenfluramine |
Anticonvulsants | Gabapentin |
Antidepressants—tricyclic | Amitriptyline, imipramine |
Antidepressants—SSRI | Sertraline, fluoxetine |
Antiemetics | Meclizine |
Antihistaminics | Loratadine |
Antiparkinsonian | Biperidene, selegiline |
Antipsychotics | Clozapine, chlorpromazine |
Bronchodilators | Ipratropium, albuterol |
Decongestants | Pseudoephedrine |
Diuretics | Spironolactone, furosemide |
Muscle relaxants | Baclofen |
Narcotic analgesics | Meperidine, morphine |
Sedatives | Flurazepam |
Antihyperptensive | Prazosin hydrochloride |
Antiarthritic | Piroxicam |
Medicines and drugs with side effects on salivary secretion.
Xerostomia or hyposalivation may be caused by local factors, including salivary gland disease (sialadenitis) or salivary gland destruction associated with head and neck irradiation for the treatment of cancer [11, 50]. The effects of radiation are dose, time, and field dependent. When the damage of salivary glands by radiation happens is severe [39] permanent gland damage can be expected if the radiation exposure exceeds 50 Gy [50, 51]. Other systemic conditions that also affect the salivary flow are autoimmune diseases (SS, rheumatoid arthritis, AIDS, systemic lupus erythematosis, and scleroderma), neurological disorders (Parkinson’s), psychogenic illness such as depression and hormonal disorders (thyroid dysfunction and diabetes mellitus) [9]. Regarding diabetes, we will refer more deeply about it since it is the most frequent metabolic disease in the world and the trend demonstrates that it continues to grow. Both diabetes mellitus (DM) type 1, as type 2 have been associated with xerostomia. In diabetic subjects were shown that salivary flow was significantly lower than in nondiabetic subjects [49]. The causes of low salivary flow may be due to direct injury in the gland parenchyma, changes in the microcirculation to the salivary glands, glycemic control disorders, and dehydration. Some studies consider that this decrease in salivary flow in diabetic subjects is related to an increased diuresis or polyuria, involving a decrease in extracellular fluid and consequently in saliva production [10]. Others explain this as a consequence of dehydration from glycosuria that would be more evident in cases of metabolic decompensation [52]. Regarding neurological diseases, studies have demonstrated that the salivary flow is lower in Parkinson’s disease patients. This phenomenon could contribute to dysphagia, which affects up to 75% of patients with this disease [53]. Autonomic dysfunction could explain the decrease in salivary flow in subjects with this disease and the drugs used to their treatment could increase the problem [54]. One of the diseases most associated with a xerostomia is SS, a condition that involves dry mouth and dry eyes and that may be accompanied by rheumatoid arthritis or a related connective tissue disease. The oral manifestations observed in this disease are attributed to the involvement of the salivary glands, which leads to a decrease in salivary secretion [31, 39]. Patients with depression can have hyposalivation medication-induced. However, xerostomia may be of psychological origin. A study observed that subjects with a subjective sensation of dry mouth were significantly more depressive than non-depressive subjects [55]. Another study indicates the possibility of depression as an underlying factor of the sensation of dry mouth [56].
Patients with xerostomia may have oral and dental consequences. Xerostomia can seriously impact quality of life and may alter speech, eating, and swallowing [13]. The most common complaints of patients with xerostomia include oral discomfort, difficulty speaking, dysphagia, dysgeusia (decreased taste), feeling of thick saliva, and generally, chewing issues, dental caries, dental demineralization, periodontal disease, salivary gland infection (sialodenitis), oral microflora alterations, burning sensation, mucosal inflammation, sore throats, hoarseness, ulcerations, halitosis, mucosal dehydration, reduced lubrication, painful tongue (glossodynia), enlarged parotid gland, oral mucosal fracture, inflammation and fissures of the lips (cheilitis). The reduction of rates of elimination of substances can affect the palate and be associated with changes in the mouth microbiota. The reduction of rates of elimination of substances can affect the palate and be associated with changes in the mouth microbiota. From the mouth, alterations of taste and intolerance to acidic or spicy foods, dry foodstuffs like biscuits can be very uncomfortable for them, and oral cavity examination may exhibit signs such as fissures on the tongue and lips, angular cheilitis, and dry mucosa. Also, caries, candidiasis, halitosis, or loss of appetite and weight could be observed [25, 57, 58]. This collection of clinical parameters has been indicated as simply estimated for recognizing most patients with xerostomia [38, 47].
The side effects associated with xerostomia are microbial colonization and proliferation in the oral cavity, dental or decreased demineralization, accumulation of stones in the teeth, dehydration of the mucosa, reduction of rates of elimination of substances from the mouth and lubrication of the oral mucosa reduced [13]. When the production of saliva decreases, the buffering capacity of the saliva is reduced, and thus the environment of the oral cavity is vulnerable to acidification, which in addition to determining changes in the normal flora (ecological imbalance) has contributed to the increase in the number of some microorganisms such as
The infection of the oral mucosa with
Treatment design to alleviate dry-mouth symptoms should be personalized to the individual patient, based on available treatment. The treatments of xerostomia can be classified into the following categories: (1) patient education, (2) prevention, (3) symptomatic treatment, (4) systemic and topical salivary stimulants, and (5) regenerative and gene therapies.
Patients should receive detailed information about the potential causes of dry mouth and the potential sequelae of impaired salivary secretion, such as dental caries, candidiasis, and mucosal complications. Therefore, patients should be encouraged to have preventive oral health care such as dental hygiene habits and regular dental visits [61]. Another palliative action to minimizing symptoms and preventing oral complications is water intake, drinking water frequently, and remaining hydrated is an important treatment for symptoms of dry mouth [1].
Pharmacological interventions for the prevention of radiation-induced salivary gland dysfunction have been studied. The use of chemical radioprotectors represents an obvious strategy to improve the therapeutic index in radiotherapy. However, the vast majority of these are either too weak in terms of radioprotection, too toxic, or without any apparent mechanisms to ensure selective normal tissue protection [62]. The sulfhydryl compound amifostine (WR-2721; 2-[(3-aminopropyl) amino] ethylphosphorothioic acid), is an oxygen scavenger that may protect salivary glands from free-radical damage during radiation therapy without attenuation of the anti-tumor effects in many experiments performed [63]. Amifostine has been approved for prevention of xerostomia, in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients undergoing radiotherapy [64]. A recent systematic review that included randomized controlled trials suggested that the drug amifostine prevents the feeling of dry mouth in people receiving radiotherapy to head and neck (with or without chemotherapy) in the short- (end of radiotherapy) to medium-term (3 months after radiotherapy) [65]. However, amifostine has adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, hypotension, transient, hypocalcemia, and allergic reactions [66]. Then, the benefits of amifostine should be weighed against its high cost and side effects. Another cytoprotective compound described in literature is the bioactive factor Keratinocyte growth factor-1 (KGF-1, also known as FGF-7) [67]. In a phase II Study, recombinant KGF (Palifermin) appeared to reduce mucositis, dysphagia, and xerostomia during hyperfractionated radiotherapy but not standard radiation therapy [68].
Current preventative therapies also include surgical salivary glands relocation outside the radiation field [69]. Jha et al. described a surgical transfer of a submandibular salivary gland to the submental space in order to prevent radiation-induced xerostomia in patients with neoplasias of the pharynx and larynx [70].
Saliva substitutes can provide some relief since provide higher viscosity and protection to the oral mucosa [39]. An ideal saliva substitute must simulate natural human saliva, providing long lasting and intense hydration of the oral mucosa, be inexpensive, edible, easy-to-swallow but retainable in the mouth and should allow a minimal number of applications [71]. Saliva substitutes are available in various formulations, e.g., lozenges, sprays, mouth rinses, gels, oils, chewing gums, or toothpastes. Most available in the market contain carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), mucins, xanthan gum, hydroxyethylcellulose, linseed oil, or polyethylene oxide [72]. Subjective impressions of patients suffering from severe xerostomia showed that artificial saliva containing mucins and xanthan gum are better in their rheological and moisturizing properties than those with CMC [73], because mucin-based substitutes had viscosities that were more similar to natural saliva. Recently, it was reported that a polysaccharide-based oral rinse was effective in symptom control in patients with xerostomia and may lead to an increase in saliva production [74]. Other studies include the use of natural products, in this line, a recent double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial, evaluated the efficacy of topical lycopene-enriched virgin olive oil. It showed an improvement of oral quality of life and reduction of xerostomia symptoms [75]. Also, gelatinous substitutes of saliva showed a significant reduction of the dryness-related complaints in patients suffering from severe xerostomia [76]. A randomized, double-blind, crossover study in patients affected by medication-induced xerostomia showed that two commercial mouthwash plus gel (GUM® Hydral versus Biotène® Oralbalance) achieve a significant improvement in oral health and xerostomia-related quality of life [77]. Recently, a novel edible saliva substitute, oral moisturizing jelly (OMJ), showed a higher grade of satisfaction than a commercially available saliva gel [78]. In addition to the persistent feeling of dry mouth, people who suffer from xerostomia are very susceptible to bacterial, fungal, and other transmittable mouth infections. It is important that products also include human saliva’s enzymes (lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, and lactoferrin). Other important feature is to obtain a continuous oral lubrication. In this context, advances in hydrogel technologies and development of buccal mucoadhesive polymers, allows the continuous release of substances that maintain oral hydration and also offer dental-care benefits for its use in treatment of xerostomia [79]. Other strategy involves the use of modified prosthetic structure designed to retain saliva or substitutes in patients who usually wear a dental prosthesis [4, 80].
Pilocarpine and cevimeline are two systemic US Food and Drug Administration-approved systemic sialogogues for treatment of dry mouth; both can increase secretions and diminish xerostomic complaints in patients, although they must have functional salivary gland cells. Pilocarpine is a cholinergic parasympathomimetic agent that stimulates muscarinic cholinergic receptors on the surfaces of exocrine glands [81] and has been indicated for the treatment of xerostomia [2, 82]. The usual oral dosage for pilocarpine is 5–10 mg three times per day. The initial recommended dose is 5 mg three times per day oral route (OR), which can be increased up to 30 mg/day depending on response and tolerance. The onset of action is 30 min, and the duration of action is approximately 2–3 h. Common side effects include gastrointestinal upset, sweating, tachycardia, bradycardia, increased pulmonary secretions, increased smooth muscle tone, and blurred vision. Contraindications include gall bladder disease, angle closure glaucoma, and renal colic [39, 83]. Cevimeline is a salivary gland stimulant with a stronger affinity for M3 muscarinic receptors [84]. Since it has no effect on M2 receptors, it shows fewer adverse effects when compared to pilocarpine, and besides, it has a long lasting action. The recommended dose is 30 mg three times a day OR, and the most common associated side effect is dyspepsia. Bethanecol is another drug whose action mechanism is on M3 receptors. It has been used to decrease unwanted effects caused by antidepressant and antipsychotic drugs [85]. The dose indicated is four times a day in doses from 10 to 50 mg OR. Adverse effects, despite being infrequent, include nausea and diarrhea. Other drugs that have been put forward include drug with mucolytic properties such us bromhexine improved salivary secretion in patients with SS [86, 87]. Nizatidine, an H2 receptor antagonist alone or in combination with cisapride, showed a significant increase in salivary secretions of dry mouth patients [88, 89]. In addition, other drugs, such as neostigmine, distigmine, yohimbine, nicotinic, and malic acid have also been attributed positive effects in the treatment of xerostomia [3]. Medicinal herbs, such as jaborandi, betel nut, Iceland Moss and Longo Vital, also can stimulate salivary secretion [4].
In the case of tissue autoimmune-related xerostomia, immunologic agents have been used. Interferon alpha (IFN-α), a protein with antiviral and immunomodulating traits, was an effective treatment for xerostomia linked to SS, improved salivary output and decreased complaints of xerostomia without causing significant adverse medical events [7, 90]. Rituximab (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody) and infliximab (anti-tumoral necrosis factor—TNF—monoclonal antibody) improved subjective and objective symptoms related to primary SS [91].
Topical salivary stimulants includes sugar-free chewing gum and jellybeans, they can increase salivary secretion by mechanical stimulation and improve the sensation of dry mouth. These products usually contain fluoride, chlorhexidine, calcium phosphate, and xylitol releasers [92, 93], which inhibits the growth of cariogenic bacteria and reduces the incidence of caries [94]. Direct stimulation with electrostimulating device mounted on an intra-oral removable appliance has been used in patients with salivary dysfunction with good results and no significant side-effects [95, 96]. Moreover, non-invasive electrical stimulation systems such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) was highly effective in stimulating whole salivary flow in patients with xerostomia and hyposalivation caused by DM and postmenopausal condition [97, 98]. Acupuncture as a method of xerostomia treatment is also cited, a recent randomized and controlled pilot trial of acupuncture showed that acupuncture has beneficial effects on SS symptoms [99]. Other pilot study showed a preliminary evidence that auricular acupressure therapy may be effective in reducing xerostomia intensity in maintenance hemodialysis patients [100].
Stem cell replacement therapy may be a good option to treat radiation-induced hyposalivation. Stem cell therapy attempts the repair of damaged salivary glands at the cellular level. In this regard, bone marrow stem cells, adipose tissue-derived stromal cells, dental pulp cells have been tested as a form of treatment for hyposalivation after radiotherapy [39]. Interestingly, human salivary stem/progenitor cells (hSSPCs) (derived from parotid and submandibular glands) can be cultured using the salisphere technique and can be introduced to a damaged salivary gland tissue to replace dead or damaged cells. In this context, Pringle et al. showed the presence of SSPCs in cultured human salipheres [101]. These cells were capable of self-renewal and differentiation, which when transplanted into irradiated recipients and restored glandular function. Considering that an ultimate goal is to develop fully functioning bioengineered organs to replace lost or damaged. It was recently reported that a population of SSPCs can be reliably isolated and expanded in sufficient number, suitable for use in a unique 3D hydrogel model of a human implantable salivary gland [102]. However, independent and collaborative work in stem cells research and tissue engineering is still necessary to have fully functional human salivary glands.
Gene therapy involves injecting a vector with genetic information into a tissue to result in some beneficial change. Originally, gene transfer was considered for use in treating congenital genetic disorders, but the basic principles have now been applied virtually to every organ, for acquired as well as inherited disorders. Regarding salivary glands, Baum et al., in phase I/II study, showed an increased saliva flow rate from the targeted parotid gland, as well as a reduction in symptoms related to the radiation-induced xerostomia in subjects treated with the transferring of cDNA for human aquaporin-1 (hAQP1) through an adenoviral (Ad5) vector (AdhAQP1) [103]. Additionally, others genes (Gli1, human keratinocyte growth factor, and Tousled like kinase 1B) have been targeted and have shown promise in preventing salivary hypofunction in a preclinical mouse [104, 105]. On the other hand, the use of small-interfering RNA (siRNA)-based gene silencing has provided protection of salivary gland from radiation-induced apoptosis at preclinical level [106].
Patients with xerostomia are often a challenge regarding diagnosis and treatment, because although xerostomia is not considered a disease, it has a potential devastating effect on the oral cavity. Since dentists are generally challenged with this problem, it is important to have an appropriate comprehension of diverse causes of xerostomia to develop a systematic approach that includes collaboration with physicians to facilitate interdisciplinary patient care, which involves its systemic conditions and medication. Furthermore, a comprehensive management of xerostomia is also necessary and it should incorporate patient education, lifestyle modifications, and adequate pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies to improve the patient’s quality of life. Since most of the successful therapies are depending on the parenchymal gland affection, it is essential to know new therapeutic approaches to fully recover
This work was supported by Faculty of Dentistry, University of Chile.
There are a large number of rotating machineries being intensively employed in the modern industry, such as hydro-turbines, pumps, steam turbines, compressors, and generators. They are widely employed in the power generation, heating, refrigeration, and chemical industries. The rotating machineries often involve extreme conditions such as extremely low load, high temperature, high pressure, high speed, and overload. Hence, the malfunctions may occur after the long-term operation with possibly catastrophic consequences. Therefore, it is very important to understand and monitor the operational states of rotating machineries.
With the developments of data analysis technology, signal analysis methods become gradually mature and have been widely applied in the field of condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of various kinds of rotating machineries. The signal analysis could extract useful information from the original signal, and judge the operational states of the equipment based on the obtained information. Signal analysis is of great significance to the rotating machineries both for condition monitoring and fault diagnosis.
A reversible pump turbine is the core part of the pumped hydro energy storage power station. It can switch between the pumping and the generating mode according to the actual demand. When the reversible pump turbine deviates from the design working condition, it is easy to produce serious pressure pulsation and vibration due to the influence of rotor-stator interaction in the vaneless space and the vortex rope in the draft tube, which will affect the normal operation of the pump turbine and the safety of the whole power station [1, 2, 3]. Therefore, to monitor the operational states of reversible pump turbine and ensure its safety and efficient operation, it is very necessary to employ the signal analysis methods extensively.
This chapter will review several typical signal analysis methods and introduce their applications in the field of the reversible pump turbine in detail through specific cases. This chapter will be divided into the following four parts. The first part will introduce the time-domain analysis methods of the signals. The second part will introduce the time-frequency analysis methods of the signals. The third part will introduce the signal decomposition and the signal de-noising. The fourth part will demonstrate the applications of the introduced signal analysis methods in the field of the reversible pump turbines with the aid of on-site measured signals.
Signals can convey information by expressing the relationship between time and other physical quantities. The time-domain analysis methods of signals refer to a series of processing such as amplification, filtering, statistical feature calculation and correlation analysis in the time domain. Through time-domain analysis methods, the characteristic parameters reflecting the operational state of the mechanical equipment can be extracted from the signal, which could be further employed for the purpose of the evaluation of the operational state and fault diagnosis of the equipment. Time-domain analysis methods could also analyze the auto-correlation (AC) and cross-correlation characteristics of the signal together with the degree of chaos. This section will be divided into three parts including the time domain statistical parameters, the correlation analysis and the chaos evaluation.
The classical time-domain statistical parameters include the peak value, peak-to-peak value, mean value, mean square value, root mean square, variance and standard deviation. The meanings of these statistical parameters are explained in detail below. Here, the
Peak value refers to the maximum amplitude of a signal.
Peak-to-peak value refers to the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value of a signal within a given period. In the practical application, to eliminate the influences of distortion and noise in the signal, the peak-to-peak value is usually calculated by the confidence interval method with employing the confidence coefficient (e.g., 97 or 95%). Then, the peak-to-peak value could be calculated by using the upper and the lower limits of the obtained signal.
The mean value is the averaged value of the whole signal.
Mean square value refers to the mean of the square of the signal, indicating the strength and average power of the signal.
Root mean square refers to the arithmetic square root of the mean square value.
Variance is the average square value of the difference between the amplitude of the original signal and the mean value. It describes the fluctuation range of the signal and represents the strength of the fluctuating component in the signal.
Standard deviation is the arithmetic square root of variance.
When there are multiple signals, sometimes it is necessary to study the relationship between them. Correlation analysis (including auto-correlation function and cross-correlation analysis) could show the similarity or dependence between signals.
The auto-correlation (AC) function describes the correlation of a signal between its values at a certain time and after a certain time delay
The cross-correlation function describes the degree of similarity of the time-domain waveforms of two signals
The higher the
In the practical application of signal correlation analysis, to compare the magnitude of the correlation, we often use the normalized form of the correlation function. The normalized form of the auto-correlation function is defined as follows:
The normalized form of the cross-correlation function is defined as follows:
where
Chaos is an inherent characteristic of a nonlinear dynamic system. When a signal is generated by a nonlinear system, it may show the characteristic of chaos. At this time, the signal waveform is very irregular and is very similar to the characteristic of random noise. Entropy can be adopted to measure the chaos of a nonlinear dynamic system. The more chaotic the system, the higher its entropy. Therefore, we can use entropy to evaluate the degree of chaos in a signal. As a typical method, the permutation entropy for evaluating the degree of chaos in a signal is introduced below [4].
Permutation entropy is an index to measure the complexity of the time series [4]. The more regular the time series is, the smaller the permutation entropy is. The corresponding calculation process is given as follows [4].
Considering a time series
Here, the “
Now, each
Here, the “
There are up to “
When
The variation range of the normalized permutation entropy is between 0 and 1. In the practical application of calculating the permutation entropy of a signal, the whole data points within the signal can be intercepted by a window with a certain length. And the permutation entropy of the data points in each window is calculated by moving the window one data at a time. In the present chapter, the average permutation entropy of all the windows will be taken as the permutation entropy of the whole signal.
In this section, the pressure pulsation signal (the pressure pulsation signal 1) in the vaneless space of a prototype pump turbine under the dimensionless load condition (the ratio of the actual operational load to the rated load)
The time-domain diagram of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1.
The statistical parameters of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1 in the time domain are shown in the Table 1 as follows:
Statistical parameter | Value |
---|---|
Peak value | 0.9492 |
Peak-to-peak value (confidence coefficient 97%) | 0.0911 |
Peak-to-peak value (confidence coefficient 95%) | 0.0883 |
Mean | 0.9081 |
Mean square value | 0.8252 |
Root mean square | 0.9084 |
Variance | 0.0006 |
Standard deviation | 0.0244 |
The time-domain statistical parameters of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1.
Figures 2 and 3 show the normalized AC functions of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1 and a random noise signal. When
The normalized AC function of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1.
The normalized AC function of the random noise.
In the experiment, another dimensionless pressure pulsation signal (the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 2) was measured in the vaneless space at the same operational condition (
The time-domain diagram of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 2.
When the delay time
In the present chapter, the embedded dimension, delay time and window length required in the analysis procedure of the permutation entropy are 6, 3 and 128, respectively. The analysis results of the permutation entropy of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1, the dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 2 and the random noise signal are as follows:
It can be seen from the Table 2 that the analysis results of the permutation entropy of the dimensionless pressure pulsation signals 1 and 2 are smaller than that of the random noise, because the dimensionless pressure pulsation signals contain certain characteristic frequencies with regularity. The permutation entropy of the random noise is large, which indicates its high degree of chaos.
Signal | Permutation entropy |
---|---|
Dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 1 | 0.4254 |
Dimensionless pressure pulsation signal 2 | 0.4271 |
Random noise | 0.5666 |
Analysis results of permutation entropy of different types of signals.
The aim of the time-frequency analysis is to study the time-varying signals, which can reflect the relationship of the variations of the frequency and amplitude with time within the signal. Generally speaking, the typical time-frequency analysis methods include the short-time Fourier transform [5], the Hilbert-Huang transform [6] and the VMD-Hilbert transform with a detailed introduction in this section.
Before introducing the time-frequency analysis methods, the traditional Fourier transform is:
where
The formula of the short-time Fourier Transform (STFT) is presented above [5]. Compared with the traditional Fourier transform, the window function is added to the formula. STFT needs to select a window function, which can be moved continuously to identify the frequencies at different times. The window function will affect the resolution of the spectrum. The smaller the window size, the higher the time resolution of the spectrum. Normally, the low frequency band requires high frequency resolution and low time resolution. And, the high frequency band requires low frequency resolution and high time resolution. However, after the window function is selected, the resolution of the entire spectrum is fixed and cannot be adjusted. Therefore, STFT is suitable for analyzing the segmented stationary signals or approximately stationary signals.
Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT) consists of two parts including the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and the Hilbert spectrum analysis (HSA). These two parts will be introduced in detail below.
The EMD method can decompose the original signal into several intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) and the residual component
Firstly, calculating all the extreme points of the signal
Secondly, calculating the mean curve
Thirdly, the screening stop condition is given as [6]:
Here, the “
Fourthly, repeating the above steps to obtain all the remaining IMF until the residual component
Although, the EMD can realize signal decomposition, it has the problems of endpoint effect and mode mixing. Endpoint effect means that analysis results at the signal endpoints will produce errors, which will affect the internal data. Mode mixing means that the EMD method cannot effectively separate different mode components based on the time characteristic scales. These problems can lead to serious performance degradation of EMD methods.
HSA performs a Hilbert transform on each IMF obtained by EMD. The specific steps are given as follows:
Firstly, performing the Hilbert transform on each IMF
Here,
Secondly, using the above formula to construct the analytical signal
Here [6],
Thirdly, the instantaneous frequency of each IMF can be obtained from the following formula [6]:
After expressing the results on the time-frequency plane, the Hilbert amplitude spectrum of each IMF
Fourthly, by presenting the amplitude spectrum of all IMFs in a spectrum, the Hilbert spectrum of the original signal can be obtained as follows [6]:
The advantage of HHT is that it is not restricted by the linear and stationary characteristics of the signal and can analyze non-linear and non-stationary signals. At the same time, the HHT is self-adaptive through using the EMD to eliminate the choice of basis function. In addition, HHT is not restricted by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
The principle of VMD-Hilbert transform is similar to HHT. It also uses the signal decomposition method to obtain the IMF component of the signal, and then obtains the Hilbert spectrum of the signal through HAS. The difference between these two is that the variational mode decomposition (VMD) [7] is adopted as the signal decomposition method.
The core idea of the VMD method is to construct and solve the variational optimization problem in the frequency domain. The specific steps include the following ones.
Firstly, decomposing the original signal into
Here,
Secondly, the constraints are added to ensure that the sum of the estimated bandwidths of each IMF is minimum and the sum of
Here,
Thirdly, the Lagrange multiplication operator is introduced to transform the constrained variational problem into an unconstrained variational problem. And an augmented Lagrange expression is obtained as follows [7]:
Here,
Fourthly, the alternating direction multiplier method is used to iteratively solve IMF
Here, “^” refers to the Fourier transform operation. The “
When the calculation result meets the given solution accuracy
Fifthly, the
Compared with the EMD, the VMD overcomes the problem of mode mixing and has a more solid mathematical theoretical foundation.
In the present chapter, the “
This section uses the vibration signal at the top cover of a prototype reversible pump turbine during the start-up transient process of generating mode as the analysis object to demonstrate the applications of the time-frequency analysis methods introduced in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. The length of the signal is 2 s and the sampling frequency is 1000 Hz. Figure 5 shows the time-domain diagram of the vibration signal at the top cover.
The time-domain diagram of the vibration signal at the top cover.
Figure 6 shows the result of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the vibration signal. It can be seen from the Figure 6 that the most obvious frequency component in the vibration signal is 40 Hz with an amplitude of about 0.46 mm. In addition, there is also a relatively obvious peak near 80 Hz with an amplitude of about 0.17 mm. However, Figure 6 cannot provide information about the amplitude variation of different frequency components with time, which is a shortcoming of the traditional Fourier transform.
The FFT spectrum of the vibration signal.
Figures 7 and 8 are the STFT results of the vibration signal with the window length of 64 and 256 respectively. From these two figures, not only the amplitudes of different frequency components in the vibration signals but also the variations of the amplitude of each frequency varying with the time can be seen. However, the STFT results are significantly affected by the window size. By comparing Figures 7 and 8, it can be concluded that there exist obvious amplitudes at and around 40 Hz in the Figure 7, while it almost has obvious amplitudes only at 40 Hz in the Figure 8, which is caused by the difference in the window size between them. In the actual application of the STFT, it is difficult to choose the appropriate window size, which is the main problem of this method.
The STFT result of the vibration signal with the window length of 64 and the window function of Blackman.
The STFT result of the vibration signal with the window length of 256 and the window function of Blackman.
Different with the fixed basis functions of traditional Fourier transform and STFT, HHT and VMD-Hilbert transform can obtain basis functions through adaptive mode decomposition. In addition, HHT and VMD-Hilbert transform do not need to select the window functions and they can achieve high resolutions both in time and frequency domains. Figures 9 and 10 are the results of the HHT and VMD-Hilbert transform of the signal, respectively. It can be found that the analysis result in the Figure 9 is unclear because the dominant frequencies of the signal cannot be clearly observed, while the analysis result in the Figure 10 is very clear. This can be attributed to that the VMD overcomes the mode mixing problem in the EMD adopted in the HHT.
The analysis result of HHT of the vibration signal.
The analysis result of VMD-Hilbert transform of the vibration signal.
Mode refers to the natural vibration characteristics of the mechanical structure, which is composed of natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shape. In practical engineering, the vibration of rotating machinery is often composed of different complex modes. The process of decomposing the vibration signal into sub-signals with different frequency bands on the basis of different modes is called the mode decomposition of the signal. Through the mode decomposition, the modes containing noise can be found and will be further deleted through the signal de-noising. In our previous research [8], similar methods with those shown in this section have been adopted to analyze the vibration signal from the rotating machinery of nuclear power. However, the specific frequency components between the signals between the rotating machinery of nuclear power and the reversible pump turbine are a little different.
Typical signal analysis methods, such as EMD and VMD, have been fully described in Section 3.2. In this section, a simulated swing signal at the turbine guide bearing of a prototype pump turbine will be used to demonstrate the signal de-noising effects based on these two methods. The simulated rotational speed of the unit is 500 rpm. The characteristic frequencies contained in the simulated signal are 1 time, 2 times and 3 times, the rotational frequency of the impeller with the corresponding amplitudes of 10, 2 and 1 μm, respectively. The signal is dimensionless by dividing the corresponding amplitude of the rotational frequency of the impeller (10 μm). The length of the signal is 2 s and the sampling frequency is 1000 Hz. The white noise with the signal-noise ratio (
The time-domain diagrams of simulated swing signals. (a) The simulated swing signal without noise. (b) The added noise with the
The EMD analysis results of the simulated swing signal.
The VMD analysis results of the simulated swing signal.
Through mode decomposition, several IMFs are obtained to further constitute the given signal with low noise. The IMFs contain different frequency bands. By removing the IMFs dominated by the random noises and retaining the IMFs dominated by the useful signals, the signal de-noising will be proceeded. Generally speaking, the cross-correlation coefficient between the noise-dominated IMF and the original signal is small, while the cross-correlation coefficient between the IMF component dominated by the useful signal and the original signal is relatively large. Based on this principle, the noise-dominated IMFs can be identified according to the cross-correlation coefficients.
Table 3 shows the cross-correlation coefficients of the IMFs obtained by EMD and VMD and the simulated swing signal. Here, the threshold of the cross-correlation coefficient is set to 0.12 [8]. And the IMFs with the cross-correlation coefficients larger than this threshold are retained.
Mode component | EMD | VMD |
---|---|---|
IMF1 | 0.0757 | 0.9732 |
IMF2 | 0.0537 | 0.2378 |
IMF3 | 0.7777 | 0.0453 |
IMF4 | 0.3762 | 0.0430 |
IMF5 | 0.0067 | 0.0407 |
IMF6 | 0.0242 | 0.0412 |
IMF7 | 0.0349 | 0.0400 |
residual | 0.0103 | — |
Cross-correlation coefficients of IMFs based on EMD and VMD and the simulated swing signal.
Based on the analysis results in Table 3, the IMF3 and IMF4 in the EMD analysis results and the IMF1 and IMF2 in the VMD analysis results are selected to reconstruct the de-noised swing signals, respectively. Figure 14 shows the de-noising results of the simulated swing signal based on EMD and VMD, respectively.
The de-noising results of the simulated swing signal based on EMD and VMD. (a) The simulated swing signal without noise. (b) The de-noised signal is based on EMD. (c) The de-noised signal is based on VMD.
Figure 14 shows that both the de-noised signals based on EMD and VMD are relatively smooth oscillation curves. Compared with the simulated swing signal without noise, the de-noised signal based on EMD has some abnormal spikes or irregularities as indicated by the red circles in the Figure 14b, while the time-domain waveform of the de-noised signal based on VMD is much closer to the simulated swing signal without noise, which indicates that the signal de-noising based on VMD has a better effect than that based on EMD.
The evaluation indexes of signal de-noising can help us quantitatively analyze the de-noising effects. Some evaluation indexes will be introduced below. Here
The larger the SNR, the better the de-noising effect.
The larger the
The smaller the RMSE, the better the de-noising effect.
The evaluation indexes of signal de-noising effects based on EMD and VMD are calculated respectively and the results are shown in Table 4.
Evaluation index | EMD | VMD |
---|---|---|
12.1328 | 29.5778 | |
0.969 | 0.9995 | |
0.1856 | 0.024 |
The evaluation indexes of de-noising for the simulated swing signal based on EMD and VMD.
It can be seen from Table 4 that compared with the results of signal de-noising based on EMD, the results of signal de-noising based on VMD have a larger
In Sections 4.1–4.3, the simulated swing signal is adopted to demonstrate the signal decomposition and the signal de-noising processes. In this section, the analysis results of mode decomposition and de-noising of measured swing signal of a prototype pump turbine are presented. The swing signal at the turbine guide bearing of a pump turbine was measured at
The time-domain diagram of the measured swing signal.
The EMD and VMD analysis results of the measured swing signal are shown in Figures 16 and 17.
The EMD analysis results of the measured swing signal.
The VMD analysis results of the measured swing signal.
The cross-correlation coefficients of the IMFs obtained by EMD and VMD and the measured swing signal are shown in Table 5.
Mode component | EMD | VMD |
---|---|---|
IMF1 | 0.0635 | 0.9471 |
IMF2 | 0.0797 | 0.4739 |
IMF3 | 0.7677 | 0.1096 |
IMF4 | 0.2904 | 0.0323 |
IMF5 | 0.0500 | 0.0321 |
IMF6 | 0.0715 | 0.0200 |
IMF7 | 0.1455 | 0.0154 |
residual | 0.0444 | — |
The cross-correlation coefficients of the IMFs based on EMD and VMD and the measured swing signal.
The threshold of the cross-correlation coefficient is also set to 0.12 [8]. Based on the analysis results in Table 5, the IMF3, IMF4, and IMF7 in the EMD analysis results and the IMF1 and IMF2 in the VMD analysis result are selected to reconstruct the de-noised swing signals, respectively. Figure 18 shows the de-noising results of the measured swing signal based on EMD and VMD, respectively. As shown in Figure 18, the VMD shows a better de-noising effect by comparing the smoothness of the curves.
The de-noising results of the measured swing signal is based on EMD and VMD. (a) The original measured swing signal. (b) The de-noised signal is based on the EMD. (c) The de-noised signal based on VMD.
In summary, signal analysis and processing can help us better understand the operational states of the reversible pump turbines. Through the time-domain analysis, the time-domain characteristic parameters such as peak value, peak-to-peak value and average value can be obtained. Through the time-frequency analysis, the time-frequency variation characteristics of signals can be grasped. Through the mode decomposition of the signal, various components within the signal can be distinguished and the signal de-noising can be further performed. Therefore, signal analysis plays a very important role for the condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of the reversible pump turbines.
This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project Nos.: U1965106, 51976056 and 52076215).
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. 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The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10685,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12466,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83153",title:"Perspective Chapter: Cryptocurrencies Effectiveness for Nature",slug:"perspective-chapter-cryptocurrencies-effectiveness-for-nature",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106493",abstract:"The rise of cryptocurrencies based on Blockchain platforms have provided multiple solutions for social and nature projects supported by concerned investors with sustainable development initiatives. Speculation and unclear uses of a cryptocurrency plays a negative role for the projects they claim to support. A positive relationship between coin investors and supported projects must position the coin value on the scale of the community involvement among the coin and project issues, thus placing the project results above speculative moves. Coin nature and social based projects may include a decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), combined with a digital currency to contribute to social and nature improvements. This organization provides a framework for the engagement of investors, beneficiaries, and implementation partners, with results measured by reliable third parties. The potential funding from non fiduciary sources for sustainable development targets may be framed under the fundraising and financial solutions models, addressing the cryptocurrency volatility risks with responsible tokenomics in attention to transaction and regulatory issues. Overall, the more clear are the object and transaction issues of a nature conservation project supported by a currency, the more successful it will be in terms of nature and social improvements and the currency valuation for all parties involved.",book:{id:"11551",title:"Blockchain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11551.jpg"},signatures:"Luiz Cruz Villares"},{id:"83163",title:"Robust Control Algorithm for Drones",slug:"robust-control-algorithm-for-drones",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105966",abstract:"Drones, also known as Crewless Aircrafts (CAs), are by far the most multi - level and multi developing technologies of the modern period. This technology has recently found various uses in the transportation area, spanning from traffic monitoring applicability to traffic engineering for overall traffic flow and efficiency improvements. Because of its non-linear characteristics and under-actuated design, the CA seems to be an excellent platform to control systems study. Following a brief overview of the system, the various evolutionary and robust control algorithms were examined, along with their benefits and drawbacks. In this chapter, a mathematical and theoretical model of a CA’s dynamics is derived, using Euler’s and Newton’s laws. The result is a linearized version of the model, from which a linear controller, the Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), is generated. Furthermore, the performance of these nonlinear control techniques is compared to that of the LQR. Feedback-linearization controller when implemented in the simulation for the chapter, the results for the same was better than any other algorithm when compared with. The suggested regulatory paradigm of the CA-based monitoring system and analysis study will be the subject of future research, with a particular emphasis on practical applications.",book:{id:"11522",title:"Aeronautics - New Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11522.jpg"},signatures:"Parul Priya and Sushma S. Kamlu"},{id:"83171",title:"Some Results on the Non-Homogeneous Hofmann Process",slug:"some-results-on-the-non-homogeneous-hofmann-process",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106422",abstract:"The classical counting processes (Poisson and negative binomial) are the most traditional discrete counting processes (DCPs); however, these are based on a set of rigid assumptions. We consider a non-homogeneous counting process (which we name non-homogeneous Hofmann process – NHP) that can generate the classical counting processes (CCPs) as special cases, and also allows modeling counting processes for event history data, which usually exhibit under- or over-dispersion. We present some results of this process that will allow us to use it in other areas and establish both the probability mass function (pmf) and the cumulative distribution function (cdf) using transition intensities. This counting process (CP) will allow other researchers to work on modelling the CP, where data dispersion exists in an efficient and more flexible way.",book:{id:"12021",title:"Applied Probability Theory - New Perspectives, Recent Advances and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg"},signatures:"Gerson Yahir Palomino Velandia and José Alfredo Jiménez Moscoso"},{id:"83152",title:"Recycled Synthetic Polymer-Based Electrospun Membranes for Filtering Applications",slug:"recycled-synthetic-polymer-based-electrospun-membranes-for-filtering-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106683",abstract:"Synthetic polymers have been widely applied in various commercial and household applications owing to their fascinating properties of low-cost, lightweight, and processability. However, increasing population and living standards and rising demand for non-biodegradable polymers have led to the accumulation of plastic pollution resulting in the current environmental crisis. Current waste management methods such as landfilling or incineration do not solve these environmental issues. On the other hand, recycling plastic waste is the most valuable strategy for dealing with waste as raw material for high-value products. One of such products is filter membranes. Polymer fiber membranes as masks in pandemics have been one of the most sought-after products in recent years. Some types of plastic waste became a material source for the development of filter materials, which could contribute to the protection of human health. Utilizing the simple, cheap, and industrially available technological solution is also needed. Given the number of advantages, electrospinning is such a beneficial solution. The electrospun polymer waste-based membranes show excellent filtration performance and can carry many other functionalities. Therefore, this review article presents a brief overview of electrospun nanofibrous membranes based on synthetic plastic waste and summarizes the filtration performance of such membranes. This review will discuss the future perspectives of electrospun membranes as well.",book:{id:"11462",title:"Recent Developments in Nanofibers Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11462.jpg"},signatures:"Alena Opálková Šišková, Heba M. Abdallah, Smaher Mosad Elbayomi and Anita Eckstein Andicsová"},{id:"83166",title:"General Drag Correlations for Particle-Fluid System",slug:"general-drag-correlations-for-particle-fluid-system",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106427",abstract:"Particle-fluid flows are commonly encountered in industrial applications. It is of great importance to understand the fundamentals governing the behavior of such a flow system for better process design, control, and optimization. Generally, the particle-fluid flow behavior is strongly influenced by the interaction forces between fluid and particles. Among the various kinds of particle-fluid interaction forces, the drag force is the most essential. This chapter reviews the modeling of drag force for particle-fluid systems: from single particle to multiple particles, monosize to multisize, spherical to nonspherical, and Newtonian fluid to non-Newtonian fluid. Typical drag correlations in the literature are compared and assessed in terms of physical meaning, consistency, and generality.",book:{id:"11498",title:"Boundary Layer Flows - Modelling, Computation, and Applications of Laminar, Turbulent Incompressible and Compressible Flows",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11498.jpg"},signatures:"Zheng Qi, Shibo Kuang, Liangwan Rong, Kejun Dong and Aibing Yu"},{id:"82272",title:"Landslide Movement Monitoring with InSAR Technologies",slug:"landslide-movement-monitoring-with-insar-technologies",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105058",abstract:"Synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) is a technology that has been widely used in many areas, such as topographic mapping, land and resource survey, geological exploration, disaster prevention and mitigation, volcanic and seismic monitor and so on. Landslide, as a representative geohazard, include a wide range of phenomena involving downhill ground movement. InSAR, a technology which can measure surface deformation at the millimeter level over serveral days or years, is suitable to detect landslides with chronical and widespread movements. In this chapter, we introduce main process methods of InSAR data, including Persistent Scatter Interferometry (PSInSAR) and Distributed Scatter Interferometry (DSInSAR). A study area, Daguan County Town, one of the most landslide-prone areas in China is induced to demonstrate the practicability of InSAR in detecting landslides. Combined InSAR results with geological, geotechnical and meterological data, the distribution of landslide in Daguan County in spatial and temporal dimensions would be displayed. We also coupling numerical modeling and InSAR for characterizing landslide movements under multiple loads. The numerical results revealed that body loads dominated the cumulative downhill movements by squeezing water and air from voids, and precipitation caused seasonal movements with the direction perpendicular to the slope surface.",book:{id:"10950",title:"Landslides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10950.jpg"},signatures:"Peifeng Ma, Yifei Cui, Weixi Wang, Hui Lin, Yuanzhi Zhang and Yi Zheng"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:764},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11399,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"83117",title:"Endothelial Secretome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106550",signatures:"Luiza Rusu",slug:"endothelial-secretome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu"}],book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83073",title:"Dental and Orofacial Trauma Impacts on Oral-Health-Related—Quality of Life in Children: Low- and Middle-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105845",signatures:"Yolanda Malele-Kolisa, Nazia Khan, Mpho P. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. 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