Interviews by Distributor Type
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5445",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",subtitle:"An Insight into the Strategies and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This collection presents various interesting aspects of genetic engineering. Many thought-provoking queries like "Is gene revolution an answer to the world hunger? Do GM crops with more complex transformation contribute to the enrichment of multinationals? Why the US increases food aids?" have been analyzed. Transformation protocols and retrieval of recombinants are essential to the success of genetic engineering. The book throws light on new transformation strategies which can be used to increase the transformation efficiency in most plant species. Genetic engineering offers potentially viable solution to look for alternatives beyond Bt toxins with similar pattern of toxicity. An interesting chapter is dedicated to in vitro fig regeneration and transformation systems. To address the long juvenile phase of fruit trees, the book includes a chapter on plant breeding technique that can significantly shorten the breeding periods. The book dwells on aspects of genome editing which will enable researchers to produce transgenic plants in a more convenient and safer way to genetic modification of stem cells holding significant therapeutic promise to treat complications of diabetes and obesity. I hope this book will serve as a seed for further investigations and novel innovations in the area of genetic engineering.',isbn:"978-953-51-2836-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2835-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5461-7",doi:"10.5772/62961",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",numberOfPages:94,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"4be137c94f062f23503590140ddca96b",bookSignature:"Farrukh Jamal",publishedDate:"December 14th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5445.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8032,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 11th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 2nd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 6th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 4th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 4th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"38621",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farrukh",middleName:null,surname:"Jamal",slug:"farrukh-jamal",fullName:"Farrukh Jamal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38621/images/system/38621.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Farrukh Jamal is Professor of Biochemistry at Dr. Rammanohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya, India. His experience in the area of biochemistry includes reproductive biochemistry, plant proteins and enzymes in wastewater treatment, and insect pest management of agriculturally important food crops. Dr. Jamal started his scientific career in 1996 at the prestigious Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India. He took up professional teaching in 2001 as Assistant Professor of Biochemistry at Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Faizabad, India. Associated with mentoring students of biochemistry at master’s level his interest in research has never ceased. At present his focus is on addressing the growing public concern of the toxicity and carcinogenicity of synthetic and recalcitrant dyes. \nDr. Jamal’s interests lie in designing strategies/approaches in purifying inexpensive peroxidases from easily available natural resources whose behavior under different conditions may be studied, and further protein engineering that may be done to obtain novel peroxidases that would sustain harsh conditions, culminating in overcoming the limitations in current wastewater treatment strategies. Another aspect in which he has contributed includes characterizing novel defense proteins/proteinacious protease inhibitors present in plants and their effectiveness on insect pests for applications in integrated pest management. Apart from these, he has always been fascinated by the science involved in genetic engineering and biotechnology. \nDr. Jamal has undertaken several independent projects, participated in several seminars and conferences, and published his work in internationally acclaimed books and journals. He has been bestowed with a fellowship from CSIR, India. Dr. Jamal is also actively engaged in various university academic and administrative assignments.",institutionString:"Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"336",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"genetic-engineering-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"53149",title:"Gene Revolution in Agriculture: 20 Years of Controversy",doi:"10.5772/65876",slug:"gene-revolution-in-agriculture-20-years-of-controversy",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tatjana Brankov, Koviljko Lovre, Bozidar Popovic and Vladimir\nBozovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53149",authors:[{id:"188943",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Brankov",slug:"tatjana-brankov",fullName:"Tatjana Brankov"},{id:"194370",title:"Prof.",name:"Koviljko",surname:"Lovre",slug:"koviljko-lovre",fullName:"Koviljko Lovre"},{id:"194371",title:"Prof.",name:"Bozidar",surname:"Popovic",slug:"bozidar-popovic",fullName:"Bozidar Popovic"},{id:"194372",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Bozovic",slug:"vladimir-bozovic",fullName:"Vladimir Bozovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"53371",title:"New Approaches to Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Gene Transfer to Plants",doi:"10.5772/66465",slug:"new-approaches-to-agrobacterium-tumefaciens-mediated-gene-transfer-to-plants",totalDownloads:2376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mustafa Yildiz, Murat Aycan and Sunjung Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53371",authors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"},{id:"188656",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",surname:"Aycan",slug:"murat-aycan",fullName:"Murat Aycan"}],corrections:null},{id:"52786",title:"A New Plant Breeding Technique Using ALSV Vectors to Shorten the Breeding Periods of Fruit Trees",doi:"10.5772/66059",slug:"a-new-plant-breeding-technique-using-alsv-vectors-to-shorten-the-breeding-periods-of-fruit-trees",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Noriko Yamagishi and Nobuyuki Yoshikawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52786",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52786",authors:[{id:"18191",title:"Dr.",name:"Nobuyuki",surname:"Yoshikawa",slug:"nobuyuki-yoshikawa",fullName:"Nobuyuki Yoshikawa"},{id:"195533",title:"Dr.",name:"Norioko",surname:"Yamagishi",slug:"norioko-yamagishi",fullName:"Norioko Yamagishi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53234",title:"Plant Genome Editing and its Applications in Cereals",doi:"10.5772/66818",slug:"plant-genome-editing-and-its-applications-in-cereals",totalDownloads:1674,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Dan M. Weinthal and Filiz Gürel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53234",authors:[{id:"186029",title:"Prof.",name:"Filiz",surname:"Gürel",slug:"filiz-gurel",fullName:"Filiz Gürel"},{id:"189301",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Weinthal",slug:"dan-weinthal",fullName:"Dan Weinthal"}],corrections:null},{id:"53330",title:"Genetic Modification of Stem Cells in Diabetes and Obesity",doi:"10.5772/66717",slug:"genetic-modification-of-stem-cells-in-diabetes-and-obesity",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Cleyton C. Domingues, Nabanita Kundu, Fiona J. Dore and\nSabyasachi Sen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53330",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53330",authors:[{id:"190377",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sabyasachi",surname:"Sen",slug:"sabyasachi-sen",fullName:"Sabyasachi Sen"},{id:"195299",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleyton",surname:"Domingues",slug:"cleyton-domingues",fullName:"Cleyton Domingues"},{id:"195300",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabanita",surname:"Kundu",slug:"nabanita-kundu",fullName:"Nabanita Kundu"},{id:"195301",title:"BSc.",name:"Fiona",surname:"Dore",slug:"fiona-dore",fullName:"Fiona Dore"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7595",title:"Genetic Engineering",subtitle:"A Glimpse of Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b24a0b287498c66d818f2cb9e296485a",slug:"genetic-engineering-a-glimpse-of-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Farrukh Jamal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7595.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38621",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farrukh",surname:"Jamal",slug:"farrukh-jamal",fullName:"Farrukh Jamal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66065",slug:"corrigendum-to-eating-disorders-as-new-forms-of-addiction",title:"Corrigendum to: Eating Disorders as New Forms of Addiction",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66065.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66065",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66065",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66065",chapter:{id:"52200",slug:"eating-disorders-as-new-forms-of-addiction",signatures:"Francisco J. Vaz-Leal, María I. Ramos-Fuentes, Laura Rodríguez-\nSantos and M. Cristina Álvarez-Mateos",dateSubmitted:"April 9th 2016",dateReviewed:"August 12th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 1st 2017",book:{id:"5372",title:"Eating Disorders",subtitle:"A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness",fullTitle:"Eating Disorders - A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness",slug:"eating-disorders-a-paradigm-of-the-biopsychosocial-model-of-illness",publishedDate:"February 1st 2017",bookSignature:"Ignacio Jauregui-Lobera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5372.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55769",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Jáuregui Lobera",slug:"ignacio-jauregui-lobera",fullName:"Ignacio Jáuregui Lobera"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"188555",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco J.",middleName:null,surname:"Vaz-Leal",fullName:"Francisco J. Vaz-Leal",slug:"francisco-j.-vaz-leal",email:"fjvazleal@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"188719",title:"Dr.",name:"María Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez Mateos",fullName:"María Cristina Álvarez Mateos",slug:"maria-cristina-alvarez-mateos",email:"cristinaalvarezmateos@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195142",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez Santos",fullName:"Laura Rodríguez Santos",slug:"laura-rodriguez-santos",email:"laura@unex.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195143",title:"Dr.",name:"María I",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos Fuentes",fullName:"María I Ramos Fuentes",slug:"maria-i-ramos-fuentes",email:"miramos@unex.es",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"52200",slug:"eating-disorders-as-new-forms-of-addiction",signatures:"Francisco J. Vaz-Leal, María I. Ramos-Fuentes, Laura Rodríguez-\nSantos and M. Cristina Álvarez-Mateos",dateSubmitted:"April 9th 2016",dateReviewed:"August 12th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 1st 2017",book:{id:"5372",title:"Eating Disorders",subtitle:"A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness",fullTitle:"Eating Disorders - A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness",slug:"eating-disorders-a-paradigm-of-the-biopsychosocial-model-of-illness",publishedDate:"February 1st 2017",bookSignature:"Ignacio Jauregui-Lobera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5372.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55769",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Jáuregui Lobera",slug:"ignacio-jauregui-lobera",fullName:"Ignacio Jáuregui Lobera"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"188555",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco J.",middleName:null,surname:"Vaz-Leal",fullName:"Francisco J. Vaz-Leal",slug:"francisco-j.-vaz-leal",email:"fjvazleal@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"188719",title:"Dr.",name:"María Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez Mateos",fullName:"María Cristina Álvarez Mateos",slug:"maria-cristina-alvarez-mateos",email:"cristinaalvarezmateos@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195142",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez Santos",fullName:"Laura Rodríguez Santos",slug:"laura-rodriguez-santos",email:"laura@unex.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195143",title:"Dr.",name:"María I",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos Fuentes",fullName:"María I Ramos Fuentes",slug:"maria-i-ramos-fuentes",email:"miramos@unex.es",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5372",title:"Eating Disorders",subtitle:"A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness",fullTitle:"Eating Disorders - A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness",slug:"eating-disorders-a-paradigm-of-the-biopsychosocial-model-of-illness",publishedDate:"February 1st 2017",bookSignature:"Ignacio Jauregui-Lobera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5372.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55769",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Jáuregui Lobera",slug:"ignacio-jauregui-lobera",fullName:"Ignacio Jáuregui Lobera"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"6989",leadTitle:null,title:"Biogenic Amines in Neurotransmission and Human Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Drawing on the expertise of experienced researchers in neurotransmission and catecholamines, this book provides a brief overview of the latest knowledge in the field. The book contains an introductory chapter that aims to explain the subsequent four chapters for researchers who are new to the field.",isbn:"978-1-83962-864-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-863-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-865-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73738",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"biogenic-amines-in-neurotransmission-and-human-disease",numberOfPages:90,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4c7e866a847bc30d77f37feccdf72dbf",bookSignature:"Ahmet Uçar",publishedDate:"November 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6989.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1349,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"205106",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmet",middleName:null,surname:"Uçar",slug:"ahmet-ucar",fullName:"Ahmet Uçar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205106/images/system/205106.jpg",biography:"Prior to working at a major University of Health Sciences, Associate Prof. Ahmet Uçar received his degrees in pediatrics and then in pediatric Endocrinology with high honors at national exams. He has been actively working in the field of pediatric endocrinology and diabetes, and he has contributed to define the characteristics of pubertal variants, growth disorders, endocrine disorders in chronic diseases, pediatric diabetes and Turner Syndrome. Dr. Uçar has documented interest in almost all aspects of pediatric endocrinology and diabetes. He is a member of the Endocrine Society, European Society of Pediatric Endocrinology and Turkish Society of Pediatric Endocrinology. He actively participates in social activities involving refugee children and orphans at weekends.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"212",title:"Molecular Neuroscience",slug:"molecular-neuroscience"}],chapters:[{id:"68991",title:"Introductory Chapter: Biogenic Amines in Neurotransmission and Human Disease from the Endocrinologist’s Perspective",slug:"introductory-chapter-biogenic-amines-in-neurotransmission-and-human-disease-from-the-endocrinologist",totalDownloads:256,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"205106",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmet",surname:"Uçar",slug:"ahmet-ucar",fullName:"Ahmet Uçar"}]},{id:"68056",title:"Kainate Receptors Modulating Glutamate Release in the Cerebellum",slug:"kainate-receptors-modulating-glutamate-release-in-the-cerebellum",totalDownloads:249,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"94819",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Rodríguez-Moreno",slug:"antonio-rodriguez-moreno",fullName:"Antonio Rodríguez-Moreno"},{id:"305279",title:"Ms.",name:"Pilar",surname:"Losada-Ruiz",slug:"pilar-losada-ruiz",fullName:"Pilar Losada-Ruiz"},{id:"305280",title:"Mr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Falcón.Moya",slug:"rafael-falcon.moya",fullName:"Rafael Falcón.Moya"}]},{id:"67286",title:"Homeostatic Plasticity and Therapeutic Approaches in Neurodegeneration",slug:"homeostatic-plasticity-and-therapeutic-approaches-in-neurodegeneration",totalDownloads:365,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"294917",title:"Prof.",name:"Sagrario",surname:"Martin-Aragon",slug:"sagrario-martin-aragon",fullName:"Sagrario Martin-Aragon"},{id:"299459",title:"Prof.",name:"Paloma",surname:"Bermejo-Bescós",slug:"paloma-bermejo-bescos",fullName:"Paloma Bermejo-Bescós"},{id:"299461",title:"Dr.",name:"Pilar",surname:"González",slug:"pilar-gonzalez",fullName:"Pilar González"},{id:"299462",title:"Prof.",name:"Juana",surname:"Benedí",slug:"juana-benedi",fullName:"Juana Benedí"}]},{id:"67206",title:"The Pharmacological Effects of Herbs on Catecholamine Signaling",slug:"the-pharmacological-effects-of-herbs-on-catecholamine-signaling",totalDownloads:203,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"37854",title:"Dr.",name:"Yumiko",surname:"Toyohira",slug:"yumiko-toyohira",fullName:"Yumiko Toyohira"},{id:"37857",title:"Prof.",name:"Masato",surname:"Tsutsui",slug:"masato-tsutsui",fullName:"Masato Tsutsui"},{id:"266081",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuyuki",surname:"Yanagihara",slug:"nobuyuki-yanagihara",fullName:"Nobuyuki Yanagihara"},{id:"272066",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoja",surname:"Li",slug:"xiaoja-li",fullName:"Xiaoja Li"},{id:"272067",title:"Dr.",name:"Noriaki",surname:"Satoh",slug:"noriaki-satoh",fullName:"Noriaki Satoh"},{id:"272068",title:"Dr.",name:"Hui",surname:"Shao",slug:"hui-shao",fullName:"Hui Shao"},{id:"272069",title:"BSc.",name:"Yasuhiro",surname:"Nozaki",slug:"yasuhiro-nozaki",fullName:"Yasuhiro Nozaki"},{id:"272070",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumi",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"fumi-takahashi",fullName:"Fumi Takahashi"},{id:"272071",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryo",surname:"Okada",slug:"ryo-okada",fullName:"Ryo Okada"},{id:"272072",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideyuki",surname:"Kobayashi",slug:"hideyuki-kobayashi",fullName:"Hideyuki Kobayashi"},{id:"272074",title:"Prof.",name:"Taizo",surname:"Kita",slug:"taizo-kita",fullName:"Taizo Kita"}]},{id:"68232",title:"Thrombotic Tendencies in Excess Catecholamine States",slug:"thrombotic-tendencies-in-excess-catecholamine-states",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"264830",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",surname:"Nambiar",slug:"vivek-nambiar",fullName:"Vivek Nambiar"},{id:"279837",title:"Ms.",name:"Drisya",surname:"Rajan",slug:"drisya-rajan",fullName:"Drisya Rajan"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6237",title:"GABA And Glutamate",subtitle:"New Developments In Neurotransmission Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9883dc7bb642e8ae919261b2519547ba",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",bookSignature:"Janko Samardzic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6237.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188756",title:"Dr.",name:"Janko",surname:"Samardzic",slug:"janko-samardzic",fullName:"Janko Samardzic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40659",title:"Production and Distribution of Organic Foods: Assessing the Added Values",doi:"10.5772/52445",slug:"production-and-distribution-of-organic-foods-assessing-the-added-values",body:'
Looking at the present food chain, concerns are related to anxiety among consumers about the quality of the food they eat, GMOs, use of pesticides and antibiotics, and industrialization of the agricultural system. Growing consumer demand for organic food (OF) is based on most of these facts [1, 2]. Although OF is generally considered to present less risk than conventional foods, this debate has been re-launched as a direct consequence of rising concerns related to risks associated with intensive agricultural production, food industrialization, and the effects of food technologies and food scares [1, 3]. An increasing number of organic brands, certification labels, and wider range of organic product categories has been observed in terms of efforts to provide higher food safety and food quality. But these factors do not seem to have increased consumers’ perceived value of organic food products nor trust in OF. Moreover, consumers seem to be ambivalent about channels of distribution as trust/mistrust appears to be an important factor in deciding, not only where to buy products, but also whether to buy OF products or not [17].
From the production and supply side, there are some unique challenges to the cost and logistics of moving locally or regionally produced organic food to the market. Of particular interest are the operations size and the situation of small and medium size farms. The production of the latter is of little interest to mainstream grocery chains as it is limited to a few hundred tons. Among other factors, production methods and operations size are key here. Large-scale farming is sustained by important economies of scale while small scale farming leads to higher prices. This covers the extra costs of not using fertilizers and antibiotics. As a result, there is a wide variety of product classifications depending on the production methods and thus, the operations’ size. This in turn gives raise to 2 distinct distribution systems: long channels, eg. retail chains, that add value through price and high distribution intensity, and short channels, eg. direct from producers, that add value through their production methods and sustainable practices. Hence, discrepancies between market realities, the value chain and the value delivery system are still a challenge for the organic food sector. The main issue here is to determine the factors on which the different production methods and distribution systems rely on in order to add value to the organic food products offered. This study first presents the current literature related to the structure of the production and distribution of the organic food system and market, supported by an integrative production-distribution model. The model integrates the different levels of the production/supply side key factors. Challenges and strategies that add value to the organic food products are analyzed. These strategies are used by (i) the pre-supply, (ii) the supply/production, and (iii) the distribution channels.
From a production standpoint, there are various categories of production methods. In Canada, there are three main classes of production labels: (i) organic, (ii) transitional organic, and (iii) all other labels regrouping local, natural, pesticide-free and ecologically friendly. The first product class is well defined and regulated since 2009, while the second and third categories are neither - clearly - defined nor regulated.
The use of the term “organic” is restricted to farms, products, processors and other intermediaries in the value chain between production and consumption which has been certified by Certifying Bodies (CB). These CBs are independent and private fee-for-service agencies that are generally overseen by National Food Inspection Agencies. Organic certification is an arduous process which, if enacted on a farm previously farmed using conventional methods, requires at least three years to ensure all chemicals have leached from the soil and that organic amendments have had the opportunity to rebuild soil fertility.
“Transitional organic” is also a restricted label and describes farms which have made the commitment to move toward organic certification. For instance, the "transitional" label is applied to farms label is applied, for example, to farms which have switched to certifiable organic methods and are in the 36-month period between the last use of chemicals and the time the land can be assumed free of chemicals, and the farm can be certified organic.
Labels like “local”, “natural”, “pesticide-free” and “ecologically friendly” are not regulated and tend to be used by small farms catering to local/regional clientele. With the exception of marketing board-regulated products like dairy or chicken, production and handling of foods sold under these labels is for the most part not monitored or regulated except by governmental agencies and district health units. As a result information on farms operating outside of the organic certification system is scattered and incomplete.
Lastly, “organic” foods have to be differentiated from “functional” foods [4]. Organic foods tend to be regulated and are based on supply side value while functional foods are not very regulated and are based on demand side value. While both types of product are marketed to achieve the same objective, i. e. healthy products, the market positioning is very different.
According to the Canadian General Standards Board, "Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are sustainable and harmonious with the environment. " [5]. It is worth noting that the organic movement, which began as an alternative style of production among small farms looking both to reduce their environmental footprint and to differentiate their products from commercially produced foods, has been admitted to the mainstream market. Certification, which came about to prevent fraudulent claims, has enabled large players to get into the game, facilitating the long-distance shipping and distribution of organic products required to bring them to grocery stores and wholesale clubs. It applies within the value chain the same downward pressure on price exhibited in the conventional food value chain. This has resulted, for some small farmers concerned with the philosophical aspects of organic production, in diminished credibility of the organic standard and a refusal to participate. It has also hardened the value chain against entry by these small farmers [6].
Further, to be qualified as organic, processed foods must be processed in certified facilities. Added-value processing in Canada is limited by the small number of certified processors. Handlers of organic products must also be certified. This is the other major factor, and one that could mitigate the seasonality of foods: further processing could provide a wider market and a longer selling window for perishables. By characterizing producers\' use of the value chain to get products to the consumer, we can break the organic producers down into three categories: large, small and medium-sized operations.
Large producers are characterized by organic cash crops, which are either exported or processed after they leave the farm, by livestock or field crops which are most likely to go to distributors and processors for further treatment [7]. Most dairy farms would be considered large producers in this context.
Medium-sized producers tend to produce for a smaller geographical market [7]. Limited by infrastructure, some of these producers are now working together to develop their own products, partnering up with complementary businesses to be able to expand the offerings of their on-farm market to attract more customers. Others have partnered with small regional processor/distributors to reach restaurants and specialty food retailers. Most medium producers offer on-farm markets as stationary storefronts, incorporating products sold on consignment or retailed for other area producers.
Small organic producers tend to not use distribution intermediaries. Instead they focus on direct relationships with consumers through farmers\' markets and on-farm markets. They may supply some restaurants, specialty retailers, or small grocers, but these relationships are painstakingly developed and rely on niche marketing and personal relationships. These are the small farms most likely to give up on organic certification due to the paperwork and expenses involved.
In conventional food systems, there exists between producers and consumers of food products a series of handlers involved in the processing and distribution. Since organic products have entered into the mainstream market, a similar mainstream value chain has developed for organic products being sold through conventional outlets. Traditional retail, with its focus on profit, seeks consistent supplies of products. Imports from warmer climates offer this consistency; we see California and Mexico lettuce occupying shelves year-round because, for reasons of efficiency, retailers prefer to deal with a single supplier rather than displace the year-round supplier with a seasonally-available product.
Organic food has emerged as an important segment of food retailing in recent years. The organic food industry has steadily moved from niche markets, e. g. , small specialty stores, to mainstream markets, e. g. , large supermarket chains [8, 9]. Ten years ago the bulk of OF sales were made in specialty stores (95%) while the remaining 5% were realized in mainstream stores. Nowadays, the trend has been reversed [10]. Farmers’ markets among other alternative distribution channels are being used and are characterized by a direct link between the producer and the consumer [11]. In some countries, distributors are promoting their own line of OF products under specific brand names [12, 13, 14].
In Canada, the total annual retail sales of certified organic products in 2009 were approximately $2 billion, with about 45% moving through mainstream supermarkets [15], and OF retail sales represented 1% of total retail food sales. More specifically, total mass market sales of certified OF products approximated CA $586 million allocated as follow: CA $175 million through small grocery stores, drug stores, and specialty stores, and CA $411 million in large grocery chains. These figures do not account for alternative distribution channels such as farmers’ markets, natural food stores, box delivery, and other channels such as restaurants. These channels totalize CA $415 million [16]. Conventional distribution channels, characterized by a longer channel where consumers do not see and interact with the producer and where the information about food is limited, is targeted toward consumers that look for a one-stop grocery shopping experience [6, 17]. These are the regular OF consumers. On the other hand, channels such as box delivery, specialty stores, and small grocery stores or even direct channels such as the farmer’s market are targeted toward consumers that look to interact – socially - with the producers [11], ask them questions about their production methods, food origin and variety, and cooking tips. These are the hardcore consumers. Most of the demand is coming from Europe and North America and these two regions are not self-sufficient. The main problem for producers and growers is to supply this demand. Large volumes of organic imports, coming in from other regions, are used to balance the undersupply. US sales of organic products grew in 2009 by 5. 3%, to reach 26. 6 billion US dollars, representing 3. 7% of the food market. In Europe, sales of organic products approximated EU 18’400 million in 2009 [18]. The largest market for organic products in 2009 was Germany (5. 8 billion euros) followed by France (3 billion euros) and the UK (2 billion euros).
The organic food market is characterized by consumers buying organic food products for different motivations and values. OF consumers also have different buying processes that are not the result of one decision but a series of decisions nested in each other. Among these, decisions about where to buy is here considered as it directly relates to consumers’ most used and trusted distribution channels.
Through the literature, several motivations to buy organic food have been identified and ranked. Personal health remains a strong motivating factor, organic food products being perceived as less associated with health risk than conventional food products [19]. Concerns for the environment and for animals’ wellbeing appear as other reasons for buying organic food [20, 21, 22]. Issues about food quality but also “eating to enjoy” is mentioned to be important motivations for OF consumption in several countries like France, Italy and Greece [23, 24]. Furthermore, tasty and nourishing products are considered as important motivations and [25] found that most organic consumers think that organic food tastes better than conventional. Last, organic products are associated by fewer consumers with local production because they like to support the local economy [6, 26]. The cultural differences cause consumers in different countries to have various motivations with regard to OF, such as health and tradition in France vs. health and environment in Sweden [2, 27].
In their study, [29] provided an overview of the personal motivations of organic food consumption within a framework linking these motivations to Schwartz’ values theory. When considering health as a motivation for purchasing organic food, it appears that consumers link it with the value of security, or safety and harmony. Good taste and eating to enjoy relates to hedonism or pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself. The propensity to behave in an environment-friendly way (environment and animal welfare) relates to the value of universalism whereas supporting the local economy is related to the value of benevolence. But this latter is only highlighted in fewer studies. This is even more interesting as an important share of organic food is still imported because OF markets are not self-sufficient.
Given the prevailing climate of food-related fear and consumer uncertainty, trust indicators may have a significant role to play. Perceived risks pertaining to food consumption and lack of knowledge regarding organic products are leading consumers to rely on different indicators such as brand name, store image, label or partners like producers. Consumers’ trust toward the distribution channels also appear to be an important factor in deciding not only where to buy but also what to buy. This highlights the importance of examining the trust issue from the supply side. Indeed, the main OF market actors are contributing, at different levels and with different strategies to consumers’ level of knowledge of, preferences for, as well as trust/mistrust in OF products. As a matter of fact, building trust in the OF supply requires tools such as quality certification or labeling that have to be established and used as a promotion strategy. Trust orientations should be studied in the context of market actors such as producers/farmers and distributors or certifying bodies. Since markets differ in how the food system is organized, each player (producers/farmers, distributors, certifiers) adds a different value to the product and requires distinct distribution flows to do so. This is very likely to be in direct relation with the type of consumers and their preferred and most used channels of distribution.
Whereas the majority of previous research is focusing on the demand side, this study aims to uncover variations among supply side players (producers/farmers, distributors, certifiers) with regards to the OF supply chain and factors they rely on to add value to organic products. This value needs to be determined and estimated at all levels of the channel of distribution. Further, the logistics of the value delivery network need to be investigated. This will lead to an in-depth understanding of the value added in the organic food distribution system, the current market structure, as well as the determination of the challenges faced by the major players of the organic food industry. A second objective is to identify the different distribution strategies and arrangements to market organic foods and increase trust in OF products. Building trust in the OF supply requires more than just ensuring product quality and product knowledge, labeling or setting proper pricing and communication strategies, as trust is missing at various levels of the marketing value delivery system and the food supply chain. The dimensions of trust necessary to achieve market growth have to be integrated to the OF product positioning and the distribution strategies. In their effort to rebuild consumer confidence and satisfy consumer demand, such information is important for all market participants involved in the supply food system. Lastly, to support these two objectives it is important to provide a precise and useful profile of organic food consumers in relation with their preferred channel of distribution and main trust orientations.
To address the abovementioned objectives, our approach is based on an integrative production-distribution model (cf. Figure 1). There are 3 layers of decisions in this model (i) pre-supply: this is related to certification decisions, laws and regulations related to government agencies, and finally expert opinions on the industry structure and evolution, (ii) supply: this is related to the production, production methods, imports, and sold quantities, and (iii) channels of distribution: broken down into 3 main categories, long or standard channel, short channels, and direct channels.
Integrative Production-Distribution Model
The abovementioned objectives require a 2-level design. This design determines how distributors/producers manage similarities and differences between what consumers want and what they offer them. A supply-side study has been developed to assess the production-distribution model. This in turn will lead to the development of a second model that takes also into account the demand-side (production/market model). First, in the supply-side study, secondary data on the organic food industry was collected to understand its market structure; then in-depth interviews were conducted with producers, distributors and certifiers. Distributors and producers were profiled as follow: (i) by channel size and type, (ii) by organic food products variety, and (iii) by channel position (retailer, wholesaler, etc. ). Further, there is a three-prong challenge related to the interviews quality and consistency: (i) interviews had to cover a wide range of producers and distributors in the organic food industry, (ii) interviewees had to be decision makers or gate keepers in their channels of distribution/organization, and (iii) the sample size should be sufficient enough to ensure consistency of the results without reaching any saturation.
Secondary data was collected in Canada using major sources of information as well as informal interviews with 14 industry key players (experts, certifiers, and government representaitves). As gatekeepers to the organic label, these key players can provide the most recent and accurate information about the numbers and types of organic farms, products and businesses, as private enterprises, are under no obligation to do so. Information obtained from these gatekeepers, while fairly comprehensive within its scope, is not necessarily accurate. This is illustrated by the example that, in order to reach various target export markets, some farms, products and businesses are certified by multiple bodies simultaneously. Lastly, 2 sets of in-depth interviews, based on 2 thematic interview guides that lasted about 30 minutes to 45 minutes, were conducted with 90 respondents (cf. Table 1). The first set of interviews focuses on the production/supply aspects while the second set focuses on the distribution/market, and hence the distribution logistics and its impact on the consumer’s market. The interviews were recorded (digital voice recorder), transcribed, coded, and analyzed using content analysis [30]. This technique allows the researcher to include large amounts of textual information and methodically identifies its properties by detecting important structures of its content. Two separate judges coded the data to ensure a minimum of 80% correspondence.
\n\t\t\t\tInterviewees \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tProduction/ distribution\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDistribution/ market\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Retail chains | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Small grocery stores | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t
Specialty stores | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t
Organic producers/farmers’ markets | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t
Certifiers | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t
Organic food experts | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Other distributors | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Total | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t
Interviews by Distributor Type
The secondary data analysis led to the compilation of information coming from various sources, then information gaps were determined. These gaps relate to discrepancies between dollar sales and dollar production, the characterization of the value delivery system, and exports/imports of organic foods. Results from this phase have been used to design and structure both interview guides:
The production/supply interview guide is composed of 5 sections; 3 sections related to marketing mix elements of organic foods (product, price, and place), a 4th section about the organic food market, and the last section deals with certification and labeling.
The distribution/market interview guide is composed of three main sections. The first section probes distributors to discuss their perceptions of the current OF market and the structure of their distribution channel. The second and third sections deal with distributors’ perception of consumers’ concerns, trust issues related to their distribution strategies, and how consumers’ concerns are addressed.
These 2 sets of interviews are complementary. Hence, the analyses have been combined for the sake of obtaining more exhaustive and integrative results. 59 keywords, clustered in 13 themes, have been generated from the interviews transcriptions. These themes are classified as follow: (i) production and supply: the section presents the challenges and issues that producers/farmers deals with when marketing their organic foods; (ii) value delivery system: value creation throughout the distribution channels; (iii) market/industry structure: this theme category covers various market trends and the demand as perceived by the supply side, (iv) distribution strategies: this section groups all distribution strategies as well as distribution logistics; (v) trust issues: these are consumers concerns regarding OF and the corresponding distribution strategies used to increase trust; and (vi) sustainability: this last category deals with the impact of sustainability on the organic food industry.
Information on the production of organic foods tends to be collected and provided in terms of acreage in production and not in final retail sales value, making it difficult to bridge between production and economic value. Retail numbers, when provided, are generally estimated based on current market values and expected yields by acre for the crops in production. They do not account for any added-value processing which may occur between the producer and the consumer. Further, because certifying bodies deal only with certified or transitional organic products and businesses, their numbers do not reflect the uncounted number of small mixed-production farms operating outside of the certification process. These farms are selling under one of the "natural" and "local" alternative labels commonly used in direct-to-customer sales at Farmers\' Markets and on-farm stores.
By characterizing producers\' use of the value chain to get products to the consumer, organic producers can be broken down into three categories: large, small and medium-sized operations. Like the medium-sized farming/processing operations, larger processing and distribution centers tend to co-pack with conventional products, ensuring sufficient throughout to be profitable. These enterprises tend to be closed systems; like the large retail outlets they serve, those are interested mainly in consistency of product and supply and so they contract with large growers for their raw products. Smaller packing, processing and distribution operations are often spawned by the producers themselves as a way of making their products more marketable. This adds value and extends the selling window for their own products; basically building in forward integration of the value chain. To maintain year-round clientele these operations supplement with organic imports on a seasonal basis and retail the products of other producers.
There seems to be little overlap between large, medium and small producers at the processing, distribution and sales stages. There is very little shared infrastructure between these levels. The processing and distribution system for large producers is, for the most part, closed; it\'s available to those large producers only. The system for the medium-sized producers, developed by those same medium-sized producers, tends to remain closed because they are still struggling to maintain their position; they\'ve done enormous amounts of work in establishing themselves and often consider the information and infrastructure they\'ve developed to be proprietary.
It is clear from the interviews that the organic food system tends to echo the conventional system in terms of the size and distribution of margin within the value chain - more details will be given in the upcoming sections. There are effectively three distribution chains of increasing efficiency at work in the organic food system, culminating in three types of retail. As in any distribution structure, every intermediary involved in the organic value chain must be able to add sufficient margin to cover its operating costs and generate enough profit to justify continued operation. The final price paid by the consumer reflects a share paid to each participant. This price must also be low enough to be attractive to consumers. Entry into the market of large supermarket chains has had a significant impact on price, producing downward pressure on the value chain in much the same way it has occurred in the conventional chain. While this has made organics more accessible and increased the volume of sales, the return to a focus on price has decreased the value of the organic label to small farmers.
Further to this, according to the supply side, distributors perform different distribution flows, thus creating distinct “organic values” sold through their channel of distribution. The “organic value” is directly related to the efficiency of the value delivery system. It is also clear that there are two distribution perspectives: long/medium size channels such as retail chains and small grocery stores versus short channel such as specialty stores, farmers’ market, and producers. Long/medium channels have a price/variety driven value, while short channels offer a value based on traceability and quality. This supports the importance of pricing. Prices tend to be higher in shorter channels than in longer channels as there are more flows performed by fewer channel members. Hence, shorter channels need larger margins to stay in business.
Organic Value Creation
In terms of product lifecycle, the OF market is not at maturity yet. Overall, distributors agree that the OF market is growing and shows substantial opportunities. More specifically they mentioned an increasing diversification of product lines and channels of distribution. Most of these distributors argued that the organic food market is demand driven; it is basically based on a derived demand, “I am wishing, that at the retail level, we would have a better supply of it to meet the demands of our customers”. This demand is exponentially growing, leading distributors to rely more and more on imports to compensate the under-supplied of local and national production. Further, many conventional channels are increasing their organic sales adopting conventional marketing strategies to organic food products; including organic versions of conventional brands. This is done to satisfy the needs of wider OF segments. The increasing number of distribution channels is also based on an increasing number of supermarkets and food store chains offering and widening their offer of organic foods at very competitive prices. Further, with the growth in popularity of organic food products, many wholesalers have entered the organic food supply chain. They have been encouraged by chain stores that need larger quantities at regular delivery times, and have to work through them because of high demand, “I am wishing, that at the retail level, we would have a better supply of it to meet the demands of our customers”. Consequently, imports from regions with large organic farming activities (eg. California) still prevails. The second major trend is pricing. All interviewees including distributors, certifiers, and experts agree that price is a key factor to enhance organic foods demand. However, price has been more discussed as a cost-control tool rather then as a market price-sensitivity issue, “but one of the most difficult things is to make it price competitive”. It is clear that the industry is slowly moving toward a price skimming strategy. Third, all interviewees agree to say that consumers are becoming more educated and make smarter food choices. However, there are clear differences in their purchasing behavior. Producers and farmers’ markets managers stated that their customers have specific needs and motivations to buy organic foods, such as health and support of local farmers. Conversely, consumers buying from conventional channels, i. e. retail chains, are looking for a different shopping and consumption experience. This is directly related to the OF adoption process. Consumers trusting the labels and certifications are in the interest-evaluation-trial phase while consumers trusting stores are in the adoption phase.
The increasing number of distribution channels seems to be mainly based on an increasing number of supermarkets and food store chains offering OF products and widening their offer of organic foods at more competitive prices. As a matter of fact, the diversification of the offer is the main driver of the market growth for supermarkets and retail chain managers. Most conventional channels are increasing their organic sales using conventional marketing strategies for organic food (like offering organic versions of conventional brands). This helps satisfying the needs of a wider number of OF segments.
From the producers and farmers’ perspective, being able to expand supply is a big issue that translates into poor supply reliability and poor availability at the demand level. More wholesalers have entered the organic food supply chain with the growth in popularity of organic food products. They have been encouraged by chain stores because demand is up and they need larger quantities at regular delivery times, and wholesalers are key here. Consequently, imports from other regions with large organic farming activities still prevails. On the other hand, “local food” consumption is starting to drive the organic food demand. These products are a superior quality alternative to what is called “industrial organic” offered in supermarkets and retail chains. Producers are also making efforts in diversifying their offering and widening their product lines. It is interesting to note that direct channels offer competitive prices with regards to retail chain and supermarket. This represents a serious alternative for consumers looking to buy organic.
From the organic food specialty stores’ perspective (independent stores as well as small chain stores), the organic market shows differences with supermarkets in terms of variety, price and quality. In other words, supermarkets are able to provide consumers with a larger variety, lower prices and convenience whereas specialty stores differentiate themselves with the quality and the origin of their products. The main difference between suppliers is determined in terms of short-direct/long channel of distribution, with producers offering traceability and quality. This is also related to the value offered in these channels: price versus quality.
Consumers have different trust orientations/levels depending on the type of distribution channel they use: trust related to labeling and certification, trust in the store selling OF, and trust in the production origin. Table 2 presents the distributors perspective on consumers’ trust and ways to increase trust in organic food products.
\n\t\t\t\tDistributors \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTrust more\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTrust less\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTo Increase trust\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Retail chains | \n\t\t\tProduct labels ++ Certification labels + | \n\t\t\tBrands | \n\t\t\tPrice Accuracy Consumers’ education Quality | \n\t\t
Small Grocery Stores | \n\t\t\tProduct labels ++ Store reputation ++ Store manager ++ | \n\t\t\tBrands | \n\t\t\tConsumer education Knowing the producer Price accuracy | \n\t\t
Specialty stores | \n\t\t\tProduct labels ++ Certification labels ++ | \n\t\t\tBrands | \n\t\t\tConsumers’ education Quality | \n\t\t
Consumers’ education Knowing the producer | \n\t\t|||
Organic producers | \n\t\t\tCertification labels + Production methods ++ | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\tConsumers’ education | \n\t\t
Certifiers/ Experts | \n\t\t\tCertification labels ++ | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\tInformation on the labels Consumers’ education Knowing the producer Production methods Certification process | \n\t\t
Other distributors | \n\t\t\tProduct labels ++ Certification labels + | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Trust Levels by Distributors
Retail chain managers mention – unanimously – that the product label is important. They also acknowledge that there are different types of consumers based on their level of trust. Consumers buying in these outlets feel very confortable knowing what to buy and finding all information they look for. Retail chains selling organics use intensive distribution strategies, as their customers are also looking for a one-stop shopping experience. Hence, convenience and price are the main drives of the organic value here. This relegates other product attributes such as certification, brand name and country of origin to a passive role. From a strategic standpoint, retail chain managers are using conventional marketing strategies to increase their OF market share. For instance, price-skimming strategies, shelf-space and shelf life, as well as product differentiation are used to penetrate this fast growing market segment. Conversely, the organic value marketed in small grocery stores is mainly based on the relationship with the manager, the store reputation and also on the product/certification label. Managers’ strategies are mainly targeted towards store loyalty; consumers trust the store hence they trust the manager, “I would guess trust because the consumer is trusting me as a store owner”. Since the clientele base is smaller than in chain stores, managers are more approachable and they know some of their customers by name. This enhances the trust relationship between the store and the consumers, which is very important to stay afloat and in business. Further, this is a guarantee for quality and counterbalances the lack of brand effect. Lastly, managers argue that consumers buying in their store are knowledgeable and ask about specific product attributes when buying organic. As for retail chains, branding is not important.
Specialty stores managers observe that consumers trust labels, i. e. , product label and certification label. The value offered in this channel is based on the width and depth of the product lines, and also on the traceability of organic foods via certification labels. Hence, labeling is important as a source of information. Managers acknowledge also that OF consumers are more knowledgeable; thus they are able to recognize and also to evaluate the different certification labels. What is interesting though is that managers do not see any difference between consumers with regards to their trust level. It is important to note that even if brands are crucial to position the store offering, brands are not used to increase trust in this market.
Most organic producers and farmers’ markets managers acknowledged that consumers trust certification. This is important, especially knowing that not all producers are certified. They say that when consumers approach them to buy organic foods, they look for certification labels. However, when producers discuss the production methods with them, when they show them around, consumers start building a trust relationship that acts as a certification seal, “I think that’s part of the trust, to open your farm and have it open for your customers so they can come and see”. Therefore, the organic value is based on the production methods. This value offsets price sensitivity and the need for branding.
Lastly, other distributors, such as wholesalers, reiterate the importance of labeling and pricing, but they also add a new emerging and fast growing trend: local foods. The discussion revolved around several aspects of “local foods”. Some relate it to organics saying that there is a clear difference between what they called “industrial organic” – sold through long channels – and “local organic” – sold through short channels. Furthermore, some said that more consumers want to buy local even if it is not organic, “the fact that the product is organic is less important than the fact that it is direct selling”. This, obviously, deepens the divide between the market segments.
To recapitulate, there are several market clusters based on distinct trust orientations and distinct organic values. Consumers rely on various cues to build their trust in the OF products offered in all distribution channels. Labeling – product labeling and certification labeling - plays a key role to inform consumers and strengthen trust whereas brands do not add to the level of trust in OF whatever the type of distribution channel. Last, local foods and local organic foods represent serious new trends in the industry. Trust orientations depend also on the channel length. Long channels rely on standardized organic values such as certification and pricing while short channels rely on product traceability, production methods, as well as the store/manager loyalty/reputation.
The interviews aimed also at uncovering the distributors strategies used to increase trust towards organic food products and to address consumers’ concerns. Results are presented by type of distribution channel in Table 2. It is clear that the common denominator to all distributors as well as certifiers and experts is consumers’ education, “If the government puts out some information, made it more available to the public, what organic actually meant, then that would increase the trust, and show people what it is supposed to achieve, and what it’s not”. While almost all interviewees emphasize that education is a prerequisite to stabilize the demand and increase trust, this has to be nuanced. Consumer education can be seen from different angles: mass communication as part of a push strategy or providing information/building awareness as part of a pull strategy. These strategies are related to what has been said above regarding channel length. Hence, we can confidently associate pull strategies to short channels while push strategies are associated to long channels.
From a long channel perspective, retail chain managers suggest that price plays an important role in increasing consumers’ trust. There is a lot of competition in the market and one way to differentiate the offering is to charge the lowest price to consumers; a price that reflects the organic value of what organic means to these consumers. One need to keep in mind that consumers shopping from these points of sale are not very knowledgeable about organics nor they buy organic for principle oriented reasons. According to the retail chain managers, their customers mainly buy organic for health reasons, but they also are price conscious.
Small grocery stores managers believe that trust should be increased if competition is to increase. The organic value marketed in this channel is mainly based on the relationship with the manager, the store reputation and also on the product/certification label. While pricing accuracy increases trust - if price reflects the value of OF products sold in these store - quality is not a key determinant to increase trust. Consumers associate quality with the store reputation and their relationship with the store manager, “the consumer is trusting me as a store owner, if it says organic on my bins, and I am in turn trusting the company that I am buying it from“. It is important to note that all interviews have been conducted with independent storeowners. Hence, the involvement of the store managers/owner is more important than in retail chains. They unanimously state that consumers’ education is key to increase loyalty and trust. They also argue that consumers are making smarter food choices but not all consumers are knowledgeable about organics. Hence, trust is increased by providing information about the product, the producer/farmer, and pricing.
As far as specialty stores go, the value offered in this channel is based on the width and depth of the product lines, and also on the traceability of organic foods via certification labels. Hence, education is crucial to keep current consumers and attract new ones. Education means information about the products and traceability. This is related – again – to the structure of the trust relationship. It is because of the type of store (specialty store) that expectations are different. Consumers expect that the quality is there and that the products are certified. This is also seen in the arguments put forward by the managers when asked about the reason why their customers buy organic; they mainly buy organic for heath, taste and environmental reasons. This is a clear indication that some of these consumers are very conscientious. Hence, the distribution strategies used to increase trust are mainly information driven; these are pull strategies.
Producers and farmers markets managers have the simplest distribution strategy. Most of these producers use direct channels and in most cases, they have small-scale operations. We have to keep in mind that most of these producers sell at farms gate and at the farmers market. They also supply some grocery stores or specialty stores. Hence, costs and margins are higher than in conventional channels. This is the only way to sustain the production operations as producers cannot offset the cost increase in their channel; i. e. , low sales volumes, keeping in mind that the organic value offered in these channels is based on the production methods. Hence, education is the key factor to increase trust, and of course the most important element is “knowing the producer”. As stated previously, they focus their activity on building long-term relationship with their clientele to increase their market base. This offsets the price sensitivity effects. It is also important to note that there are two main types of producers, those who produce organic because of health and environmental reasons, and those who do it because of market reasons (profit driven). Hence, the perception of trust may differ depending on the size of the farm operations.
Distributors as well as experts discussed what they call “industrial organic”, “conventional organic”, and “local organic”. It is interesting to note that some distributors do not trust certification. Rather, they think that organic should be local and sustainable, especially when it comes to supporting the local economy and the farmers, “I like supporting our local economy to that extent”. Sustainability as a differentiation strategy as well as a trust enhancing strategy is not important in Canada yet. However, most distributors said that in the future, the organic food distribution system should factor in sustainability, as it may be a condition to access the market. One could draw the parallel with green products, as now recyclable packaging is the industry norm. Conversely, other distributors and experts were skeptical about sustainability and said that for now it does not add any value to the current market and it is not a differentiation strategy.
This study attempts to provide readers with an overview of the structure and function of the market for organic food products in Canada based on the most current information available. In an attempt to produce a comprehensive picture, industry and government reports, academic papers, articles and personal communications have been reviewed for inclusion. Due to the difficulties inherent to the study of a relatively new market which includes players ranging from the private and not-for-profit to government and commercial/industrial, information on the Organic Food market remains partially incomplete. Further, to fill in the information gaps, a 2-prong design has been used along with a conceptual model of the existing organic processing and distribution structure. They are presented as a way to describe how the market has evolved. As can be seen in Figure 3 the production-market model takes into account the production/supply dynamics as well as the market dynamics.
OF Market Model
Findings show that the organic market is the fastest growing sector in the food industry with double-digit market growth rates. Although organic agriculture is now going mainstream, demand remains concentrated in Europe and North America. However, these two regions are not self-sufficient because production is not meeting demand. It is also obvious that the supply is not located where the demand is. Hence, large volumes of organic imports, coming in from other regions, are used to balance the undersupply. The main problem for producers and growers is not with respect to demand for organic products but being able to supply that demand. Another issue with organic foods as with any food in the value chain is the multiple dimensions attached to organic products. Not only it is production based, but it is also distribution based. In fact, there is a clear differentiation between two distinct distribution perspectives: long channels versus short size channels. This shows the current divide in the organic food supply and demand. Long channels strategies are convenience and price driven. They offer an organic value targeted toward a certain consumer profile; these are customers that buy organic mainly for health reasons. Conversely, short channels are production method driven. These channels serve consumers having a principle-oriented life style; thus the environment and the support of the local economy are the main drives of this market demand along with health reasons; but price is not a concern. The organic market is also segregated by the entry of large commercial/industrial supply chains and the lack of existing small-scale infrastructure.
All players from the supply side also mention an increasing diversification of OF products and distribution channels. Further, it is clear that the OF industry is slowly integrating new product lines. These trends are directly dependent on the product life cycle [6]. In addition, the marketing of organic foods is not at maturity yet, leading to a lack of market standardization. Ultimately this discussion converges towards store choice and store positioning. Organic foods are value-based products, thus the OF purchasing framework is different than for conventional products. It is based on consumers trust orientations. Overall, distributors link consumers’ trust in OF to different factors: organic labels, product labels, brands, traceability, advice, and/or store reputation. For consumers buying from supermarkets, organic labels are mainly what they trust, not brands. This is clearly different from results presented by [30] showing that OF consumers buying in supermarkets mainly rely on organic labels as well as brands. Consumers purchasing in specialty stores trust the store itself, the sales person advice, the products’ traceability (transparency of the supply chain) and organic labels they know. Hence, communication on the products quality and traceability, advices and information provided by store managers and sales persons (and store reputation) could increase consumers’ trust in OF. For consumers purchasing from producers and farmers markets, traceability is the main element of trust, which is addressed through a trustful relationship established between the producer and the consumer. Because of the differences in these trust dimensions and based on consumers’ specific interests and knowledge, providing standard information for all OF consumers may not be the best communication strategy.
Suppliers provided also their perception on several organic consumers’ characteristics that are in direct relation with the type of distribution channel used. For most suppliers, consumers are in general knowledgeable and are looking for authentic and healthy products, quality, and taste. Their level of knowledge as well as their motivation to consume organic products seems to differ depending on the point of sale they mostly use. In other words, consumers adopting short channels (producers/farmers market and specialty stores) are clearly looking for proximity with the producer, fresh products and quality, and a better understanding of the organic farming process. This segment shows a clear interest for the impacts of the production methods on health and on the environment. As mentioned by experts, there is a sub-segment in this target market that clearly differentiates between local food, industrial organic, and local organic. Conversely, consumers using standards channels of distribution – or long channels - are looking for convenience, healthy products and competitive prices. These consumers also seem to be confused between organic and natural products.
Lastly, certification and labeling systems serve as tools to enhance distribution and market development, create trust, and foster confidence. It is a commitment from producers/farmers to work with certain standards of production. According to [18], there are 80 countries using national standard of certification. Therefore, organic labels can be seen as an important source of trust. Several organic labels are now present on the Canadian market. This somehow induces some confusion, as some consumers do not know which one(s) to trust. Therefore, certification labels – assumed to play a central role - do not seem to have achieved that position in the OF consumers’ decision-making process yet: they need to gain awareness, understanding and credibility in order to do so.
Consumers’ interest in organic food has exhibited continued growth for the past two decades, which has attracted entrepreneurs and corporations seeing a big potential for this industry, and has also led to the creation of standards and regulations to guide the OF industry. Consumers are becoming more sophisticated in their purchasing decisions of OF, and companies are focusing on supply chain management in order to ensure high quality, traceability, and supply continuity. But the OF industry also faces some other challenges: (i) maintaining and increasing consumers’ trust in the OF products and the OF industry in general, and (ii) facing new and fierce competition from market intermediaries and other types of “sustainable” products (e. g. fair trade products and local products). The OF industry and all its stakeholders will have to elaborate strategic responses to these opportunities and challenges that are in direct link with the supply level and the distribution structure. The results also provide an insight into the structure of the organic food industry and the determinants of consumers’ trust. In fact, there are different levels of trust according to the channel members: trust related to the labeling and certification, trust related to the channel of distribution, and trust of the producer. These trust dimensions are direct consequences of the perceived added value to organic food provided by the producers, certifiers and distributors. This study has also some limitation, as results cannot be generalized. This research is exploratory and highlights the need to carry out quantitative and conclusive studies in order to generate not only conceptual clarifications but also answers regarding the Canadian organic food industry. This will in turn help to address implications of the consumer food consumption behavior for management and public policies.
Pectin is the major constituent of all plants and makes up approximately two-third of the dry mass of plant primary cell walls. It provides structural integrity, strength, and flexibility to the cell wall and acts as barrier to the external environment [1]. Pectin is also a natural component of all omnivorous diet and is an important source of dietary fiber. Due to the resistant in digestive system and lack of pectin digestive enzymes, human beings are not able to digest pectin directly but microorganism present in large intestine can easily assimilate the pectin and convert it into soluble fibers. These oligosaccharides promote beneficial microbiota in gut and also help in lipid and fat metabolism, glycemic regulation, etc. [2]. Being complex and highly diverse in structure, role of pectin is not only limited to the biological and physiological functions, but it has tremendous potential and contributes substantially in other applications ranging from food processing to pharmaceuticals. Pectin is a water-soluble fiber and used in various food as emulsifier, stabilizer, gelling, and thickening agent.
\nCommercial pectins are extracted from citrus and apple fruit. On the basis of dry mass, apple pomace contains 10–15% pectin, whereas citrus peel possesses 20–30% pectin. However, pectin has also been extracted in higher amount from several other fruits and their by-products, such as sunflower head, mango peal, soybean hull [3], passion fruit peel [4], sugar beet pulp [5], Akebia trifoliata peel [6], peach pomace [7], banana peel [8], chickpea husk [9], and many more [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Table 1 summarizes the different types of pectin extracted from various horticultural crops. But detection and extraction of pectin in higher concentration is not sufficient to qualify that fruit as a source of commercial pectin because of the structural variation and modification in side-chain sugars, and also that pectin from different sources has different gelling properties.
\nS. No | \nSource | \nParts used | \nExtraction method used | \nPectin yield (%) | \nType of pectin (HMP/LMP) | \nRef | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPassion fruit | \nPeel | \nAPP | \n14.8% | \nHMP | \n[4] | \n
2 | \nBanana | \nPeel | \nAPP | \n5–21% | \nHMP (DE, 50–80%) | \n[8] | \n
3 | \nChick pea | \nHusk | \nAcid extraction, APP, and freeze dried | \n8% | \nLMP (DE, 10%) | \n[9] | \n
4 | \nKrueo Ma Noy | \nLeaves | \nAPP, DPP | \n21–28% | \nLMP (DE, 34–42%) | \n[11] | \n
5 | \nYellow Passion | \nFruit rind | \nAPP, DPP, MPP | \n3–16% | \nHMP (DE, 54–59%) | \n[12] | \n
6 | \nDurian | \nRind | \nAPP | \n2–10.25% | \nHMP (DE, 50–64%) | \n[13] | \n
7 | \nMulberry | \nMulberry bark with epidermis (MBE) and without epidermis (MB) | \nExtracted using 60–100% isopropanol | \n11.88% | \nHMP (MB–DE, 71.13%); LMP (MBE–DE, 24.27%) | \n[14] | \n
8 | \nYuzu, citrus family | \nPomace | \nExtracted with APP and enzyme (Viscozyme® L with 1.2 × 10−4 fungal β-glucanase | \nDPP, APP (7.3–8%) | \nLMP (APP–DE, 41%; DPP–DE, 46.3%) | \n[16] | \n
9 | \nCacao pods | \nHusk | \nExtracted with 1 N HNO3 at different pH and precipitated by ethanol and acetone | \n3.7–8.6% | \nLMP (DE 36.7% @ pH 1, DE 44.3% @ pH 3); HMP (DE 52.4% @ pH 2) | \n[17] | \n
10 | \nCashew apple | \nPomace | \nAOP at different pH (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0) | \n10.7–25.3% | \nLMP (DE, 28–46%) | \n[18] | \n
11 | \nCyclea barbata Miers (CBM) | \nLeaves | \nExtracted with acid and alkali, precipitated the pectin by ethanol | \n4–8% | \nHMP (acid treated: 65–75% DE) LMP (Alkali treated: 36% DE) | \n[19] | \n
12 | \nDragon fruit | \nPeel | \nExtracted using HCl, precipitated and purified with 70 and 99.6% isopropanol. | \n18.59% | \nLMP (DE, 46.95%) | \n[20] | \n
13 | \nJackfruit | \nPeel | \nUltrasonic-microwave-assisted extracted (UMAE) pectin | \n21.5% | \nHMP (DE, 62.5%) | \n[22] | \n
14 | \nPotato | \nPulp | \nExtracted with different acids and precipitated by ethanol | \n4.08–14.34% | \nLMP (DE, 21.51–37.45%) | \n[23] | \n
High methoxyl pectins (HMP) and low methoxyl pectins (LMP) from various horticultural crops.
APP, alcohol-precipitated pectin; MPP, metal ion-precipitated pectin; DPP, dialyzed precipitated pectin.
Pectin is a highly complex plant cell wall polysaccharide that plays a significant role in plant growth and development. It is predominantly present in fruits and vegetables and constitutes approximately 35–40% of the primary cell wall in all the dicot plants [24]. The composition and structure of pectin is influenced by the developmental stages of plants [25, 26]. Structural analysis of pectin revealed that it is a polymer comprised of chain-like configuration of approximately 100–1000 saccharide units; therefore, it does not possess a defined structure. In general, pectin is illustrated as a heteropolysaccharide of three components namely, homogalacturonan (HG), rhamnogalacturonan-I (RGI), and rhamnogalacturonan-II (RGII) [28, 29]. The Backbone structure may branch with other neutral sugar chains such as arabinan, xylogalacturonan (XGA), arabinogalactan I (AG-I), and arabinogalactan II (AG-II).
\nHomogalacturonan (HG) is a polymer of galacturonic acid (GalA), in which Gal A residues are linked together by α-1-4 glycosidic bond and the number of GalA residues in HG may vary from 72 to 100% depending on the source of pectin [30]. For instance, the HG backbone of cashew apple pectin, C. maxima pectin, sunflower pectin, citrus pectin, comprises of 69.9–85%, 71–75%, 77–85%, 80–95%, GalA residues, respectively. Amaranth pectin contains more than 80% GalA residues in HG backbone structure. Furthermore, it was also observed that HG may be methoxy-esterified at C-6 and/or O-acetylated at the O-2 and/or O-3. Some exception has also been reported in the detailed structural analysis of HG region of pectin such as C-3 substitution of the galacturonic acids of HG with xylose in pea, apple, carrot, duck weed, etc. [31], and C-2 or C-3 with apiose in duck weeds (Lemna minor) [32]. HG is susceptible to both mechanical and enzymatic deesterification and degradation.
\nRhamnogalacturonan I represents approximately 20–35% of the pectin polysaccharides. It is the highly branched and heterogeneous polysaccharide which is characterized as repeating units of α-(1 → 2)-linked rhamnose and α-(1 → 4)-linked GalA residues. It can be O-acetylated at O-2 and/or O-3 positions of GalA residues [33, 34]. Pectin from citrus peels, mung bean, kidney bean, apple fruit, and flax hypocotyls has been reported 100% methyl esterified in the RGI region [35, 36]. The composition of RGI varies in pectin extracted from different sources. In sugar beet pectin, 80 repeating units of [→2] –α-L-Rha-(1–4)- α-D-GalA-(1→) comprised the backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), whereas citrus pectin contains only 15–40 repeating units [37]. The polymeric side chains of galactans and arabinans are substituted at the O-4 position of RG-I backbone. Arabinogalactan I (AG-I) and arabinogalactan II (AG-II) are also reported to be present as polymeric side chains [38, 39, 40]. The side chains are often referred to as “hairs” and believed to play an important role in pectin functionality. The loss of side chains may increase the solubility of the pectin [41]. PGI is prone to enzymatic depolymerization. However, protease and acid-catalyzed cleavage of RGI has also been reported [28, 42, 43].
\nThe highly conserved polysaccharide of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II which constitutes about 10% of the pectin polymer [44]. This polysaccharide is made up of (1 → 4)-linked-α-D-GalA units containing 12 monosaccharide such as apiose, acetic acid, 3-deoxy-manno-2-octulosonic acid (KDO), and 3-deoxy-lyxo-2-heptulosaric acid (DHA) as side chains [30, 39]. GalA present in backbone of rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) may be methyl esterified at the C-6 position. The percentage of esterified GalA and acetylated groups in HG chain is termed as the DE and DAc, respectively. It is proposed that in the early developmental stages of plants, highly esterified pectin is formed that undergoes some deesterification in the cell wall or middle lamella. In general, tissue pectin ranges from 60 to 90% DE [45]. Both the DE and the DAc of pectin may vary depending on the method of extraction and plant origin [30, 46]. The functional properties of the pectin are determined by the amount and the distribution of esterified GalA residues in the linear backbone. Presence and distribution of esterified and nonmethylated GalA in pectin define the charge on pectin molecules. Based on their degree of esterification (DE), pectins are classified as high methoxy pectins (HMP) or low methoxy pectins (LMP). DE values of HM pectin range from 60 to 75%, whereas pectin with 20–40% of DE is referred as LM pectin. It was also observed that solubility, viscosity, and gelation properties of pectin are correlated and highly dependent on structural features [47, 48]. Pectin and monovalent salts of pectins are generally soluble in water but di- and trivalent ions are insoluble. The solubility of pectin in water increases with decrease in polymer size and increase in methoxy contents. Pectin powder gets hydrated very fast in water and forms clumps. The solubility of these clumps is very slow. As the pectin molecules come in contact with water, deesterification and depolymerization of pectins start spontaneously. The rate of decomposition of pectin depends on pH and temperature of the solution. As the pH of the solution decreased, with elevated temperature, ionization of carboxylate groups also reduced, which suppresses the hydration and repulsion between the polysaccharide molecules and results in the association of molecules in the form of gels. During thermal processing, solubilization of pectin is affected by β-elimination which depolymerized the pectin molecule and reduced its chain length. Small polymers have poor affinity with cell wall framework and solubilize easily. However, preheating, as well as reduced moisture contents in thermal processing, adversely affects the solubility of pectin in water [49, 50].
\nFood additives that are used in food processing to blend two immiscible liquids to produce a desirable product are known as food emulsifier or emulgent. These additives act as surface-active agents on the border of immiscible layers and reduce oil crystallization and prevent water separation. Emulsifiers are used in large number of food products such as ice creams, low-fat spreads, yoghurts, margarine, salad dressings, salty spreads, bakery products, and many other creamy sauces, to keep them in stable emulsion [27]. Emulsifiers increase the whip-ability of batters, enhance mouthfeel of the products, and improve texture and shape of the dough. Moreover, emulsions also help to encapsulate the bioactives [51]. Based on the disperse phase, there are two types of emulsion: oil in water (O/W) and water in oil (W/O). Milk, mayonnaise, dressings, and various beverages are some examples of O/W emulsion, whereas butter and margarine are the typical examples of W/O emulsion. Progress in hydrocolloid chemistry has resulted in the development of multitype emulsion such as O/W/O and O/W/O type emulsion (Figure 1). These emulsions are very important for fat reduction or encapsulation of bioactives and are used in preparation and stabilization of various low-fat creams, seasoning, and flavoring of sauces [52].
\nTypes of emulsions.
Commonly used emulsifiers in food processing are (i) small-molecular surfactant such as lectithins, derivatives of mono- and diglycerides prepared by mixing edible oils with glycerin or ethylene oxide, fatty acid derivatives such as glycol esters, sorbitan esters, polysorbates and (ii) macromolecular emulsifiers that include proteins and plant-based polymers such as soy polysaccharide, guar gum, modified starch, pectin, etc. [53]. As far as the properties of food emulsifier are concern, a good emulsifier should be low in molecular weight, capable to reduce the surface tension rapidly at interface, and should be soluble in continuous phase [54]. Research on food additives revealed the adverse effect of synthetic food additives on human being. Chassaing et al. found that polysorbate 80(P80) or carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) had adverse effects on gut microbiota and their continuous use triggered the weight gain and metabolic syndrome after 12 weeks of administration in mouse [55]. A recent research carried out on mice shows that regular use of P80 and CMC triggers low-grade intestinal inflammation which may ultimately lead to the development of colon cancer [56]. Therefore, safety issues with the synthetic food additives and consumer’s demand for all natural food ingredients have necessitated the use of plant-based emulsifiers and stabilizers in food.
\nPectin is a natural hydrocolloid which exhibits wide spectrum of functional properties. Because of the gelling ability of pectin, it is used as viscosity enhancer. During emulsification process, pectin molecules adsorb at the fine oil droplets from at O/W interface and protect the droplet from coalescing with adjacent drops (short-term stability). The quality of emulsifier is defined by its ability to provide long-term stability against flocculation and coalescence [27]. Figure 2 depicts the stages in long-term emulsion formation using pectin as emulgent. When the viscosity of the continuous phase is increased, the movements of oil droplets become restricted which improves the shelf life of emulsion [57]. In the past decade, some pectin has also been reported to exhibit surface active behavior in oil-water interface and thereby stabilizing the fine oil droplets in emulsion [42, 58]. These functions of pectin are determined by its source, structural modification during processing, distribution of functional groups in pectin backbone, and also by various extrinsic factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, cosolute concentration, etc. The emulsification or surface active properties of pectin, i.e., formation of fine oil droplets, are mainly contributed due to the high hydrophobicity of protein residue present in pectin [46, 59] and also by hydrophobic nature of acetyl, methyl, and feruloyl esters [42, 60], whereas emulsion-stabilizing ability is attributed to the carbohydrate moieties and their conformational features [61].
\nEmulsion formation and stabilization using polymer as emulgent.
The mechanism of emulsion formation is shown in Figure 3. Different models explain the emulsion formation as covalently bound protein moieties in pectin are adsorbed onto the oil-water interface [46], form anchor points at the interface, and reduce the interfacial tension while the charged carbohydrate units extend into the aqueous phase [62] and stabilize by steric and viscosity effects in the aqueous phase(Figure 3a). Now, it is a well-established fact that pectin from different source shows variability in structure and protein contents. Leroux et al. identified many anchor points in sugar beet pectin (SBP) molecules [46], and proposed a loop-and-tail model (Figure 3b). According to the authors, only a limited amount of protein is adsorbed at the oil surface and acts as main moiety in the stabilization of the emulsion. This model was further confirmed by Siew and others [62]. The study was carried out to measure the thickness of the adsorbed SBP on oil-water interface layer, proposed a multilayer adsorption model (Figure 3c). Electrostatic interactions between the positively charged protein moiety and the negatively charged carbohydrate moiety were also reported.
\nDifferent models showing pectin adsorption at oil/water interface during emulsion formation.
Pectin O/W emulsion is generally stabilized through steric and electrostatic interaction. The carbohydrate moieties and neutral sugar side chains of RG I region of pectin confer the stability to the pectin emulsions through steric properties of the adsorbed polymers, when pectin is used as monoemulsifiers. In addition, pectin reversible association with galactan/arabinogalactan prior to emulsification also improves the emulsion stability [42, 63]. Electrostatic stabilization of emulsion is ascribed to sugar moieties and structural features of the HG units of pectin. If the pH of dispersion medium is above 3.5, nonmethylated carboxylic group of HG region gets ionized and confers charge on the pectin surface. Interaction of an ionic surfactant with oil droplets results in electrostatic stabilization [64]. Pectin viscosity also plays an important role in controlling the emulsion stability. HG region-rich pectin shows higher intrinsic viscosity ([η]); therefore, HG and RG ratio of pectin and molecular interactions that improve the intrinsic viscosity ([η]) of pectin solution also contributes in shelf life of emulsion [65, 66]. It has also observed that structural features of pectin such as pectin protein content, molecular mass, and presence of ferulic acid, and acetyl group in carbohydrate moieties of pectin also affect pectin’s emulsifying and emulsion stabilization properties [15]. Williams et al. showed that ferulic acid-rich pectin did not show significant difference in emulsifying ability of pectin when compared with pectin poor in ferulic acid [67]. Digestion of sugar beet pectin(SBP) with acidic proteases resulted in formation of larger size of oil droplet, lower creaming stability, and loss of emulsifying activity of SBP which confirms that protein contents of SBP play an important role in emulsifying ability of the polymer [42]. Nevertheless, in other research, it was also found that protein-rich fractions of SBP did not necessarily displayed better emulsifying ability; therefore, it was concluded that both protein with carbohydrate moiety together help in controlling emulsifying ability of SBP. Castellani et al. further suggest that both the carbohydrate and protein moieties function together as unit and affect the hydrophilic-hydrophobic equilibrium of the SBP molecule [68]. Therefore, when SBP is digested with proteases or other enzyme, a single moiety may function differently. Furthermore, it was also proposed that protein folding may also mask the hydrophobic effect of protein and thus affect the overall properties of the polymers [69].
\nMolecular weight of pectin has also been reported to affect the emulsifying capacity of pectin. Pectin with low molecular weight was more efficient in stabilizing small emulsion droplets than high-molecular weight pectin. However, very small size of citrus pectin had negative effect on emulsion-stabilizing ability of pectin. It could be due to the poor steric stabilization of depolymerized polymer [59].
\nEmulsion-based food products can be defined as a network of pectin-protein molecules entrapping the oil droplet in between. Nowadays, a large number of pectin- and polysaccharide-based emulsified low-fat dairy products, meat products, spreads or desserts, bakery products, sauces, etc., are available in market. Low-fat and low-cholesterol mayonnaise, low-fat cottage cheese, low-fat drinking yogurt, and flavored oil-containing acidified milk drinks are the few examples of pectin-based emulsified products. These products are prepared by replacing full-fat milk from skimmed milk, emulsified oil, and whey proteins [70, 71]. A low-fat cheese was prepared using skimmed milk and water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsified canola oil. Different emulsifiers such as amidated low-methoxyl pectins (LMP), gum arabic (GA), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and combinations of GA-CMC or GA-LMP were used to stabilize the emulsion. Textural characteristics and sensory evaluation of low-fat cheese show that polymers used to stabilize the emulsion affected both microcrystalline structure and organoleptic properties. The cheese prepared using GA and LMP was almost similar in textural characteristics to the full-fat milk cheese [72]. In another study, Liu et al. compared the textural and structural features and sensory quality of full-fat and low-fat cheese analogs prepared with or without the incorporation of pectin [71]. Microstructure analysis using scanning electron microscopy revealed that full-fat cheese was denser and contained higher concentration of fat globules than low-fat cheese made with or without pectin. Comparison within the low-fat cheese analogs showed clear difference in their hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and adhesiveness. Addition of pectin had positive effect on textural and sensory attribute and scored better in mouthfeel also.
\nLow-fat (Lf) mayonnaise was prepared by partial replacement of egg yolk and incorporation of pectin as emulsifier [73, 74]. Pectin weak gel, pectin microencapsulation, and whey protein isolate were used in preparation of low-fat (Lf) mayonnaise. Physicochemical and sensory properties of Lf mayonnaise were compared with full-fat (Ff) mayonnaise; Lf mayonnaise had low energy and more water contents than Ff. Textural features and rheological properties of the Lf and Ff mayonnaise were similar and both displayed thixotropic shear thinning behavior and categorized as weak gels. Moreover, Lf mayonnaise prepared using pectin had better acceptability than whey protein incorporation [75]. Emulsified oil is used as an effective delivery system of active compound in functional foods, and also serves as milk fat replacer in fat-free dairy products. To improve the nutritional value of food, low-fat dairy products are produced, whereas saturated milk fat is generally replaced with emulsified-unsaturated vegetable oils [76].
\nIn recent year, pectin in combination with inulin has been reported to prepare low-fat meat batter. Méndez-Zamora et al. studied the effect of substitution of animal fat with different formulations of pectin and inulin on chemical composition, textural, and sensory properties of frankfurter sausages [77]. Finding of the research showed that fracturability, gumminess, and chewiness of the low-fat sauces were slightly lower than those of the control. However, addition of 15% inulin improves the sensory properties. In a similar work, replacement of pork back fat with 15% pectin and 15% inulin was found effective in maintaining the physicochemical properties and emulsion stability of the low-fat meat batter [78].
\nThe use of pectin in food products as a gelling agent is a long tradition. Later on, it was discovered that pectin forms different types of viscoelastic solution under suitable conditions. This property of pectin is commercially exploited in preparation of jams, jellies, and marmalades. Rheological behaviors of pectin depend on pectin source, its degree of methylation, distribution of nonmethylated GalA unit on pectin backbone, and degree of acetylation, and also on various extrinsic factors such as temperature, pH, concentration, and presence of divalent ions. At a constant pH, the setting time of pectin increases with decreasing DM and degree of blockiness (DB) in the absence of bivalent ions [79]. Therefore, on the basis of gelling process, pectin is classified as rapid, medium, and slow set pectin [80].
\nGelling process of pectin and its stabilization follows different mechanisms for different types of pectin. HMP form gels in a narrow pH range (2.0–3.5) in the presence of sucrose at a concentration higher than 55% w/v in medium. During the gelatin process of HMP, junction zones are formed due to the cross-linking of two or more pectin molecules. These junctions are stabilized by weak molecular interaction such as hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds between polar and nonpolar methyl-esterified groups and require high sugar concentration and low pH [81]. These gels are thermally reversible. LMP can form gel over a wide pH range (2.0–6.0) independent of sucrose, but requires divalent ion, such as calcium [82, 83]. LMP follow the eggbox model for its gelation, where positively charged calcium ions (Ca2+) are entrapped in between the negatively charged carboxylic group of pectin. The zigzag network of Ca2+ ion and GalA molecules looks like eggbox, and therefore, model is named as eggbox model [80]. These gels are stabilized by electrostatic bonds. In the presence of Ca2+, calcium bridges are formed with pectin molecules that make the solution more viscous. At the higher pH, the ionic strength of the solution is increased and thus more Ca2+ is needed for gelation. In case of highly acetylated pectin such as sugar beet, acetyl groups cause steric hindrances and interfere with the Ca2+ ion and GalA bond formation, thus preventing gel formation. Kuuva et al. [84] reported that enzymatic modification in pectin structure, i.e., removal of acetyl groups using α-arabinofuranosidase (α-Afases) and acetyl esterase enzymes, can improve the gelling property of acetylated pectin.
\nHMP are generally used in preparation of standard jams where sugar contents are above 55%, high-quality, tender confectionary jellies, fruit pastes, etc. LMP do not require sugar for its gelatin and therefore preferred choice for the production of low-calorie food products such as milk desserts, jams, jellies, and preserves, [28, 85]. LM pectins are more stable in low pH and high temperature conditions as compare to HM pectins and can be stored for more than a year.
\nFood packaging is one of the fastest growing segments of food industry. Traditionally, packaging system was limited to the containers and packaging material to transport the food items from manufacturer to the retail market and then to the consumers. Such type of packaging was unable to contribute in the extension of the shelf life and maintenance of the quality of the products. Due to the globalization of food market and increasing demand of shelf-stable processed food that retains the natural properties of food, the need of functional/active packaging material is increasing. To meet the industrial demand, a number of polymers are being synthesized and used in food packaging because of their flexibility, versatility, and cost effectiveness. Although, synthetic materials are able to fulfill all the industrial needs and keep food fresh and safe by protecting them from abiotic factors such as moisture, heat, oxygen, unpleasant odor, and biotic components such as micro- and macroorganisms. But, disposal of nonbiodegradable packaging material is a serious problem which poses a threat to the environment. Therefore, more research has been focused on the development of biodegradable packaging for food packaging applications using poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), starch, etc. [86]. Among all the natural polymers, polysaccharides are gaining more attention as they are versatile in nature and easily available in relatively low cost.
\nA variety of natural polysaccharides, such as pectin, chitosan derivatives, alginate, cellulose, seaweed extract, and starch are usually used in the preparation of edible films and coatings [87]. Pectin is one of the most significant renewable natural polymers which are the main component of all the biomass and ubiquitous in nature. Being flexible in nature, pectin and its derivatives are used in many biodegradable packaging materials that serve as moisture, oil, and aroma barrier, reduce respiration rate and oxidation of food [88]. Pectin along with food grade emulsifiers is also used in the preparation of edible films. These films are used in fresh and minimally processed, fruits and vegetables, foods and food products as pectin is the main component of the omnivorous diet and can be metabolized. Edible coating protects the nutritional properties of the food and also saves highly perishable food from the enzymatic browning, off-flavor development, aroma loss, retards lipid migration, and reduces pathogen attack during storage.
\nAt low pH, LM pectins are cross-linked with calcium cations and form hard gels. These gels have highly stable structure and act as water barriers. Because of these properties, LM pectin films are used as edible coatings [88, 89]. Extension of shelf life of avocado fruits was also reported to over a month at 10°C by using edible pectin films. It was found that when avocados were coated with edible pectin films and stored at 10°C, rate of oxygen absorption and rate of respiration decreased which results in delaying of texture and color change of fruits [90]. Oms-Oliu et al. used calcium chloride and sunflower oil cross-linked with LM pectin films onto fresh-cut melon to see the effect on extension of shelf life of cut fruits [91]. It was observed that edible pectin films maintained the initial firmness, decrease the wounding stress of fresh-cut fruits, and prevent the dehydration during storage up to 15 days at 4°C but could not reduce the microbial growth onto the fresh melon. It has been observed that to reduce the respiration rate and to prevent the off-flavor development, different pectin and emulsifier formations are required for different fruits. Edible coating film formulation consisted on pectin, sorbitol, and bee wax was successfully used by Moalemiyan et al. to keep the fresh-cut mangoes in original state for over 2 weeks [92]. Whereas in a similar study, pectin coating containing sucrose and calcium lactate was able to prevent the fruits’ respiration rate and maintain sensory properties in fresh melon fruits for up to 14 days storage at 5°C. In a similar study [93], pectin edible coating solution containing pectin (3%), glycerol (2.5%), polyvinyl alcohol (1.25%), and citric acid (1%) was prepared and applied on sapota fruits by dipping method and uncoated sapota fruits were used as control. Both the treated and control fruits were stored at 30 ± 3°C. Physicochemical parameters namely, weight, color, firmness, acidity, TSS, pH, and ascorbic acid contents of both the coated and control fruits were measured at regular interval up to 11th day of the storage at 30 ± 3°C. Reduced rate of change in weight loss and other parameters were reported in pectin-coated sapota as compared to control fruits and it was observed that pectin film formulation was able to maintain good quality attributes and extend the shelf life of pectin-coated sapota fruits up to 11 days of storage at room temperature, whereas control fruits were edible up to 6 days. Furthermore, it was also observed that sapota fruits dipped in sodium alginate containing 2% pectin solution for 2 min were more effective in maintaining the organoleptic properties up to 30 days of refrigerated storage as compared to sapota fruits dipped for 4 min and untreated sapota fruits [94]. Bayarri et al. developed antimicrobial films using lysozyme and LM pectin complex. The main purpose of the study was to control the release of lysozyme in packaged food and to target lysozyme-sensitive bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium. It was observed that in the presence of fungal pectinase, due to the dissociation of pectin linkage, lysozyme activity of films increased remarkably. Many food-contaminating bacteria are pectinase producing and such type of films may be used to control food contaminants. These results have opened new avenues for custom-made biodegradable film [95].
\nIn last few years, some researchers have focused on pectin-based coating containing edible essential to improve the antimicrobial properties and to enhance the efficiency of the pectin films. Edible coating formulation containing sodium alginate and pectin (PE) enriched with eugenol (Eug) and citral (Cit) essential oil at different concentrations was used to increase the shelf life of strawberries. Physical and organoleptic parameters of coated fruits stored at 10°C for 14 days show that formulation containing PE 2% + Eug 0.1%; PE 2% + Cit 0.15% was more suitable than sodium alginate-based formulations [96]. Pectin coating containing lemon and orange peel essential oils was reported to increase the shelf life and quality attributes of the strawberry fruits up to 12 days when stored at 5°C. It was also observed that fruits coated with pectin + 1% orange essence showed less weight loss and soluble solids as compare to their control during the storage [97]. Sanchís et al. studied the combined effect of edible pectin coating with active modified atmospheric packaging on fresh-cut “Rojo Brillante” persimmon. Persimmon fruit slices were coated by dipping in the pectin-based emulsion or in water as control. Both the treated and control slices were packed under 5 kPa O2 (MAP) or under ambient atmosphere for up to 9 days at 5°C. Various parameters, such as package gas composition, color and firmness of slice, polyphenol oxidase activity, were measured during storage. It was observed that edible coating along with MAP significantly reduced the CO2 emission and O2 consumption in the packaged fruits. Furthermore, coating was also effective in controlling microbial growth and reducing enzymatic browning and maintains good sensory parameters up to 10 days on storage [98].
\nDrying is the traditional and oldest method of fruit and vegetable preservation. It decreases the enzymatic activity, reduces the moisture contents, and protects the food from microbial attack. However, drying results in loss of nutrients, vitamins, heat-labile enzymes, modifies the texture, color, and organoleptic quality of dried fruits and vegetables and therefore diminishes the market value also. Pretreatment of food products with pectin coatings containing other bioactive compound such as ascorbic acid, CaCl2, edible gum, etc., before drying or blanching has been proposed as an effective method to preserve the nutritional as well as organoleptic quality of dried food [99]. Recent researches have shown that application of pectin coating could protect the moisture and vitamin C loss in pretreated papaya slice and osmotic dehydrated pineapple. In one of the research [100], pineapple slice was pretreated with pectin coating formulation containing (50%)/calcium lactate (4%)/ascorbic acid (2%) solutions and then dried by hot-air-drying method. Physicochemical analysis of dried product showed less reduction in vitamin C contents as compared to untreated pineapple slice. In a similar work, pectin coating supplement with vitamin C (1%) was used for precoating of papaya slice. It was found that incorporation of vitamin C did not affect the drying process. However, significant increase in vitamin C content was observed in final product [101].
\nFrying is a method of cooking that causes changes in chemical and physical parameters of food and enhances the taste. However, high temperature vaporizes the water of food and affects the nutritional properties due to protein denaturation and starch gelatinization. The oil uptake during frying is affected by various parameters such as type of oil used, frying temperature and duration, product moisture content, shape, porosity, prefrying treatment, etc. [102]. Surface area and pretreatment of products are the major factors that determine the oil absorbed. Edible coating has also been used successfully, to reduce the oil uptake during frying in various deep-fried products. Reduction in oil uptake and improvement of texture and quality of potato slices was reported by Daraei Garmakhany et al. in 2008. Authors found that coating of potato slices with pectin, guar, and CMC solutions can reduce the oil uptake when compared with nontreated potato chips [103]. Similar results were also obtained by Khalil, where a combination of pectin or sodium alginate with calcium chlorides significantly reduces the oil uptake of French fries. Coating formulation of 0.5% calcium chloride and 5% pectin was most effective in reducing the oil uptake [104]. Kizito et al. used different edible coatings (pectin, carboxy methyl cellulose, agar, and chitosan) at a concentration of 1–2% for pretreatment of potato chips, followed by deep frying of chips. Fried chips were analyzed biochemically and organoleptically to investigate the quality attributes of the products. It was revealed that all the coating polymers were successful in reducing the oil uptake but pectin was most effective and reduced oil uptake up to 12.93%, followed by CMC (11.71%), chitosan (8.28%), and agar (5.25%) and significantly improved moisture retention of strips (p < 0.05) [105].
\nThe application of natural polymers in food industry is increasing day by day. Researchers are focusing more and more toward the pectin because of the ease-of-availability, structural flexibility, and versatile composition. Pectin can be sourced from a number of easily available horticulture crops (Table 1). Pectin is a hydrocolloid which is used as a food emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener, and stabilizer. It is the preferred choice of most of the food processors as fat or sugar replacer in low-calorie foods. In the recent years, increasing demand of ready-to-serve foods, fresh-cut fruits, and vegetable has opened a new market for edible films. Being biodegradable and recyclable, a lot of research is being done on pectin-based edible film formulations. These films reduce the exchange of moisture, gases, lipids, and volatiles between food and environment, and also serve as protective barrier for microorganisms.
\nEven though a lot of information is available regarding pectin structure and many pectin-based products are available in market, role of many carbohydrate moieties and their effect on various function of pectin are not yet well defined. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the structural-function relationship of pectin and its interactions for developing functional food products.
\nThe authors thank Director, CSIR-CFTRI for the encouragement.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
',metaTitle:"Authorship Policy",metaDescription:"IN TECH's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, one must:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/authorship-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\\n\\nConversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\\n\\nCHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\\n\\nIf it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\\n\\nAFFILIATION
\\n\\nAuthors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-05-29
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\n\nConversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\n\nCHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\n\nIf it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\n\nAFFILIATION
\n\nAuthors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-05-29
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5703},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5174},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1690},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10246},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:889},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15653}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117317},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:57},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5146},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1",title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology",parent:null,numberOfBooks:2431,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:52490,numberOfWosCitations:67031,numberOfCrossrefCitations:43616,numberOfDimensionsCitations:95692,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10224",title:"Safety and Risk Assessment of Civil Aircraft during Operation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d966066f4fa44f6b320cd9b40ed66bbd",slug:"safety-and-risk-assessment-of-civil-aircraft-during-operation",bookSignature:"Longbiao Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10224.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260011",title:"Dr.",name:"Longbiao",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"longbiao-li",fullName:"Longbiao Li"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10074",title:"Recent Techniques and Applications in Ionizing Radiation Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"129deeec2186f6392f154ed41f64477a",slug:"recent-techniques-and-applications-in-ionizing-radiation-research",bookSignature:"Ahmed M. Maghraby and Basim Almayyahi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10074.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102209",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed M.",middleName:null,surname:"Maghraby",slug:"ahmed-m.-maghraby",fullName:"Ahmed M. Maghraby"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2431,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:8226,totalCrossrefCites:114,totalDimensionsCites:276,book:{slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"36171",doi:"10.5772/36942",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:8447,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:267,book:{slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko"}]},{id:"17237",doi:"10.5772/24553",title:"Hydrogels: Methods of Preparation, Characterisation and Applications",slug:"hydrogels-methods-of-preparation-characterisation-and-applications",totalDownloads:64144,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:205,book:{slug:"progress-in-molecular-and-environmental-bioengineering-from-analysis-and-modeling-to-technology-applications",title:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering - From Analysis and Modeling to Technology Applications"},signatures:"Syed K. H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:15992,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:null},{id:"57483",title:"Helicopter Flight Physics",slug:"helicopter-flight-physics",totalDownloads:5831,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"flight-physics-models-techniques-and-technologies",title:"Flight Physics",fullTitle:"Flight Physics - Models, Techniques and Technologies"},signatures:"Constantin Rotaru and Michael Todorov",authors:[{id:"206857",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Rotaru",slug:"constantin-rotaru",fullName:"Constantin Rotaru"},{id:"209010",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Todorov",slug:"michael-todorov",fullName:"Michael Todorov"}]},{id:"6704",title:"Knowledge Based Expert Systems in Bioinformatics",slug:"knowledge-based-expert-systems-in-bioinformatics",totalDownloads:4956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"expert-systems",title:"Expert Systems",fullTitle:"Expert Systems"},signatures:"Mohamed Radhouene Aniba and Julie D. Thompson",authors:[{id:"8312",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohamed Radhouene",middleName:null,surname:"Aniba",slug:"mohamed-radhouene-aniba",fullName:"Mohamed Radhouene Aniba"},{id:"134571",title:"Prof.",name:"Julie",middleName:null,surname:"Thompson",slug:"julie-thompson",fullName:"Julie Thompson"}]},{id:"15946",title:"Wake-Up-Word Speech Recognition",slug:"wake-up-word-speech-recognition",totalDownloads:4002,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"speech-technologies",title:"Speech Technologies",fullTitle:"Speech Technologies"},signatures:"Veton Kepuska",authors:[{id:"24379",title:"Prof.",name:"Veton",middleName:null,surname:"Kepuska",slug:"veton-kepuska",fullName:"Veton Kepuska"}]},{id:"63164",title:"Introduction to Kalman Filter and Its Applications",slug:"introduction-to-kalman-filter-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:6867,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"introduction-and-implementations-of-the-kalman-filter",title:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter",fullTitle:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter"},signatures:"Youngjoo Kim and Hyochoong Bang",authors:null},{id:"49024",title:"Biological and Chemical Wastewater Treatment Processes",slug:"biological-and-chemical-wastewater-treatment-processes",totalDownloads:24505,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:27,book:{slug:"wastewater-treatment-engineering",title:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering"},signatures:"Mohamed Samer",authors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:11836,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:101,book:{slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"497",title:"Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm and Its Application to Generalized Assignment Problem",slug:"artificial_bee_colony_algorithm_and_its_application_to_generalized_assignment_problem",totalDownloads:21989,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:143,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Adil Baykasoğlu, Lale Özbakır and Pınar Tapkan",authors:null},{id:"48982",title:"A Comprehensive Modeling and Simulation of Power Quality Disturbances Using MATLAB/SIMULINK",slug:"a-comprehensive-modeling-and-simulation-of-power-quality-disturbances-using-matlab-simulink",totalDownloads:11247,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"power-quality-issues-in-distributed-generation",title:"Power Quality Issues in Distributed Generation",fullTitle:"Power Quality Issues in Distributed Generation"},signatures:"Rodney H.G. Tan and Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy",authors:[{id:"152137",title:"Dr.",name:"Vigna",middleName:null,surname:"Ramachandaramurthy",slug:"vigna-ramachandaramurthy",fullName:"Vigna Ramachandaramurthy"},{id:"175327",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodney",middleName:"H.G.",surname:"Tan",slug:"rodney-tan",fullName:"Rodney Tan"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:8219,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"74735",title:"Coastal Water: Wisdom, Destruction, Conflicts and Contestation. A Case of Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh",slug:"coastal-water-wisdom-destruction-conflicts-and-contestation-a-case-of-southwest-coastal-region-of-ba",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95002",book:{title:"Coastal Environments"},signatures:"Hamidul Huq and Tahmid Huq Easher"},{id:"74921",title:"Ecofriendly Hill Mining by Tunneling Method",slug:"ecofriendly-hill-mining-by-tunneling-method",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95918",book:{title:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Rama Dhar Dwivedi and Abhay Kumar Soni"},{id:"74351",title:"Key Components in the Redox-Flow Battery: Bipolar Plates and Gaskets – Different Materials and Processing Methods for Their Usage",slug:"key-components-in-the-redox-flow-battery-bipolar-plates-and-gaskets-different-materials-and-processi",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94863",book:{title:"Energy Storage Battery Systems - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Thorsten Hickmann, Toni Adamek, Oliver Zielinski and Thorsten Derieth"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:775},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/7928/john-cimbala",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"7928",slug:"john-cimbala"},fullPath:"/profiles/7928/john-cimbala",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()