Risk factors for gallbladder stone diseases.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6169",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Culture and Identity",title:"Culture and Identity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a wonderful celebration of culture and identity, especially from the cultural lens of the various authors' nation of origin. Culture is viewed as a collective programming of the mind and is at times compared to an onion?the more you peel off the layers, the more you get to learn about the values, beliefs, and norms of the respective societies. As complex as the onion diagram is, and it gives the possibilities of tears due to its complexity, a great understanding is critical to interact and communicate effectively. It is a unique tribute to the many scholars who have embarked on this journey of exploring culture and how identity is defined. It is an intellectual discourse that could act as a springboard for many more experiments to be conducted around the world, more specifically the multidimensional aspects of culture and identity. Other interesting elements in this book are the many historical details and the abundance of insightful illustrations.",isbn:"978-1-78923-041-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-040-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-315-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68380",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"culture-and-identity",numberOfPages:122,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"925cd8ebef5226a2fc3b36d060a27ecb",bookSignature:"Wilfred Isak April",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6169.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7440,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 14th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 5th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 1st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 30th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"110034",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfred",middleName:"Isak",surname:"April",slug:"wilfred-april",fullName:"Wilfred April",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110034/images/5175_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Southern Namibia, Wilfred\\'s moto is your background is no excuse, the only excuse for success is the limitations you set for yourself. He holds a PhD in Entrepreneurship from Australasia and aspires to study for an Intellectual Property Law degree soon. Currently he is a final year student for a Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education Educators at UNAM.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Charité",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1324",title:"Society and Culture",slug:"society-and-culture"}],chapters:[{id:"59830",title:"Introductory Chapter",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74927",slug:"introductory-chapter",totalDownloads:946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Wilfred Isak April and Daniel Ileni Itenge",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59830",authors:[{id:"110034",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfred",surname:"April",slug:"wilfred-april",fullName:"Wilfred April"}],corrections:null},{id:"58801",title:"The Proverb manong a ja ka ditshika as an Embodiment of the Principle of Unity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72750",slug:"the-proverb-i-manong-a-ja-ka-ditshika-i-as-an-embodiment-of-the-principle-of-unity",totalDownloads:1156,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The proverb, manong a ja ka ditshika (birds of a feather flock together), has a unifying element among the Batswana because it contains principles that meaningfully guide, counsel and also influence their behaviour. This chapter aims to explore the relationship between proverbs, identity and culture, and how proverbs impact one’s identity. It will first define three concepts – proverb, culture and identity. This will be followed by a discussion of the theory of structuralism, which best explains the use of proverbs among communities. The theory is grounded on the idea that the community produces literature and an author is a product of society. Therefore, society determines ways of survival that should be transferred to posterity to ensure social control, group thinking and continuity. The chapter will then present a catalogue of proverbs that support the notion of unity in the proverb under discussion.",signatures:"Reginald B. Monyai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58801",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58801",authors:[{id:"210249",title:"Prof.",name:"Reginald",surname:"Monyai",slug:"reginald-monyai",fullName:"Reginald Monyai"}],corrections:null},{id:"58584",title:"Space and Time Travelers Exploring Cultural Identity of the City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72777",slug:"space-and-time-travelers-exploring-cultural-identity-of-the-city",totalDownloads:1189,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the architectural graduate students’ works on exploring cultural identity of a palimpsest city in Turkey, İznik (Nicaea). These evaluative works, which were prepared in the context of time and space, include the interpretations of transformation of urban spaces throughout time and its effects on the identity of the city. At the end of their study, the fresh architects were conscious about the role of culture in the process of urban development. They had experienced how to investigate the ways of benefiting from city culture in favor of city identity. Putting stress on the efficient role of cultural factors composing identity of a city throughout time, the example studies and their proposals indicated in this chapter show that achieving sufficient and healthy urban environments could be possible with identifying the importance of culture and benefits of culture-led development and using it in architectural and urban design.",signatures:"Arzu Ispalar Çahantimur and Gözde Kırlı Özer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58584",authors:[{id:"106544",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arzu",surname:"Ispalar Cahantimur",slug:"arzu-ispalar-cahantimur",fullName:"Arzu Ispalar Cahantimur"},{id:"228585",title:"MSc.",name:"Gözde",surname:"Kırlı Özer",slug:"gozde-kirli-ozer",fullName:"Gözde Kırlı Özer"}],corrections:null},{id:"58620",title:"Mexican Rural Communities’ Metabolism and Its Impact on Socioeconomic Indicators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72900",slug:"mexican-rural-communities-metabolism-and-its-impact-on-socioeconomic-indicators",totalDownloads:979,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The rural poverty in Mexico is mainly due to the lack of access to basic services, resources, technology, and scientific knowledge. Despite the Mexican government´s efforts to contribute on improving income levels and employment in rural communities, the challenge that faces the communities to achieve sustainable development is very significant. The principal purpose of the study is to analyze the metabolic scaling of cultural, environmental, and economic aspects in the context of Mexican rural communities in order to predict the energy necessary to maintain them connected and to estimate their impact on the improvement of socio-economic indicators. First, we used the socio-metabolic approach to the study of social complex systems in rural context. The social metabolism approach aims at the study of the material and energy exchange relationships between societies and their natural environment. Then, we analyzed the metabolic scaling of cultural, environmental, and economic aspects in the context of Mexican rural communities. Finally, the energy necessary to maintain the community connected and its impact on the socio-economic indicators was evaluated. We consider that results from this study can support the design of public policies focused on the improving the living conditions of Mexican rural communities.",signatures:"Aida Huerta Barrientos, Alma Elia Vera Morales and Tania Vázquez\nGonzález",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58620",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58620",authors:[{id:"180108",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida",surname:"Huerta Barrientos",slug:"aida-huerta-barrientos",fullName:"Aida Huerta Barrientos"},{id:"224024",title:"MSc.",name:"Alma Elia",surname:"Vera Morales",slug:"alma-elia-vera-morales",fullName:"Alma Elia Vera Morales"},{id:"224025",title:"MSc.",name:"Tania",surname:"Vázquez González",slug:"tania-vazquez-gonzalez",fullName:"Tania Vázquez González"}],corrections:null},{id:"58144",title:"Losing One’s Culture: The Narrative Identity of Nigerian Catholic Religious Sisters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72473",slug:"losing-one-s-culture-the-narrative-identity-of-nigerian-catholic-religious-sisters",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reports on part of the findings of a doctoral research focused on identity construction of Catholic religious sisters in the Church and in the wider Nigerian society. Primarily, the chapter interrogates how Catholic religious sisters negotiate their culture identity within the context of living religious life. Data were collected from 18 sister participants, who were purposefully recruited from two religious congregations across the different states of Nigeria. These included six temporary professed, six final professed and six leaders (including superiors/formators) representing the different categories of sisters that live religious life. The data were thematically analysed using the Dialogical Self Theory I-positions. The second sentence revealed tendencies for the participants to lose their cultural identity in terms of their struggles and sometimes compromises in identifying Western culture as the dominate culture of religious life. In this regard, the participants reported that their Nigerian communitarian culture of love, care and hospitality is regulated to the background. In response, this chapter calls for further research towards exploring the impact of culture on Catholic religious sisters’ expression of identity.",signatures:"Chika Eze, Graham C. Lindegger and Susan Rakoczy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58144",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58144",authors:[{id:"216952",title:"Dr.",name:"Chika",surname:"Eze",slug:"chika-eze",fullName:"Chika Eze"}],corrections:null},{id:"59068",title:"The Significance Attached to Education and Youth Development in Rural South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72836",slug:"the-significance-attached-to-education-and-youth-development-in-rural-south-africa",totalDownloads:1046,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Education plays a significant role in improving the socioeconomic conditions of individuals and communities. Given that the youth make up the largest proportion of the population in the rural areas, it is important to understand the social and economic dynamics that affect their ability to develop as individuals and members of society. To put it another way, the significance attached to education will play an important role in the development of young people in the rural areas. This can be attributed to the fact that these young people have to contend with the difficulties posed by resource mobilization when it comes to accessing education or, in some cases, the social and cultural constraints that they face. This chapter shows that the significance attached to the education of the youth in the rural areas of South Africa is a reflection of a myriad of challenges presented by cultural and social expectations and is compounded by the bottlenecks in educational resource mobilization.",signatures:"Reginald Botshabeng Monyai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59068",authors:[{id:"210249",title:"Prof.",name:"Reginald",surname:"Monyai",slug:"reginald-monyai",fullName:"Reginald Monyai"}],corrections:null},{id:"59704",title:"Popular Religions and Multiple Modernities: A Non-Western Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74411",slug:"popular-religions-and-multiple-modernities-a-non-western-perspective",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Religious diversity and pluralism is increasing all over the world, and globalization is creating a widespread awareness of that. The growing influence of religions in public politics and culture around the world is contradicting conventional narratives of secularization. Indeed, the resurgence of religions in all the continents is tangled in different ways to modernization processes. The main argument of this chapter is that this religious change toward pluralism can be fully understood in the context of multiple modernities theory, provided that it be revised and modified. The key understanding of changes must come from a better insight of popular religions worldwide. Latin American, Eastern Asia and Islam regions are good examples of popular forms of religious revitalization that contrasts with the Northern European case. New ways of producing sense and spiritual search in non-Western areas are framing specific relationships between religion and modernities and bringing about pluralisms. The interweaving of old and new religious traditions is accentuating interculturality and is generating great conditions for the emergence of new types of syncretism and/or sociocultural and even material (and violent) conflicts. The consequence is the development of religious patterns within societies that have a specific and distinctively form of modernity of their own.",signatures:"Cristian Parker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59704",authors:[{id:"207097",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristián",surname:"Parker",slug:"cristian-parker",fullName:"Cristián Parker"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2301",title:"Social Sciences and Cultural Studies",subtitle:"Issues of Language, Public Opinion, Education and Welfare",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8b131a7ee5b8a5b952c49dc19c0cfe5",slug:"social-sciences-and-cultural-studies-issues-of-language-public-opinion-education-and-welfare",bookSignature:"Asuncion Lopez-Varela",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2301.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"302731",title:null,name:"Asun",surname:"López-Varela Azcárate",slug:"asun-lopez-varela-azcarate",fullName:"Asun López-Varela Azcárate"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6944",title:"Heritage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"80ee36ba67b1fe4ff971074f7ddc4d00",slug:"heritage",bookSignature:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6944.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"79566",title:"Pathophysiology of Gallstones",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100553",slug:"pathophysiology-of-gallstones",body:'The gallstones (Figure 1) are hard, pebble-like pieces of material, usually made of cholesterol or bilirubin, that develop in the gallbladder [1]. These stones are formed due to various disorders. Five defects primarily play critical role in pathogenesis of cholesterol stones Viz lithogenes and genetic factors; hepatic hypersecretion of cholesterol; rapid phase transition of cholesterol in bile; impaired gallbladder motility; intestinal factors involving absorption of cholesterol, slow intestinal motility and altered gut microbiota.
Cholesterol gallstones and gallbladder after cholecystectomy.
Gallstones affect about 15% of United States population. About 10–20% of the United States population will get gallstones at some point in their life time and females are more affected than men [2].
Gallstones can cause biliary colic, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, empyema Gallbladder, perforation of gallbladder, cholangitis, bile duct obstruction [3], and cancers (gallbladder [4], colorectal [5, 6], pancreatic [7]). In 85% of patients with gallbladder cancer, gall stones are present [8]. Gallbladder cancer is a very fatal cancer with average survival of 6 months [9] and 5-year survival rate of 5% [8]. This bad prognosis is because of silent features. An increased mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer was found to be associated with gallstones by an 18 year national study [10]. Asymptomatic cholelithiasis are present in 80% of cases and most of these are incidentally found when the patients are under investigation for other ailments [11]. In general, 10–25% of asymptomatic cases may develop symptoms during the patient’s lifetime [12]. The estimated cost for gallbladder diseases was 6.5 billion dollar annually in United States only in 2002 [13].
There are three types of gallstones; first and most common type is cholesterol stone. Black and brown pigmented stones are the other two types of gallstones. The prevalence of various types of gallstones in the western world is: 75% of gallstones are cholesterol stones, 20% are black pigment stones, and 5% or less are brown pigment stones. Cholesterol and black pigment stones are formed exclusively in gallbladder in a sterile medium, while as brown pigment stones are formed everywhere in the biliary tree owing to the anaerobic bacterial infection. Stasis of bile is an essential component in the formation of gallstone or bile duct stone formation [14]. In underdeveloped countries parasitic infection of biliary tree is associated with brown pigment stones [15].
Physical-chemical origin is the basis of pathogenesis of sterile stones (cholesterol and black pigment stones) [16]. There is an alteration in lipid and lipo-pigment composition which results in the formation of stones. In cholesterol and black pigment stones the major component is cholesterol monohydrate crystals and calcium hydrogen bilirubinate respectively. During the long stay in gallbladder, the black pigment gets degraded and polymerized by free radicals and helps in the formation of black pigment stones while as in the brown pigment stones the main mechanism is infectious where the enzymatic hydrolysis of biliary lipids by anaerobic bacterial enzymes produces supersaturated long chain fatty and deconjugated bile acids [14, 17].
Gallstone formation occurs as a result of interaction between genetic and environmental factors in which few are unmodifiable and unaltered as age and genetic makeup. The traditional risk factors for gallstones are four “F” female, fertile, fat, forty and some have added fifth “F” for fair skin [18].
Various intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for the causation of different types of gallstones are genetic factors, advanced age, female gender, parity, ethnicity, rapid weight loss, different medications (oestrogen replacement therapy, oral contraceptive pills), total parenteral nutrition [19], obesity, westernized diet, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome [20], dyslipidaemia, hyperinsulinemia [21], increased enterohepatic circulation of bilirubin [22], defective gall bladder motility [23] as shown in Table 1.
Risk factors for gallstone diseases | |
---|---|
Intrinsic factor | Extrinsic factor |
Age | Lipid profile |
Gender | Diet |
Ethnicity | Obesity |
Defective gallbladder motility | Weight loss |
Physical activity | |
Genetics | Diseases |
Medication |
Risk factors for gallbladder stone diseases.
Age is an important factor for the stone formation, with increase in age enzyme 7 α hydroxylase (Limiting enzyme for bile acid synthesis) activity decreases which increases the saturation of cholesterol in bile and hence increasing the chances of stone formation [24].
Various genes are linked with increased susceptibility of gallstones like Lith genes identified in mouse models [25]. Two variants of ATP binding Cassette transporters ABCG5-R50C and ABCG8-D19H [26]; 3 variants of Farnesoid X Receptor gene (FXR) (rs 35724, rs 11110358, rs 11110386) [27]; polymorphism of apolipoprotein E4 allele [28]; mucin genes [29]; fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 (FGFR4) [30], polymorphism in CCK 1-R gene [31] are linked with cholelithiasis. The genetic factors are responsible for 25–30% of symptomatic gallstones as inferred from twin studies [32]. Gene expressions are affected by environmental factors and gene-environmental interactions through epigenetic mechanisms [33] also involving fat storage and insulin resistance [34]. These factors primarily include micro RNAs [35] Viz. 114 miRNA [36], miR-122 [37].
Females are having a higher risk factors due to various reasons for cholelithiasis such as higher oestrogen levels naturally [38], multiparity [39] and ingestion of oral contraceptives containing oestrogens [38]. Females also tend to undergo cholecystectomy procedure more than males [40].
Ethnicity plays an important non-modifiable role in cholelithiasis as few ethnic groups are having higher incidence of having gall stones as in North American Indians (73% among women more than 30 years old within Prima Tribe) [14], American Indians (men 29.5%, women 64.1%) [41]. Prevalence of Gallstone and Gallbladder Cancer are co-related and effects certain indigenous population like South America & North India, especially younger population [42].
Risk of deaths from gallbladder cancer and other malignancies has been observed to be seven times more in tribal members with gallstones [43].
The co-relation between lipids and cholesterol stone formation is complex, multi factorial and is dependent on other factors also as few studies are in favour and few showing inverse relationship [14]. Few studies show high LDL [44], high cholesterol [45], low HDL [46] are associated with higher gall stone formation which seems to be evident but other studies show there are having inverse relationship with gallstone formation like low HDL, high cholesterol and high LDL [14].
Cholesterol gallstones are associated with western diet [47]. Multiple studies have shown high carbohydrate intake couples with high glycemic load [48], chronic hypernutrition [49] fibre depleted diet [50] are associated with higher risk for cholelithiasis in process which are associated with decreased risk are intake of in saturated fat [51], coffee [52], fibre [53], fish oil [54], calcium [55], ascorbic acid [56], fresh fruits and vegetables [57] and nuts [51].
Obesity is itself risk factor for cholelithiasis. It has been shown that an obese women (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) has two fold and morbidly obese women (BMI ≥ 45 kg/m2) has seven fold higher risk for cholelithiasis as compared to lean women (BMI < 25 kg/m2) [58].
Rapid weight loss i.e., >1.5 kg/week and or loss of body weight >25% [59] are risk factors for cholelithiasis which usually occur after bariatric surgery. Weight loss has also been found to reduce risk of gallstones except when rapid loss occurs.
Physical activity decreases risk for cholelithiasis [60] as it improves hepatobiliary funtions, gut motility [61], increasing HDL [62], improves insulin release and plasma triglyceride levels [63]. An endurance exercise (cycling and running) 5 times per week for 30 minutes daily decreases risk by 34% for cholelithiasis [64] or 2–3 h/week of recreational exercise decrease risk by 20% for cholecystectomy [60]. While as reduced physical activity increases risk for cholelithiasis [64].
Various diseases increase the risk for cholelithiasis as these work by different mechanisms like causing abnormal gallbladder motility, malabsorption of bile salts, decreased bile salt synthesis [65], increasing bile cholesterol saturation [66], supersaturation of bile and increased hepatic cholesterol secretion [67]. Different diseases increasing risk for cholelithiasis viz. metabolic syndrome, dyslipidaemia, diabetes (2–3 fold [68]), insulin resistance or hyperinsulinemia [69], chronic hepatitis C virus [66], liver cirrhosis (25–30% increased risk [65] and Chron’s disease [70].
Both these habits have controversial results from various studies some favouring and others refuting association with cholelithiasis.
Men consuming alcohol 0–20 g per day have higher risk than those who consume 20–60 g per day [24]. But few studies show severe alcohol abuse in itself and also led to chronic cirrhosis (pigment stones), which is an independent risk factor for cholelithiasis [71].
Cigarette smoking is another risk factor for gallstones among woman [72], while as few studies refute these claims show no association with gallstones [73].
An imbalance between absorption and synthesis of cholesterol i.e., increased biliary cholesterol secretion from high dietary cholesterol and decreased bile acid synthesis and pool, all driving bile supersaturation [22]. High cholesterol diet and high intestinal cholesterol absorption are two independent risk factors for gallstones [74], regulated by many factors like expression of sterol transport protein [75].
In patients with cholelithiasis there is evidence of altered gut microbiota with increment of intestinal bacterial phylum proteobacteria decrement of
Defective gallbladder motility is another risk factor for cholesterol stones [78]. About one-third of patients with cholesterol gallstones display enlarged fasting and post prandial residual gallbladder volume with delayed emptying which antedates gallstone formation [79]. Sufficient time for cholesterol nucleation and gallstone growth is provided by dysfunctional gallbladder motility [80]. Various conditions are associated with dysfunctional gallbladder motility like insulin resistance, diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, liver cirrhosis, and so on [81]. There is increase in lithogenic bile secretion to small intestine directly from liver in fasting motility defect, leading to faster recycling of bile acids and increasing bile acid pool hydrophobicity [82]. This is another predisposing factor for cholesterol crystallization and cholelithiasis [83].
Various defects occur simultaneously for the nucleation and crystallization of cholesterol monohydrate viz unphysiological supersaturation with cholesterol, accelerated nucleation and gallbladder hypomotility [16]. The mucin glycoprotein hypersecretion follows and lead to the stone formation [84].
Excessive secretion of cholesterol into bile leads to cholesterol supersaturation [85] owing to multiple biochemical defects either from increased input (de novo synthesis, lipoprotein uptake) or decreased disposition (de novo bile salt and cholesteryl ester synthesis) [84]. However single defects in hepatocellular processing of cholesterol are known viz
Increased number of apolipoprotein B/E and E receptors (constitutional/oestrogens/rapid weight loss/diet)
Increased activity of hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase (obesity/hypertriglyceridemia/fibric acids)
Diminished activity of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (constitutional/fibric acids)
Diminished activity of Acyl CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase (constitutional/progestogens) [86]
These changes resulting in the increased levels of cholesterol in microsomes [87] and cytosol [88] of hepatocytes in patients with gallstones. Sterol carrier protein 2 concentration also increases simultaneously [89].
At puberty hypersecretion of cholesterol into bile begins [90]. In liver excess cholesterol is delivered to bile by a relay station [91]. Postprandially the cholesterol is completely micellized by bile salts and lecithin during healthy condition [92]. Cholesterol molecules are absorbed by gallbladder mucosa efficiently from micelles of supersaturated bile [93] where the activity of acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyl transferase esterifies the sterol [87]. But the molecules that remain free are dissolved in plasma and intercellular membranes where they become intercalated with and stiffen the phospholipid molecules [86]. Reverse diffusion when gallbladder bile become unsaturated or esterification is the only means of escape of membrane cholesterol as gallbladder mucosa does not produce cholesterol [92].
The abnormity in diurnal variation of gallbladder bile due to hypersecretion of cholesterol lead to the further trapping of excess free cholesterol molecules into gallbladder mucosa and muscle membranes [94]. There occurs the divergence of hepatic bile into gastrointestinal tract due to impaired motor and mucosal functions of gallbladder [95]. This in turn lead to increased bacterial catabolism and turnover of primary bile salts [92], which ultimately increase the production of secondary bile salts (hydrophobic bile salts) and suppress de novo bile salt synthesis [96].
Rapid recirculation and hydrophobicity are harmful for the stability of bile as these lead to the augmentation of secretion of cholesterol and hydrophobic lecithin molecules, which in turn shorten the time of nucleation of supersaturated bile [91]. The hydrophobicity of bile salt pool also increases secretion of total proteins into bile [97] and also altering the ratio of pro and anti-nucleating activities for cholesterol crystallization [97]. Multiple stimuli trigger mucin glycoprotein hypersecretion like cholesterol in itself [87], ‘cytotoxic’ filamentous cholesterol crystals [98], prostanoids [99], and hydrophobic bile salts e. g Deoxycholate and lithocholate conjugates [100]. This lead to the development of mucin gel on gallbladder wall and then as a crescent in gallbladder lumen, setting stage for accelerated nucleation. This together with hypomotility lead to its accumulation as biliary sludge, failure of complete evacuation of which lead to gallstone formation [84]. However, the end result may become inevitable by an environmental perturbation that inauspiciously tips the delicate pathophysiological and physical-chemical balance of supersaturated bile towards nucleation and stone growth [86].
Black stones occur in sterile environment [101] with increased frequency in patients of chronic haemolysis. A shift in ratio of bilirubin diconjugates to the favour of monoconjugates especially monoglucuronides occur due to hypersecretion of bilirubin conjugates in bile [102]. Bile pigment output increases by 10-fold with haemolysis [102] and predominantly becomes monoconjugates that are more hydrolysed by endogenous β glucuronidase [101]. This gives rise to very high levels of unconjugated pigment exceeding biliary solubility [101]. The insoluble acid calcium salt [Ca (HUCB)2] forms at pH values typical of gallbladder bile [103]. Unphysiological supersaturation occurs with an elevation in the ion product of calcium and monoacid species of unconjugated bilirubin [101] facilitating factors like in cholesterol stones are important for stone formation. The prevalence of pigment stones increases with age and is gender dependent; and all haemolytic patients does not develop pigment stones [101]. In experimental studies it was shown that there is no gallbladder motility defect in black pigment stone formation [104]. However, mucin hypersecretion occurs [105] in response to the high levels of unconjugated bilirubin [106] or mucosal cell cytotoxicity of earliest precipitates [107]. Nucleation is initiated at glandular crypts of gallbladder mucosa where mucin gel accumulates first [107]. Biliary supersaturation (owing to defective acidification of hepatic bile [101] with organic salts occur which is indicated by presence of crystalline calcium carbonate and phosphates in black pigment stones [101]. 3–20% of black pigment stones are composed of mucin glycoprotein [108]. Various factors came into play and through different mechanisms give rise to pigment stone formation in alcoholic cirrhosis, ileal dysfunction and in aging Viz bile salt hyposecretion, defective solubilization of unconjugated bilirubin, impaired calcium ion binding, haemolysis, defective bilirubin conjugation [101], enteric hyperbilirubinobilia [86].
Chronic anaerobic infection with functional stasis of bile ducts is necessary for brown pigment stones. Stasis in bile duct occur due to secondary stones from gallbladder, or due to sphincter of Oddi dysfunction or parasitic infections (mostly underdeveloped countries) [84]. Commencing with stasis of bile and then followed by anaerobic bacterial infection lead to accumulation of both mucin gel and bacterial cytoskeleton in bile ducts. Bacterial enzymes (phospholipase A, β glucuronidase) hydrolyse the biliary lipids that contain amide or ester linkages which results in the nucleation of cholesterol monohydrate crystals A trap is laid down in the form of culture medium for anaerobic bacteria by mucin gel and solid components making their exit difficult. This is a vicious cycle formed between growing stone, stasis of bile and bacterial infection [84, 109].
Tidal energy influences deltaic components, regulates morphodynamic processes and facilitates onshore sedimentation worldwide [1, 2, 3]. Regular inundation of the intertidal terrain sustains the Ganga-Brahmaputra (G-B) deltaic plain. Since the pre-colonial era, the unified G-B delta region in both India and Bangladesh, witnessed construction of earthen embankments along the tidal channels, rivers, coastal stretches and also within the deltaic plain to prevent flooding, salinity intrusion and land erosion [4, 5]. Referred to by the Dutch term ‘polder’, there are low-lying floodplain tracts which are enclosed by the dykes and used for rice cultivation and aquaculture in Bangladesh [2]. These partly-engineered structures not only restrain standard range of tidal flooding but also seize large areas of formerly intertidal landscape. Over the years, the entangled network of rivers fuelling life to the vast stretch of mangrove forests in both India and Bangladesh Sundarbans, has been reduced and the fresh water discharge has been deterred since the rivers got disconnected due to upstream interferences like large barrage and dam installations [5, 6]. In addition, more complex human interventions due to increased population, irrigation, economic activities in terms of flow of goods and requirement for maintaining larger scale infrastructure have magnified the fragilities of the delta over time. For past centuries, a number of embankments have been built in the south-western side (the Indian Sundarban) totaling to about 3638 km in length [6, 7]. In Bangladesh Sundarban, emerging, more than 129 polders have been constructed in the upstream areas encompassing 13,000 km2 of land or, about 44 percent of the total area in deltaic Bangladesh [6, 8].
Several researches in past few years have documented substantial lowering of coastal tracts indicating greater risk of submergence by sea-level rise and amplified inundation by storm surges [2, 7, 9]. This elevation loss is attributed to the sedimentation within embanked channels conjoined with sediment compaction within intertidal platform and removal of forest biomass [2, 9]. Middlekoop
Created by the confluence of the Ganges, Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers and their myriad distributaries, the Sundarbans constitutes the southern end of the Ganga- Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh and West Bengal (India). The geographically undivided Sundarban tract (Figure 1) stretches approximately 260 km. west–east along the Bay of Bengal from the Hugli River estuary at the western segment in India to the Meghna River at the east in Bangladesh. Situated at the littoral fringe of the world’s largest deltaic landscape and shrouded by magnificent thicket of mangroves, the Sundarbans has a total area of roughly 10,200 km2, about 60 percent of which is in Bangladesh and 40 percent in India [6]. This intertidal region receives saline influx from the Bay of Bengal twice a day, whilst is also bathed with freshwater flow from the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna River System [12]. Constituted by total 102 islands, the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) in India is bordered by 54 inhabited islands to the north with a repugnantly contrasting human-modified landscape and the rest are within the mangrove Reserve Forest area. In Bangladesh the mangroves are sheltered in the Sundarban Reserve Forest which is starkly surrounded by polders, shrimp farms and settlement to the north.
The integrated indo-Bangladesh Sundarbans. Image details: True color image, (Landsat TM, 1992).
Constructed primarily by fluvial processes, the delta is now maintained almost exclusively by tidal actions and contributed by acute water-surface gradients along the interconnecting tidal channels. The major fluvial systems has either disjoined or migrated to the east and eliminated the most direct fluvial input at the Indian section of the delta due to the Farakka barrage or the Ganges Treaty which was operationalized between India and Bangladesh in 1975. Inevitably, it decreased the perennial flow by diverting a maximum 1133 cumec of water through the feeder canal through Bhagirathi-Hugli river system of West Bengal (India) [6]. Due to this upstream diversion, the distributaries of the Bhagirathi-Hugli have either been disconnected by siltation or dried. Presently freshwater in the rivers contributing to Sundarban is negligible or mostly absent except during monsoon months [6]. In eastern section (Bangladesh) Gorai-Modhumoti-Passur river systems still contribute substantially unlike the Mathabhanga-Kapotaksha-Sibsa river system which once was significant but deteriorated subsequently.
Coupled with this severe shortage in fresh water discharge from upstream, especially at the Bengal section, incessant embanking at the downstream water courses has notably affected the salinity regimes in the rivers and creeks of the lower section of the delta including Sundarbans. The lower-gradient fluvio-tidal section in the south-east (Bangladesh) is advancing into the sea with comparatively steady-state channels contrary to the fluvially discarded tidal section in the south-west (India) which is accreting vertically but also declining irreversibly in certain sections [6, 13]. However, periodic flooding of the land surface during the tidal cycle coupled with enormous sediment delivery during the monsoon (wet season) promotes sediment accumulation and heterogeneous surface elevation gain through time [9, 14]. Sediment transport is landward and to the south-west in the Bengal section (India) [13]. Indeed, the flood defensive structures have terminated the pathways of sediment conveyance and inland sediment transport for much of the lower delta region, especially at the south-west section. Thriving at the southern end of the G-B delta and constituting about 47 percent of the deltaic coastline, the Sundarbans as a complex socio-ecological system with i) extended fluvio-deltaic plains, ii) agriculture and shrimp farming and iii) tide-dominated morphodynamic processes, is the focus area of the chapter.
At the dawn of colonial period the Sundarbans was sparsely populated teeming with profuse flora and fauna as pointed out by Hunter in an essay published in his book ‘A Statistical Account of Bengal’ [15]. The East India Company presented an image of the tracts that were not under the government’s lease and thus, they conferred tenure and activated their revenue-yielding process through the conversion of inaccessible ‘wastelands’ into paddy lands as early as 1770s [16, 17]. At this time, they also noticed the dilapidated condition of the hitherto built ‘public’ embankments or mud bunds which were supposed to be maintained by
According to Hunter [15] a major part of reclamation work included in keeping out the lateral flow of saline water and thus, bringing the marsh lands under rice cultivation. In availing this method, all the inlets from the channels were embanked, and smaller channels called
In almost all shallow and active tide-dominated platforms like the southern part of G-B delta, tidal inlets or creeks play a crucial role in governing local morphodynamic behavior and maintaining equilibrium at the landscape level. The equilibrium is achieved by the dynamic interplays among the landscape components which are materials, processes and forms. When the river influx and tidal forcing, averaged over a seasonal cycle are sufficiently steady, tidal channels can evolve towards near-stable morphology. In high discharge phases during wet seasons sediment export is promoted by high transport capacity of rivers which reduces tidal deformation. In contrast, stunted river discharge as a sequel of dry seasons, advocates flooding and facilitates sediment imports only from the estuarine mouth [14]. Hence, the tidal motion balances the delta morphology at the landscape scale as the sediment import during low flow balances sediment export during maximum flow within a seasonal cycle [14, 27]. In fact, the tidal distributaries or creeks, exhibit lesser migration rates and also, are not easily flooded by the river because of opposing non-linear interactivity between river discharge and the tide [28]. This results in more uniform and balanced distribution of discharge across the channels. Historical satellite imagery from the Sundarban mangrove forest depicts that the tidal-channel network in the region has been quasi stable since the 1970s with <2 percent net change in the length of waterways and meager changes in channel widths. Indeed, morphological equilibrium of the tidal inlets is not only dependent on the freshwater discharge, but also sediment transport coupled with grain size characteristics, tidal prism and tidal asymmetry i.e. high energy short duration flood tides, and low energy long duration ebb tides [29].
The bi-directional flow associated with tidal rise and fall, generating huge volume of water inland with amplitude reaching more than 4–7 m during spring tides, is called tidal prism. As the tidal oscillations conduct sediment from the shelf across the delta plain, up to 120 km towards hinterland the tidal prism retains substantial suspended sediment concentrations [30]. Suspended sediment amount may be estimated by the widely applied form:
where, Qs represents suspended sediment discharge (kg s−1) and Q indicates water discharge (m3 s−1). With the propagation of tidal wave up channel non-linear frictional distortions and relative depths of channel beds induce differences in magnitude and duration between flood and ebb tidal waves, also known as tidal asymmetry [33, 34]. The tidal approach of within G-B delta of south-western section (India) depicts pronounced flood dominance and rising tide turns the estuarine channels into sediment sink. Sediment convergence takes place at the turbidity maximum zone (Figure 2) where sediments are trapped by outrushing freshwater discharge and onshore tidal deluge. The sediments typically precipitate as velocities decline at the end of the transport path along the upstream reaches of the tidal channels or on the intertidal mangrove platform and small creeks and the process is further sustained by relatively low flow velocity of the falling tide [30, 35]. This tidal pumping [33] is imperative in facilitating vertical accretion in the plains which receive little or no sediment influx from upstream barring Hugli (India) and Baleshwari river (Bangladesh). Sediment deposition at the Sundarbans mangrove platform is measured up to 96x106 tons per year which is 10 percent of the annual sediment content of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system [6].
(a) Sediment transport pattern within the tide-dominated estuarine landscape, after ozCoasts (
A unit-scale analysis [2] at 48 stations of deltaic Bangladesh, reports that the annual sediment content of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system (~1.1 Gt yr.−1) is competent to aggrade the entire deltaic system at rates of >0.5 cm yr.−1, provided there is an effective riparian energy enabling dispersal of sediment to various reaches of the delta and also, substantial tidal exchanges carrying the sediment inland supplementing to vertical accretion of the delta. Through their seasonal investigations Rogers
Province | Surface area (km2) | Storage (106 t a−1) | Percent of total sediment discharge of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra* |
---|---|---|---|
Bangladesh | 4800 | 62.4 | 6.2 |
India | 3000 | 13–32 | 1.3–3.2 |
Total | 8000 | 77.4–96.4 | 8–10 |
As implied by the studies of Hale
On other hand, Syavitski
Based on the model of Syvitski
Reclamation of the landscape (Figure 3) with hard, consolidated embankment causes wave and current deflection from the base of the wall causing basal scouring and subsequent subsidence and overtopping. As the cross-sectional area is reduced due to exclusion of intertidal part by reclamation, sedimentation takes place on the channel bed and thereby, raises its elevation [39]. On the flip side, the interior part of islands remains sediment starved and thus subsides due to compaction and de-watering [40, 41]. This develops a reverse gradient with lower central position. Once flooded, water enters into the island and is unable to drain back to the channels (Figure 4b).
Embankments and polders in the indo-Bangladesh Sundarbans [
(a) Typical south-western deltaic landscape with embankment, (b) cross-section of the delta plain: River bed lies above the land behind embankment, (c) post-cyclone (‘Amphan’, 2020) damages of earthen embankment in Indian Sundarban.
Formerly, widespread sedimentation could be possible in the active stretches as the tidal distributaries tended to migrate or witness landward transgression across the plain for maintaining their position within coastal energy gradient [38]. But unplanned construction of these flood defensive walls have hindered the channel migration process and reduced the capacity of small channels to navigate into the larger one. Estuarine transgression, however, is a two-stage process in which lateral erosion of the seaward margins of salt marshes and upper mudflats is balanced by vertical accretion on their surfaces so that their landward margins frontier forward. But the embankments are standing between these two processes, permitting the erosion to take place to seaward preventing the accretion to landward [41]. Moreover, a number of interior creeks and estuaries are exposed to unprecedented siltation, especially at the western part of the lower delta stretch, as a consequence of reduction in tidal spill [42].
Four types of embankments are commonly built at the south-western section of the delta: i) 2 m high earthen wall bordering small tidal channels, ii) 2 m high earthen wall with brick pitching on island margins, iii) 3 m high wall with brick pitching on wave exposed coastal tracts, iv) 3.67 m high wall with boulder pitching on eroding stretches [6]. On other hand the tidal creeks of Sundarbans are classed as meso-macro tidal having amplitude ranging from 2 to 5.5 m. The incoming tidal waves during spring tides and wet months often achieve the height of more than 3 m (often 4 m) to overtop the barrier and thereby, enter into the agricultural lands [40]. Clearly, this positive feedback loop discards the embankments as a protective wall from saline water. Further, deep foundation of embankments impairs the dynamic interconnection between ground water table and river by retarding influent and effluent seepage [43]. The embankment on the bank is affected by the hydrostatic pressure causing uplift and dislodgement of such structures. The scouring of the bank along the concave side of meander and heavy weight of overlying structure often leads to collapse of the banks.
Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing to the early 1980s, ~5000 km2 of the low-lying tidal delta plain of Bangladesh section was embanked and converted to densely inhabited, agricultural islands i.e., polders. From this section of Bangladesh Wilson
Standard polder system of the south-eastern section (Bangladesh) of the delta. Siltation within tidal channels result in formation of
Year | Poldered Area | Natural Area | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1973 | 2003 | 2013 | 1973 | 2003 | 2013 | |
Length of tidal channels outside of polders (km) | 1891 | 783 | 782 | 1964 | 1987 | 1981 |
Length of tidal channels obstructed by polders (km) | 0 | 1108 | 1108 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Length of tidal channels outside of polders with >50% obstruction [ | 0 | 355 | 420 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
−59% | 1% | |||||
45% | 54% | 0% |
Summary of results from GIS analysis (1973–2013), after Wilson
The massive shrinkage in inter-tidal areas by the artificial barriers affected natural ability of the system to respond to and dissipate flood energy. In many parts of the delta, the land behind the barriers is now lower than the inter-tidal areas or channel beds: an apparent sign that the system dynamics has been disrupted (Figure 4). Construction of marginal levees increases channel depth and accentuates flood dominance which further, aggravate sedimentation at the channel bed as the channel tries to restore its equilibrium [46]. The major waterways lose their original widths. Consequently, the ‘conduit’ channel beds procure substantial elevation by infilling processes as opposed to the land behind the embankments. In the state of morphological equilibrium, length of a resonant macro-tidal estuary like the Hugli (Indian section), tends to equal a quarter of the tidal wavelength (L) [46, 47], i.e. 0.25 L. As explained by Bandyopadhyay (1997), the tidal wavelength (L) is determined by the following equation:
Where, T is tidal period (constant in a given locality), g is gravitational acceleration (a constant) and D is mean depth of the estuary (the only variable). Reclamation by restricting the area of tidal spill through marginal embankments increases the mean depth and leaves the estuary out of equilibrium to which it tries to return by active in-channel sedimentation and bank erosion to decrease mean depth [5]. With its length 0.17 (i.e. less than a quarter) of its tidal wavelength, this is the situation of the Hugli estuary [5].
Post-storm (category-I cyclone ‘Aila’, 2009) investigation of Auerbach
On other hand, there has been substantial channel infilling by interlaminated silt and mud in association with reduced tidal prism and current velocities outside polder walls. The combination of these geomorphic responses has led to many channel beds becoming shallower than polder elevations, which exacerbates water-logging in polders [2, 13]. Wilson
Mangrove swamps, with interspersed tidal channels flanked by the estuary, serve as a depocentre for fine sediment. It is important to note that, interaction between fresh water and saline tidal water at the mineral-rich turbidity maximum zone leads to flocculation or aggregation of clay or silt particles, followed by the settlement of macro-flocs [26, 50]. Diurnal and semi-diurnal tidal deluge deforms significantly inside the mesh of mangrove trees and intertwining roots. As the sediment-laden tidal water enters to the platform, the flow speed is slackened by the dense distribution of aerial roots and further, turbulence is generated by flow around the trees and roots. The turbulence induces eddy formation leading to collision of particles and development of flocs. Here, settling of flocculated sediments takes a shorter time (<30 minutes) during the flood-ebb transition. Settling is also enabled by sticking of microbial mucus and percolation of water through animal burrows on the swamp floor [50]. Hence, sediment trapping on the floor plays a dominant role in building new land and further, sheltering mangrove ecosystem.
Reversing tidal flows complement exchange of materials, such as nutrients, dissolved oxygen, mangrove litter etc. between mangrove areas and coastal waters [36]. In addition, viviparous germination of mangroves in association with unique propagule dispersal and subsequent, seedling establishment processes are supported by the gentle slope of bottom substrate, loose bottom sediments and water inundation into the swamp area and channels during the tidal period. Mangrove propagules have an obligate dispersal phase for several weeks before the radicle extends for root development. The dispersal depends on their buoyancy, longevity and action of tides and currents. After the period of obligate dispersal the healthy propagules anchor at the soft, muddy slope of channel banks and swamps. Mangrove propagules are not only the key to mangrove propagation and regeneration, but also are significant storage potentials to atmospheric carbon [51]. Moreover, species-level zonation and distribution of mangroves are attributable to the dispersal and seedling anchorage patterns. For instance, freshly fallen gray mangrove propagules, such as
The mangrove environment should be understood as a component of the total ecosystem that comprises the river basin, river, and estuarine and coastal waters, forming an ecohydrology system that should be considered holistically [17]. Physical processes within the mangrove swamps of the Sundarbans, especially, processes of water movement, are imperative in maintaining the functional characteristics of the mangrove ecosystem and building new land. Water circulation and the dispersion of material in mangrove swamps control both the aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and nourish mangrove colonies. Frequency of tidal inundation, volume of tidal prism, duration of flooding at long time scales and salinity gradients determine species-level structural and phenological variability of mangrove forests [36]. But the brick dykes along the water bodies have fragmented the network of tidal channels and mangrove areas in the lower stretch of the delta, especially at the south-western section. As the embankments disjoin forest-river alliance in the buffer and transition areas of the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR, India), it inevitably, influence the tidal inundation pattern at the core area forest swamps. As mentioned before, inflated tidal prism within the enclosed tidal channel further reduces sediment entrainment towards the forest swamps, instead deposit it on the channel bed giving it a higher elevation. Hence, the swamp elevation gets lowered by sediment deprivation over time which, in turn, affects the zonation pattern of mangroves. Looy
Representative vegetation profile along a mud bank without embankment [
Excavation of burrows or ‘bioturbation’ by fiddler crabs (genus
Embankment structures, surrounding the islands, hinder free dispersal of mangrove propagules and thereby, affect mangrove regeneration in the Indian Sundarban (IRS 1D, LISS-III, 2002).
The embanked and poldered landscape is incompetent to withstand the current pace of sea-level rise and storm surges. Even, implementation of management plan is seemingly complicated at the present form of social and political alignments in both the countries. However, there prevails severe lack of researches about environmentally and socially suitable management aspects. Wilson
The role of mangroves in protecting coasts against storms and coastal erosion has been widely acknowledged. Sea level rise and tidal hydraulics entanglements often result in erosion of sea-facing islands and estuary margins and thereby curtail the land area progressively. Indeed, conservation and restoration of mangrove forests are crucial in order to protect the island as well as prevent the surge of sediment input inland. At this juncture, planting mangroves on the artificially built sediment terraces alternated by brick blocks on the embankment slopes might occupy some amount of sediment as well as protect the banks. However, Aamir and Sharma [55] have experimented with the novel ‘Porcupine system’ which regulates flow energy at a definite reach of river, prevents scouring at the bottom river bank and induces sedimentation. A Porcupine is a unit with six bars which are joined by iron nuts and bolts giving it a tetrahedral frame. In real sense, the frame acts as a substitute of a tree in effectuating turbulence generation and resisting sediment entrainment by flow of water (Figure 8). The technique, however, might be applicable in poldered tracts by linking the area with the surrounding tidal channel through a narrow conduit. Once a part of the excessive sediment-laden water is passed to the depressed polder area the porcupine frames on the depressed area could retard the flow energy and facilitate sediment accumulation. Indeed, the height and spacing between the Porcupine frames need to be relative to the amount of incoming water within a tidal cycle.
(a) Sediment deposition around porcupine units in river Brahmaputra, (b) three-dimensional sketch of a porcupine unit, after Aamir and Sharma [
Already established earthen walls pressurize the soft, compressible riverine soils and the collapsing tendency temporarily brings disastrous impacts on the livelihoods of the region. Geotextile as a state-of-the-art geosynthetic-reinforced structure is considered to be one of the useful and cost-effective environmental applications, especially for embankment management [56, 57]. Geotextiles are flexible and permeable continuous sheets of woven, non-woven or knitted fibers or yarns. Geogrids which are uniformly placed array of apertures between their longitudinal and transverse elements, permit direct contact between soil particles on either side of the sheet. Geocells are relatively thick, three-dimensional networks constructed from strips of polymeric sheet. The strips are conjoined to form interconnected cells which are filled with soil and sometimes concrete (Figure 9). Geotextile layers intensify the embankment stability by virtue of two primary functions: tensile reinforcement and as a drainage element reducing pore pressures [58].
Different types of geosynthetic methods to control stability and settlement of embankments. (a) Two-layered geotextiles with folded ends, (b) embankment with vertical piles or geogrids and (c) embankment with geocells [
Apart from the aforementioned methods, plantation of long-rooted vetiver grass (Figure 10) (
Naturally grown clump of vetiver grass at Kuakata, Bangladesh. Image courtesy: Islam [
Estuarine stretch of the G-B delta plain is considered to be a broad system with nature-wetland subsystem and human-social sub-system being interconnected to one another. Embankment as a product of the human-social processes plays a key role in governing the steady-state of the entire system. The ever escalating population has left this fragile plain densely settled. Furthermore, as livelihood generation and increasing demand for food are two key concerns behind agriculture, the inhabitants of this region perform a consistent task of protecting their lands from being swallowed by saline water. Embankments, in fact, made cultivation in apparent saline soil possible since historical past. The system is, however, disturbed and the functions of different components of the landscape are modified due to the stark separation between the two subsystems. While embankment breaching is seemingly destructive to the land use and livelihoods of the inhabitants, the long-term impacts of these walls by far more dubious to the deltaic physical and ecological processes. This chapter documents here, i) changing tidal inundation pattern and morphodynamic characteristics within the tidal channels or primary creeks due to the artificial structures, ii) shifting of sediment deposition and channel infilling as contrasted to previously intertidal deltaic plain and iii) gradual alteration to mangrove functionalities and habitat with respect to seedling establishment, swamp flooding and fragmentation. Most of the suspended sediment that is imported landward on flood tides is instead deposited within channels, resulting in the infilling and closure of >600 km of intertidal channels and emergence of ~90 km2 of new land in the southwest delta [13]. Current researches as representative of mean annual sedimentation in the central fluvial-tidal G-B delta indicates that the cumulative vertical accretion rate (2.3 cm y−1) is over two times higher than sedimentation within the natural intertidal setting of the Sundarbans [61]. Explicitly, the chapter attempts to reassess the previous studies and searches for feasible and sustainable routes to delimit the degree of nature-society conflicts in this embanked landscape.
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The natural resources are limited, and due to the natural disasters like sudden and severe abiotic stress factors, excessive floods, etc., the production capacities are changed per year. In contrast, the yield potential should be significantly increased to cope with this problem. Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. Marker assisted selection and advanced techniques such as microarray, next generation sequencing methods to detect a specific mutant in a large population will help to the plant breeders to use ionizing radiation efficiently in breeding programs.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Özge Çelik and Çimen Atak",authors:[{id:"147362",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik",slug:"ozge-celik",fullName:"Özge Çelik"},{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",middleName:null,surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"}]},{id:"32846",doi:"10.5772/36950",title:"Current Importance and Potential Use of Low Doses of Gamma Radiation in Forest Species",slug:"current-importance-and-potential-use-of-low-doses-of-gamma-radiation-in-forest-species",totalDownloads:5300,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"L. G. Iglesias-Andreu, P. Octavio-Aguilar and J. Bello-Bello",authors:[{id:"110581",title:"Dr.",name:"Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias-Andreu",slug:"lourdes-iglesias-andreu",fullName:"Lourdes Iglesias-Andreu"}]},{id:"58410",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72074",title:"Radiation-Induced Degradation of Organic Compounds and Radiation Technologies for Purification of Aqueous Systems",slug:"radiation-induced-degradation-of-organic-compounds-and-radiation-technologies-for-purification-of-aq",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Environmental application of radiation technologies is an important part of radiation processing. Radiation treatment of aqueous systems contaminated with organic compounds is a promising method of water and wastewater purification and corresponding technologies are being developed. In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. Ponomarev",authors:[{id:"213652",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Makarov",slug:"igor-makarov",fullName:"Igor Makarov"},{id:"213657",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"alexander-ponomarev",fullName:"Alexander Ponomarev"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74812,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2928,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2520,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. Zehringer",authors:[{id:"311750",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus R.",middleName:null,surname:"Zehringer",slug:"markus-r.-zehringer",fullName:"Markus R. Zehringer"}]},{id:"54118",title:"Gamma Rays from Space",slug:"gamma-rays-from-space",totalDownloads:2086,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"An overview of gamma rays from space is presented. We highlight the most powerful astrophysical explosions, known as gamma-ray bursts. The main features observed in detectors onboard satellites are indicated. In addition, we also highlight a chronological description of the efforts made to observe their high energy counterpart at ground level. Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82739",title:"Experimental Breeder Reactor II",slug:"experimental-breeder-reactor-ii",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105800",abstract:"The Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) operated from 1964 to 1994. EBR-II was a sodium-cooled fast reactor operating at 69 MWth producing 19 MWe. Rather than using a loop approach for the coolant, EBR-II used a pool arrangement where the reactor core, primary coolant piping, and primary reactor coolant pumps were contained within the pool of sodium. Also contained within the pool was a heat exchanger where primary coolant, which is radioactive, transferred heat to secondary, nonradioactive, sodium. The nuclear power plant included a sodium boiler building where heat from the secondary sodium generated superheated steam, which was delivered to a turbine/generator for electricity production. EBR-II fuel was metallic uranium alloyed with various metals providing significant performance and safety enhancements over oxide fuel. The most significant EBR-II experiments occurred in April 1986. Relying on inherent physical properties of the reactor, two experiments were performed subjecting the reactor to loss of primary coolant flow without reactor SCRAM and loss of the secondary system heat removal without reactor SCRAM. In both experiments, the reactor experienced no damage. This chapter provides a description of the most important design features of EBR-II along with a summary of the landmark reactor safety experiments.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Chad L. Pope, Ryan Stewart and Edward Lum"},{id:"82712",title:"Idaho State University AGN-201 Low Power Teaching Reactor: An Overlooked Gem",slug:"idaho-state-university-agn-201-low-power-teaching-reactor-an-overlooked-gem",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105799",abstract:"A category of reactors called university research and teaching reactors, includes relatively high-power pool-type and low-power solid-core reactors. Many high-power university reactors are largely used for irradiations and isotope production. Their almost constant operation tends to impede student access. A university reactor can be particularly relevant to the university’s mission of preparing well-rounded students who have theoretical knowledge, reinforced by focused laboratory reactor experience. The solid-core Idaho State University Aerojet General Nucleonics (AGN) model 201 reactor operates at such a low power (5 W maximum) that it is not useful for isotope production activities. However, the AGN-201 reactor is well suited for teaching and research activities. The solid-core AGN-201 reactor requires no active cooling system, uses a simple shielding arrangement, and the very low operating power results in trivial burnup providing an operating lifetime exceeding many decades. It is thus worthwhile to examine the Idaho State University AGN-201 nuclear reactor more closely because it offers a wide range of research and teaching capabilities while being widely available to students.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Chad L. Pope and William Phoenix"},{id:"81424",title:"Core Reload Analysis Techniques in the Advanced Test Reactor",slug:"core-reload-analysis-techniques-in-the-advanced-test-reactor",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103896",abstract:"Since becoming a national user facility in 2007, the type of irradiation campaigns the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) supports has become much more diverse and complex. In prior years, test complexity was limited by the computational ability to analyze the tests’ influence on the fuel. Large volume tests are irradiated in flux traps which are designed to receive excess neutrons from the surrounding fuel elements. Typically, fuel elements drive the test conditions, not vice versa. The computational tool, PDQ, was used for core physics analysis for decades. The PDQ code was adequate so long as the diffusion approximation between test and fuel element remained valid. This paradigm changed with the introduction of the Ki-Jang Research Reactor—Fuel Assembly Irradiation (KJRR-FAI) in 2015. The KJRR-FAI was a prototypic fuel element for the KJRR research reactor project in the Republic of Korea. The KJRR-FAI irradiation presented multiple modeling and simulation challenges for which PDQ was ill suited. To demonstrate that the KJRR-FAI could be irradiated and meet safety requirements, the modern neutron transport codes, HELIOS and MCNP, were extensively verified and validated to replace PDQ. The hybrid 3D/2D methodology devised with these codes made analysis of the ATR with KJRR-FAI possible. The KJRR-FAI was irradiated in 2015-2016.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Samuel E. Bays and Joseph W. Nielsen"},{id:"81555",title:"Nuclear Thermal Propulsion",slug:"nuclear-thermal-propulsion",totalDownloads:112,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103895",abstract:"This chapter will cover the fundamentals of nuclear thermal propulsion systems, covering basic principles of operation and why nuclear is a superior option to chemical rockets for interplanetary travel. It will begin with a historical overview from early efforts in the early 1950s up to current interests, with respect to fuel types, core materials, and ongoing testing efforts. An overview will be provided of reactor types and design elements for reactor concepts or testing systems for nuclear thermal propulsion, followed by a discussion of nuclear thermal design concepts. A section on system design and modeling will be presented to discuss modeling and simulation of driving phenomena: neutronics, materials performance, heat transfer, and structural mechanics, solved in a tightly coupled multiphysics system. Finally, it will show the results of a coupled physics model for a conceptual design with simulation of rapid startup transients needed to maximize hydrogen efficiency.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Mark D. DeHart, Sebastian Schunert and Vincent M. Labouré"},{id:"81013",title:"Cyber-Informed Engineering for Nuclear Reactor Digital Instrumentation and Control",slug:"cyber-informed-engineering-for-nuclear-reactor-digital-instrumentation-and-control",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101807",abstract:"As nuclear reactors transition from analog to digital technology, the benefits of enhanced operational capabilities and improved efficiencies are potentially offset by cyber risks. Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) is an approach that can be used by engineers and staff to characterize and reduce new cyber risks in digital instrumentation and control systems. CIE provides guidance that can be applied throughout the entire systems engineering lifecycle, from conceptual design to decommissioning. In addition to outlining the use of CIE in nuclear reactor applications, this chapter provides a brief primer on nuclear reactor instrumentation and control and the associated cyber risks in existing light water reactors as well as the digital technology that will likely be used in future reactor designs and applications.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Shannon Eggers and Robert Anderson"},{id:"79671",title:"Fault Detection by Signal Reconstruction in Nuclear Power Plants",slug:"fault-detection-by-signal-reconstruction-in-nuclear-power-plants",totalDownloads:105,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101276",abstract:"In this work, the recently developed auto associative bilateral kernel regression (AABKR) method for on-line condition monitoring of systems, structures, and components (SSCs) during transient process operation of a nuclear power plant (NPP) is improved. The advancement enhances the capability of reconstructing abnormal signals to the values expected in normal conditions during both transient and steady-state process operations. The modification introduced to the method is based on the adoption of two new approaches using dynamic time warping (DTW) for the identification of the time position index (the position of the nearest vector within the historical data vectors to the current on-line query measurement) used by the weighted-distance algorithm that captures temporal dependences in the data. Applications are provided to a steady-state numerical process and a case study concerning sensor signals collected from a reactor coolant system (RCS) during start-up operation of a NPP. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method for fault detection during steady-state and transient operations.",book:{id:"10982",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg"},signatures:"Ibrahim Ahmed, Enrico Zio and Gyunyoung Heo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:14,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. 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