Summary of paraffins used as PCMs for TES in the built environment.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tQuantum mechanics arose in 1924 and was developed by scientists such as Einstein, Bohr, Schrodinger, Heisenberg, Born, Dirac, and many others.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tQuantum mechanics has subsequently been applied to many of the phenomenon physicist studies, such as atoms, molecules, nuclei, and even neutron stars, superfluids, and elementary particles. It is hoped this book will be able to examine both the mathematical and conceptual aspects of quantum physics by presenting papers that discuss both its mathematical basis and philosophical interpretation. It is hoped this new collection of papers will stimulate the study and expansion of this area of modern physics.
The requirement of high switching speed such as needed in the field of microwave communications and RF technology urged transistors to evolve with high electron mobility and superior transport characteristics. The invention of HEMT devices is accredited to T. Mimura who was involved in research of high‐frequency, high‐speed III–V compound semiconductor devices at Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd, Kobe, Japan. Following that, HEMT was first commercially used as a cryogenic low‐noise amplifier at Nobeyama Radio Observatory (NRO), Nagano, Japan in 1985 [1].
Working toward the need of high frequency, low noise, and high power density applications, traditional MOSFETs and MESFETs require to be built with very short channel lengths so that majority of the carriers face minimum impurity scattering and performance degradation is reduced. Such applications also imply design and performance limitations requiring high saturation current as well as large transconductance, which may be achieved by heavy doping. To overcome these limitations, HEMT devices incorporate heterojunctions formed between two different bandgap materials where electrons are confined in a quantum well to avoid impurity scattering. The direct bandgap material GaAs have been used in high frequency operation as well as in optoelectronic integrated circuits owing to its higher electron mobility and dielectric constant. AlGaAs are the most suitable candidate for barrier material of GaAs possessing nearly same lattice constant and higher bandgap than that of GaAs. That is why GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure is considered to be the most popular choice to be incorporated in HEMTs. However, AlGaN/GaN HEMT is another excellent device that has been extensively researched in recent times. It can operate at very high frequencies with satisfactory performance as well as possess high breakdown strength and high electron velocity in saturation [2]. GaN shows very strong piezoelectric polarization which aids accumulation of enormous carriers at AlGaN/GaN interface. In these types of HEMTs, device performance depends on the types of material layer, layer thickness, and doping concentration of AlGaN layer providing flexibility in the design process. For its superiority over HEMT devices with other materials, AlGaN/GaN HEMT has been selected as an example for different topics in this chapter.
The chapter begins with brief explanation of different common structures and basic operating principle of HEMT devices. The main focus is to analyze HEMT device performance based on analytical and numerical analyses found in the literature. For example, I‐V characteristics of HEMTs [3], two‐dimensional electron gas (2DEG) estimation [4], short channel current collapse effect [5], capacitance calculation [6], and thermal effects [7] on HEMTs have been discussed in Section 4, which have been obtained using analytical study. Section 5 includes more rigorous methods such as drift‐diffusion modeling [8], transport calculation [9], Monte Carlo simulation [10], Green’s function formalism [11], and polarization‐based shear stress analysis [12] that need significant numerical techniques to characterize HEMT device performance. Looking back into the very recent years, some up‐to‐date results have been presented in Section 6, namely “Latest Research” section. Section 7 presents some prediction on the future research trends based on these latest results. Finally, possible application fields of HEMT devices have been discussed in the last section.
A typical GaAs‐based HEMT structure is shown in Figure 1. With a view to separating the majority carriers from ionized impurities, an abrupt hetero‐structure is created between the wide bandgap material AlGaAs and lower bandgap material GaAs while the wide bandgap material is doped (e.g., doping density, n = 7 × 1017 cm−3). Thus, a channel is formed at the interface of GaAs/AlGaAs heterojunction. To reduce coulombic scattering, a thin layer of undoped AlGaAs is used as spacer layer. At the bottom, the Si or GaAs layer serves as a substrate.
Structure of GaAs‐based HEMTs.
GaN‐based HEMTs have the similar layered structure to conventional GaAs‐based HEMTs as shown in Figure 2. But no intentional doping is required in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. Rather electrons come from surface states due to the spontaneous polarization found in wurtzite‐structured GaN. This accumulation of free carrier forms high carrier concentration at the interface leads to a 2DEG channel. Figure 2 also indicates donor‐like surface traps (empty) on top and thereby the positively polarized charge at AlGaN/GaN interface. The 2DEG is an explicit function of the surface barrier, AlGaN thickness and the bound positive charge at the interface.
Structure of GaN‐based HEMTs.
InP HEMTs result in lower electron effective mass in InGaAs channel layer compared to conventional GaAs‐based HEMTs. These HEMTs contain comparatively large conduction band offset (approximately 0.5 eV) between the channel layer and adjacent barrier layer, InAlAs [13]. Hence, InP‐based HEMTs show high electron mobility, high electron saturation velocity, and high electron concentration. The device usually consists of an InGaAs/InAlAs composite cap layer for enhanced ohmic contact, an undoped InAlAs as Schottky barrier and an InGaAs/InAs composite channel for superior electron transport properties as depicted in Figure 3.
Structure of InP‐based HEMTs.
HEMTs are essentially heterojunctions formed by semiconductors having dissimilar bandgaps. When a heterojunction is formed, the conduction band and valence band throughout the material must bend to form a continuous level. The wide band element has excess electrons in the conduction band as it is doped with donor atoms (or due to polarization charge in GaN‐based HEMTs). The narrow band material has conduction band states with lower energy. Therefore, electrons will diffuse from wide bandgap material to the adjacent lower bandgap material as it has states with lower energy. Thus, a change in potential will occur due to movement of electrons and an electric field will be induced between the materials. The induced electric field will drift electrons back to the conduction band of the wide bandgap element. The drift and diffusion processes continue until they balance each other, creating a junction at equilibrium like a p‐n junction. Note that the undoped narrow bandgap material now has excess majority charge carriers, which yield high switching speed. An interesting fact is that the low bandgap undoped semiconductor has no donor atoms to cause scattering and thus ensures high mobility.
Another interesting aspect of HEMTs is that the band discontinuities across the conduction and valence bands can be engineered to control the type of carriers in and out of the device. This diffusion of carriers leads to the accumulation of electrons along the boundary of the two regions inside the narrow bandgap material. The accumulation of electrons can lead to a very high current in these devices. The accumulated electrons are also known as 2DEG. Figure 4 shows the generalized band diagram formed at the heterojunction for typical HEMTs. Both the conduction band (Ec) and valence band (Ev) bend with respect to the Fermi level (EF) resulting in a quantum well filled with 2DEG and eventually, a conducting channel is formed.
Generalized energy band diagram of HEMTs.
With rapidly growing popularity in high frequency and high power applications, HEMT devices have received extensive research attention in recent days. Many analytical models to study the characteristics of HEMTS as well as to improve device performance can be found in the literature. In this section, we present some of the eminent and effective analytical research works on AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.
An improved charge control model for I‐V characteristics of AlGaN/ GaN HEMTs was presented in 2008 by Li et al. [3]. This model includes Robin boundary conditions in the solution of 1‐D Schrödinger equation and customizable eigen values in the solution of 2‐D Poisson’s equation. Nonlinear polarization and parasitic resistance of source and drain have been incorporated in this model. The model estimates drain current assuming second‐order continuity with analytical representation of transconductance. The device structure used in this model is almost similar to that of Figure 2. However, the only difference is that a doped AlGaN layer of 22 nm with doping concentration, ND = 2 × 1018 cm−3 is present above the undoped AlGaN layer to enhance polarization. The I‐V result plotted using this analytical model is shown here in Figure 5 for different gate voltages.
I–V characteristics for an Al0.15Ga0.85N/GaN HEMTs. The gate‐to‐source bias is swept from 1 to −2 V at a step of −1 V.
Khandelwal et al. proposed a physics‐based analytical model for 2DEG density in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs [4]. Using this model, they show the interdependence between 2DEG and Fermi levels. The proposed model does not require any fitting parameters. It models 2DEG considering charge concentration in two different regions. One has higher first subband energy, while the other has lower first subband energy compared to the Fermi level. Moreover, a unified model is also presented combining these two regions. It presents variation of 2DEG with gate bias voltage as shown in Figure 6. The results show excellent agreement with numerical calculations.
Comparison of 2DEG charge density, ns with numerical calculations as a function of gate voltage.
Current collapse is an undesirable but inevitable phenomenon in GaN‐based HEMTs. It is a short channel nonideal effect where current depends on the previous memory of gate voltage. For I‐V characteristics of AlGaN/GaN HEMTS in presence of current collapse, another compact model was proposed [5]. It incorporates trapping mechanism and gate edges and is based on experimental data. Capacitance‐voltage (C‐V) characteristics of AlGaN/ GaN HEMTs can also be calculated using this model. This model analyses device transconductance vs. gate bias when current collapse occurs. A comparative plot of transconductance with and without current collapse as determined by this compact short channel model is shown in Figure 7.
Comparison of transconductance with and without current collapse for AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.
Zhang et al. proposed a surface potential‐based analytical model for calculating capacitance including parasitic components for AlGaN/GaN HEMTs [6]. The sheet charge density is modeled solving charge control equations and capacitance is calculated based on the concept of surface charge potential, which is consistent with the sheet charge density model. The parasitic components are further included in the model to provide a complete model. The developed model shows agreement with TCAD simulations and experimental data.
Although AlGaN/GaN HEMT is a promising device for high frequency and high power applications, its performance can be degraded at high temperatures. Therefore, a thermal modeling is required to predict device performance at different temperatures. Bagnall et al. developed such a thermal model that incorporates thermal effects with closed form analytical solutions for complex multilayer structured HEMTs [7]. This structure consists of N number of layers (j = 1, 2, 3, …, N) and a heat source placed within the layers as shown in Figure 8(a). The analytical modeling is carried out using Fourier series solution and validated using Raman thermography spectra. Distribution of temperature along AlGaN/GaN x‐axis interface including heat source as presented by the model is shown in Figure 8(b).
(a) Complex multi‐layer HEMT structure with a heat source, and (b) Temperature distribution along x axis for AlGaN/GaN HEMTs including the heat source.
Apart from these models, many other analytical models have been proposed for noise elimination, loss calculation, estimation of polarization, small signal analysis, etc.
Different numerical studies of HEMTs have been performed to analyze the influence of internal physical mechanisms. Some generalized numerical models reviewed from the literature are presented in this section.
Yoshida et al. presented a two‐dimensional numerical analysis of HEMTs to simulate device performance [8]. Anderson’s model is used to generate the equations of band‐edge lines and Boltzmann statistics is considered. Spatially continuous band‐edge variation is not justified in this model as current across the hetero interface is neglected. The hole current and the generation‐recombination current are also neglected. Finite difference approximation is used to discretize Poisson’s equation and electron current continuity equation. After that, resultant equations are solved self consistently using Newton’s method. This fully coupled model is traditionally known as drift‐diffusion model [14].
Buot presented a two‐dimensional numerical simulator based on the analysis of the first three moments of the Boltzmann equation, known as the energy‐transport model [9]. It has been used to study various effects on the performance of AlGaAs/GaAs HEMTs [9]. The coupled transport equations (for details of energy transport equations, see Ref. [15]) were solved numerically using finite‐difference technique on a uniform mesh, using iterative scheme. Using HISSDAY, a computer simulator program, the transport equations for the energy transport model are numerically solved using implicit scheme for the continuity equations; Scharfetter‐Gummel method [16] for the current transport equation; and explicit forward differencing “marching” method for calculating the average energy. This model has an improvement over Widiger’s energy transport model [17] where conduction is ignored in the AlGaAs layer [9].
Ueno et al. presented Monte Carlo simulation of HEMTs to analyze 2DEG electron transport [10]. The analysis is based on electron–phonon interaction model proposed by Price [18]. In this framework, the 2DEG electrons are assumed to be scattered by bulk phonons. Thus, wave functions calculated by self‐consistent analysis are used to evaluate the scattering rate. The channel region is not considered uniform and electrons near drain region are considered as three dimensional and near‐source region are considered as two dimensional. In addition, electrons with high energy beyond the barrier height behave as three‐dimensional electrons and are not confined in the quantum well. In these simulations, the initial condition is first evaluated. Then the sheet electron density at each position between the source and the drain are estimated using the current continuity relation along the channel. Next, Monte Carlo simulation is carried out by dividing the channel into different meshes and evaluating the scattering rates of the electronic states in each mesh. Then taking the potential distribution of the given device from two‐dimensional Poisson equation, the steps are repeated until a steady state is obtained.
Lee and Webb described a numerical approach to simulate the intrinsic noise sources within HEMTs [11]. A 2‐D numerical device solver is used in this model. Spectral densities for the gate and drain noise current sources and their correlation are evaluated by capacitive coupling. After solving Poisson’s and the continuity equations using 2‐D numerical device solver, Green’s functions are obtained. Here, Green’s functions are used to determine local fluctuation (in terms of current or voltage at any point in the channel) at the gate and drain terminals. This approximate impedance field concept [19] helps determining the gate and drain noise sources and their correlation. For numerical simulation, the entire device is divided into some orthogonal areas and it is considered that 2‐D simulation results will be consistent with the 3D simulation result. Spontaneous polarization and strain‐induced piezoelectric polarization are also considered. It is assumed that the microscopic fluctuations in each segment are spatially uncorrelated which are originated from velocity fluctuation (diffusion) noise only.
Hirose et al. proposed a numerical model for AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures where shear stress due to the inverse piezoelectric effect is used to predict high‐temperature DC stress test results [12]. In this model, lattice plane slip in the crystal is assumed to be the initial stage of crack formation. Shear stress causes the slip, and slip deforms the crystal when the shear stress exceeds the yield stress. In GaN‐based HEMTs, the basal slip plane is (0001) and the slip direction is <1120>. The AlGaN layer is a wurtzite crystal grown in the <0001> direction [20]. Shear stress is assumed to be a result of the inverse piezoelectric effect. The mechanical stress and electric displacement occur due to the piezoelectric effect. Under the assumption of lattice mismatch in AlGaN layer, shear stress relates to the slip in the <1120> direction. However, to calculate shear stress, electric field is obtained from two‐dimensional device simulation based on Poisson’s equation and drift‐diffusion current continuity equations. This model includes piezoelectric charges and the difference in spontaneous polarization charges in the AlGaN/GaN interface.
Among the numerical models, any one may have advantage over other models, but also have some limitations. For example, energy transport model can include hot electron effect [14]. Drift‐diffusion model cannot predict performances of submicron level gate devices [9]. Monte Carlo approach is one of the advanced approaches [21]. All of these numerical models provide unique insights into the device physics and create opportunity of performance improvement with TCAD before device fabrication.
With the upsurge of popularity, research works on HEMT devices are still going on. In this section, some very recent research works published in renowned scientific literature have been briefly highlighted.
Hörberg et al. presented a GaN‐based oscillator for X band tuned by radio frequency microelectromechanical systems (RF‐MEMS) [22]. The phase noise is reported to be reduced between the range of −140 and −129 dBc/Hz at 100 kHz offset, which is significantly low. This oscillator is suitable for reduced noise‐based high frequency modulators.
A compact GaN HEMT‐based X‐band power amplifier MMIC has been reported with detailed performance analysis recently [23]. A good range of output power (47.5–48.7 dBm) can be obtained from this amplifier. Such amplifier can be used to build electronic systems that require airborne phased radar array or satellite transmitters. Improved output power of the amplifier also improves the stability, reliability, and performance of these electronic systems. Figure 9 shows the output power performance in both pulse mode and continuous wave (CW) modes with frequency variation in this power amplifier.
Output power performance of GaN HEMT power amplifier MMIC with frequency variation in pulse and CW modes.
Q‐spoiling is a process where MRI coils are detuned for safety and protection. Traditionally, such decoupling or Q‐spoiling is done using PIN diodes, which require high current and power drain. Lu et al. proposed an alternative technique of Q‐spoiling, which replaces PIN diodes with depletion mode GaN HEMTs [24]. It is shown that the proposed technology detunes MRI coils effectively with low current and power drain compared to the traditional Q‐spoiling technologies. It also provides suitable safety measures required for detuning the MRI coils.
Excellent figure of merit (FOM) has been achieved for low phase noise in designing GaN HEMT‐based oscillators [25]. The design demonstrated that low phase noise can coincide with low bias power. The result is verified designing Colpitt and negative resistance oscillators and both of these present so far the best reported FOMs.
Crupi et al. investigated Kink effect (KE) in advanced GaN HEMT technology [26]. For better understanding, KE is studied comprehensively with change of temperature and bias conditions. It is shown that the dependence of KE on operating conditions is mainly due to device transconductance. Characterization of anomalous KE would be a useful tool for microwave engineers who need this knowledge of KE for designing and modeling devices with GaN HEMTs.
A total of 600 V GaN HEMT switches have been demonstrated experimentally to show performance comparison with silicon‐based transistor switches such as IGBTs and MOSFETs [27]. HEMT switches, despite being beginners, show excellent performance compared to the matured counterparts, Si‐based MOSFETs. It is shown that GaN switches offer higher boost converter efficiency than the MOSFET switches. Next, GaN switches are compared experimentally with IGBTs. Both Si body and SiC body‐based IGBTs have been considered. It is found that at higher switching frequency, IGBT switches loss efficiency very rapidly, while HEMT switches loss efficiency monotonically as shown in Figure 10. Therefore, HEMTs offer superior performance to Si‐based MOSFETs and IGBTs for high frequency power converter switching applications.
Comparison of efficiency for GaN HEMT switches with Si body IGBT and SiC body IGBT switches.
The future HEMT devices based on two‐dimensional carrier confinement seem very bright in electronics, communications, physics, and other disciplines. GaAs, InP, and GaN‐based HEMTs will continue their journey toward higher integration, higher frequency, higher power, higher efficiency, lower noise, and lower cost. GaN, in particular, offers high‐power, high‐frequency territory of vacuum tubes and leads to lighter, more efficient, and more reliable communication systems.
HEMTs will continue to mold themselves into other kinds of FETs that will exploit the unique properties of 2DEG in various materials systems. In power electronics, GaN‐based HEMTs can create a great impact on consumer, industrial, transportation, communication, and military systems. On the other hand, MOS‐HEMT or MISFET structures are likely to be operated in enhancement mode with very low leakage current.
Si CMOS technology is rapidly advancing toward 10 nm gate regime. To achieve this, power dissipation management in future generation ultra‐dense chips will be a significant challenge. Operating voltage reduction may be a solution to meet this challenge. However, currently, it is difficult to accomplish this with Si CMOS while maintaining quality performance. Quantum well‐based devices such as InGaAs or InAs HEMTs offer very high potential. Therefore, HEMTs may extend the Moore’s law for several more years which will be gigantic for the society [28].
From the past, it can be anticipated that, researching on new device models and structures of HEMTs will definitely result in new insights into the often bizarre physics of quantized electrons. ZnO, SiGe, and GaN have shown fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE), the greatest exponent for impeccable purity and atomic order, which ensure the bright future of HEMT devices [29].
The concept of different kinds of physical and biosensors are still very new to these kind of devices. The ultra‐high mobility that is possible in InAlSb/InAsSb‐based system enables high‐sensitivity micro‐Hall sensors for many applications including scanning Hall probe microscopy and biorecognition [30]. Three‐axis Hall magnetic sensors have been reported in micromachined AlGaAs/GaAs‐based HEMTs [31]. These devices may be used in future electronic compasses and navigation. THz detection, mixing and frequency multiplication can also be used by 2DEG‐based devices [32]. GaN and related materials have strong piezoelectric polarization, and they are also chemically stable semiconductors. Combining functionalized GaN‐based 2DEG structures with free‐standing resonators, there is a possibility of designing sophisticated sensors [33]. These can offer methods of measurements of several properties such as viscosity, pH, and temperature.
Without references, expansion of this technology in the machine to machine (M2M) field is expected to be used in cloud networking‐based various sensing functions. Diverse applications such as environmental research, biotechnology, and structural analysis can be greatly benefited with the help of newly emerged sensing technology which has high speed, high mobility, and high sensitivity characteristics. HEMT technology is expected to make a great change in the intelligent social infrastructure from the device level. A smart city system, transport system, food industry, logistics, agriculture, health welfare, environmental science, and education systems are examples where this technology can make exceptions [34].
The rise of III‐N‐based solid‐state lighting will lead to a continuous development of materials, substrates, and technologies pushed by a strong consumer market. In an analogy, III‐N optoelectronics will challenge the light bulbs, while III‐N electronics will challenge the electronic equivalent, the tubes [35].
Explosion of the internet multimedia communications has speedily spread over the world, which urgently demands the proliferation of transmission network capacity. HEMTs‐based devices are the most attractive choices for breaking through the speed limit and high gain and noise free mechanism. Different companies worldwide develop and manufacture HEMT‐based devices, and many possible applications have been suggested for these devices. Without considering all of those possibilities, some key applications are summarized in this section.
Cellular communication has got the most important nonmilitary applications of HEMT devices by replacing Si transistors. For such broadband/multiband communication applications, we get a lot of advantages. The increase in relative bandwidth for a given power level is one of those. Some new circuit and system concepts provide bandwidth with increased efficiency. Linearity has been improved for the same output power. Reduction of memory effects is also found by using GaN HEMT devices [36].
High gain and low noise amplifiers are the main characteristics for making radar components. GaN HEMTs are one of the first choices for such components. Active electronic sensor arrays are built from GaN‐based HEMTs, which are used for airborne radars, ground‐based air defense radars, and naval radars [37]. Ka‐band missile applications at 35 GHz are also being discussed in literature [38]. Discrete HEMTs are almost always used as the preamplifier in a typical DBS receiver, followed by one or more GaAs MESFET monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) due to their excellent low‐noise characteristics. The use of the low‐noise HEMT preamplifier has resulted in substantial improvements in system performance at little additional cost. A low‐noise down‐converter consisting of a 0.25 pm HEMT and three GaAs MMIC chips has shown a system noise figure less than 1.3 dB with a gain of about 62 dB from 11.7 GHz to 12.2 GHz, which is phenomenal for a commercial, system [39]. Microwave equipment used for space applications are very expensive as they need extra protection from harsh environment in space to survive. Moreover, spacecraft shall be launched, and this implies that the equipment should also sustain without damage at high levels of vibrations and shocks. HEMTs can be fabricated to survive these conditions and have been extensively used in various fields. Generally, a microwave component for space applications is ten to hundred times more expensive than for commercial applications. Workers at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) have used the excellent cryogenic performance of HEMTs to receive signals during the Neptune flyby of the voyager spacecraft.
In the recent decade, chemical sensors have gained importance for applications that include homeland security, medical and environmental monitoring, and food safety. The desirable goal is the ability to simultaneously analyze a wide variety of environmental and biological gases and liquids in the field and be able to selectively detect a target analyte with high specificity and sensitivity. The conducting 2DEG channel of HEMTs is very close to the surface and very sensitive to adsorption of analytes. Hence, HEMT sensors can be a good alternative for detecting gases, ions, and chemicals [40].
Au‐gated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs functionalized in the gate region with label free 3\'‐thiol modified oligonucleotides serves as a binding layer to the AlGaN surface, which can detect the hybridization of matched target DNAs. XPS shows immobilization of thiol modified DNA covalently bonded with gold on the gated region. Drain‐source current shows a clear decrease of 115 µA as this matched target DNA is introduced to the probe DNA on the surface, showing the promise of the DNA sequence detection for biological sensing [41].
Using amino‐propyl silane in the gate region, ungated AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures can be activated, which can serve as a binding layer to the AlGaN surface for attachment of biotin. Biotin has a very high affinity to streptavidin proteins. When the chemicals are attached to AlGaN/GaN HEMTs, the charges on the attached chemicals affect the current of the device. The device shows a clear decrease of 4 µA as soon as this protein is collected at the surface, showing indication of protein sensing [41].
The use of Sc2O3 gate dielectric produces superior results to either native oxide or UV ozone‐induced oxide in the gate region. The ungated HEMTs with Sc2O3 in the gate region exhibit a linear change in current between pH 3–10 of 37µA/pH. The HEMT pH sensors show stable operation with a resolution of <0.1 pH over the entire pH range. The results indicate that HEMTs may have application in monitoring pH solution changes between 7 and 8, the range of interest for testing human blood [40].
In this chapter, device characteristics and performance analysis of HEMTs have been discussed based on the available literature. With a brief introduction of different structures and brief working principle, this chapter summarizes some prominent analytical and numerical research works on HEMTs. I‐V characteristics, charge estimation, capacitance calculation, short channel effects, and thermal response of HEMTs have been discussed. Moreover, drift diffusion modeling, transport calculation, Monte Carlo simulation, Green’s function formalism, and shear stress analysis have been discussed which rely on numerical approaches. HEMT‐based oscillators, amplifiers, Q‐spoilers, switches, and diodes are getting popularity in recent days. These have been overviewed based on latest reported researches. Based on these latest research studies, future research trends on HEMTs have been reviewed. Last but not the least, many important applications of HEMTs such as broadband and radar communications, space, and sensor constituents, DNA, protein, and pH detections have been listed to emphasize the immense prospects of HEMT devices. This chapter provides researchers of relevant fields a direction for future improvement of HEMT devices with prospective applications.
As one of the major energy consumers, buildings account for around 45% of the global energy consumption with a similar share of greenhouse gases emissions [1]. Due to population increase, urbanisation, economic growth and improvement in the quality of life, energy usage in the building sector continues to rise. A study from the International Energy Agency [2] showed that without action, the energy demand in buildings could increase by 30% by 2060. A significant proportion of the energy demand from buildings is for building services, including heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and domestic hot water (DHW) [3], in which the energy demand for HVAC is projected to increase by more than 70% from 2010 to 2050 [4]. Since the recent decades, the integration of renewable energies has been widely recognised as one of the effective solutions to reduce the HVAC power consumption in buildings, especially the utilisation of solar thermal energy. As one of the most attractive renewable energies, solar thermal energy is not only an ideal heat source for direct indoor space heating but also can be used to provide renewable cooling (e.g. absorption/adsorption cooling). However, due to the fact that solar energy is intermittent, the integration of solar thermal systems with thermal energy storage (TES) is therefore essential to rationalising energy management [5]. Among various TES technologies, TES using phase change materials (PCMs) has been receiving increasing attention. PCMs are substances that can absorb, store and release a large amount of thermal energy within a narrow temperature range through phase transitions [6], in which solid–liquid PCMs with substantial alternatives and a small change in volume during the phase change process are well suited for TES applications in the built environment [7]. Compared to sensible heat storage, TES using PCMs not only shows a significant reduction in the storage volume [8] but also enables the use of thermal energy at relatively constant temperatures [9].
\nPCMs are mainly categorised as organic, inorganic and eutectic materials, in which organic PCMs can be further classified as paraffins and non-paraffins [10], as shown in Figure 1. As PCMs, paraffins have a wide range of phase change temperatures [11], covering the temperature range from subzero to over 100°C [12]. Besides the desired phase change temperature ranges, paraffins have the advantages of congruent phase transition, self-nucleation to avoid supercooling, non-corrosiveness, long-term chemical stability without segregation and commercial availability at reasonable costs [13, 14]. However, paraffins have flammability, low thermal conductivity and relatively low volumetric latent heat storage density [15, 16].
\nPCM classifications.
The favourable phase change temperatures of the paraffins with phase transition temperatures at around and above 60°C, together with the other aforementioned advantages, make it one of the desired candidates for solar TES in the built environment to facilitate the solar-assisted HVAC and DHW generation. This chapter mainly focuses on solar TES using paraffin-based PCMs (with phase change temperature of and higher than 60°C) to facilitate the indoor air conditioning in the built environment. This chapter is structured as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of the solar TES using paraffin-based PCMs which can be used to facilitate the indoor air conditioning. Sections 3 and 4 present two case studies of solar-assisted radiant space heating and desiccant cooling systems with paraffin-based PCMs, respectively. Section 5 provides a summary of this chapter.
\nThere are two main popular approaches to utilising paraffins as PCMs in the built environment. Paraffin-based PCMs can be integrated with solar thermal collectors to improve the system thermal efficiency, meanwhile serving as on-site TES. Alternatively, they can be used as independent TES units coupling with solar thermal collectors to provide continuous heat supply for the demand side. In both approaches, the charging of paraffins with the heat generated needs to be fulfilled first, followed by the retrieval of the heat using heat transfer fluids (HTFs) for specific applications (e.g. space heating or cooling). Accordingly, the following review is mainly segmented into two subsections based on the two stages. The utilisation of paraffin-based PCM TES in different solar hot water systems was also discussed and included in the first subsection, since there is a potential utilisation of the hot water generated to drive air conditioning systems. The paraffin-based PCMs used for TES in the built environment in this overview are summarised in Table 1.
\nIndex | \nPCM | \nPhase change temperature | \nApplication location | \nApplication | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nRT65 | \n55–66°C | \nSolar collector—flat plate | \nWater heating | \n[19] | \n
2 | \nParaffin | \n58.7–60.5°C | \nSolar collector—flat plate | \nWater heating | \n[20] | \n
3 | \nParaffin | \n64°C | \nSolar collector—evacuated tubes | \nWater heating | \n[22] | \n
4 | \nTritriacontane | \n72°C | \nSolar collector—evacuated tubes | \nWater heating | \n[23] | \n
5 | \nParaffin | \n58–62°C | \nSolar collector—evacuated tubes | \nWater heating | \n[24, 25] | \n
6 | \nParaffin | \n60°C | \nTES unit—packed bed and HTF tank | \nWater heating | \n[28] | \n
7 | \nParaffin | \n62°C | \nTES unit—packed bed and HTF tank | \nWater heating | \n[29] | \n
8 | \nParaffin | \n60 ± 2°C | \nTES unit—HTF tank | \nWater heating | \n[30] | \n
9 | \nParaffin | \n55–62°C | \nTES unit—HTF tank | \nWater heating | \n[31] | \n
10 | \nParaffin | \n60–62°C | \nTES unit—packed bed and heat exchanger | \nWater heating | \n[32] | \n
11 | \nParaffin | \n56.06–64.99°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nWater heating | \n[33] | \n
12 | \nParaffin | \n60°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nAir heating | \n[34] | \n
13 | \nRT65 | \n55–66°C | \nTES unit—packed bed | \nWater heating | \n[21] | \n
14 | \nRT60 | \n55–61°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nSolid desiccant cooling | \n[35] | \n
15 | \nRT65 | \n57–68°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nSolid desiccant cooling | \n[35] | \n
16 | \nRT70HC | \n69–71°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nSolid desiccant cooling | \n[35] | \n
17 | \nParaffin | \n67.2°C (optimal value) | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nSolid desiccant cooling | \n[36] | \n
18 | \nRT82 | \n77–85°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nLiquid desiccant cooling | \n[37, 39] | \n
19 | \nRT100 | \n99°C | \nTES unit—heat exchanger | \nLiquid desiccant cooling | \n[40] | \n
20 | \nParaffin | \n6–62°C | \nBuilding envelopes | \nFloor radiant heating | \n[41] | \n
Summary of paraffins used as PCMs for TES in the built environment.
Integrating PCM with solar collectors can not only reduce the highest temperature of the solar collectors, thereby extending the lifetime [17] and increasing the system thermal efficiency [18], but also fulfil on-site thermal storage [19]. For instance, a paraffin with a phase change temperature of around 60°C was enhanced using nano-Cu additives and laminated in a flat plate solar collector by Al-Kayiem and Lin [20] for water heating application. The experimental study showed that considerable thermal efficiency improvement was achieved with integrating the paraffin in the solar collector; however, the enhancement in thermal conductivity using nano-Cu particles showed limited benefits. A number of PCM/compressed expanded natural graphite (CENG) composites were prepared and integrated beneath a flat plate solar water heater by Haillot et al. [19, 21] for thermal performance enhancement. The characterisation of a number of PCM candidates demonstrated that the paraffin-based PCM composite, i.e. RT65/CENG, was the most suitable material to be used, due to its high thermal stability, conductivity and storage density. It was found that the solar fraction of the system using RT65/CENG composite can be effectively enhanced in summer; however, a low solar fraction was found in winter due to the high heat loss of the flat plate solar collectors.
\nWith respect to the low heat loss, the integration of paraffin-based PCMs with evacuated tube collectors seems to be more promising. For instance, a paraffin wax with a melting temperature of 67°C was filled in the manifold of evacuated tube heat pipe solar collectors as a PCM TES unit by Naghavi et al. [22] to improve the performance of hot water supply. The numerical study demonstrated that the proposed system with PCM can maintain a high thermal efficiency of 55–60% which was less sensitive to the change of the draw-off water flowrate, compared to a conventional DHW system without PCM TES. Tritriacontane (i.e. C33H68) and erythritol were integrated into evacuated tubes simultaneously by Papadimitratos et al. [23] to gain the functionality of thermal storage while enhancing the system thermal efficiency. A series of experiments were carried out based on the PCM-enhanced solar water heaters. The results showed that the evacuated tubes with integrated paraffin (i.e. tritriacontane) outperformed the ones with erythritol under a normal operation mode with continuous water circulation, due to its proper phase change temperature at around 72°C. It was also found that the thermal efficiency was improved 26% under the normal operation by using both PCMs simultaneously, compared to a traditional solar water heating (SWH) without using PCMs. A paraffin wax with the melting temperature of 58–62°C was used as PCM and filled into evacuated tubes for thermal energy storage by Abokersh et al. [24]. The heat transfer between the water and PCM was achieved by different U-tube heat exchangers with and without fins inside the evacuated tubes, respectively. The experimental tests showed that the total energy efficiency can be improved by 35.8 and 47.7% for the PCM-enhanced evacuated tubes with and without fins, respectively, compared to a traditional forced recirculation SWH system. The further study [25] found that even the use of fins hindered the convective heat transfer within the molten PCM during the charging process, and its substantial contribution to the heat transfer enhancement during the PCM discharging process benefited the overall energy efficiency of the system.
\nWhen PCM was used independent from solar thermal collectors, one of the scenarios is to install the PCM TES component in the heat transfer fluid tanks to fulfil hybrid sensible and latent heat storage. In this scenario, besides increasing the TES capacity, the paraffin-based PCMs also play the role in enhancing the thermal stratification for the water in the tanks [26], which relieves the loss caused by direct mixing of cold water with hot water. The selection of PCMs with proper phase change temperature and confinement geometry was reported to be significant [27]. For instance, an encapsulated PCM was packed in a water tank as a combined sensible and latent heat TES unit by [28] for DHW application. The PCM used is a paraffin (with a melting temperature of 60°C) encapsulated in spherical capsules. Two types of discharging experiments with continuous and batch-wise hot water retrieval processes were carried out, from which it was found that the batch-wise discharging best suited for the applications with intermittent hot water demands. A similar PCM TES packed bed with a paraffin (with a melting temperature of around 62°C) encapsulated in spherical capsules was tested by Ledesma et al. [29] for a SWH system. The numerical thermal performance analysis indicated the importance of system matching when coupled with the PCM TES unit and the SWH system whose outlet water temperature needs to be high enough for PCM charging. A paraffin encapsulated in aluminium cylinders was used as the heat storage media by Padmaraju et al. [30] for a DHW system. The comparative test results showed that the thermal energy stored in the paraffin-based PCM TES system far exceeded that stored in a sensible heat storage system of the same size of the storage tank. A similar conclusion was resulted by Kanimozhi and Bapu [31] through an experimental test based on a TES system with a paraffin filled in a number of copper tubes.
\nDifferent from the first scenario, the second scenario utilised the PCM TES units as heat exchangers for latent heat storage only. In this scenario, the higher heat transfer effectiveness is one of the keys to focus. For instance, a water-based multi-PCM pack bed TES unit for solar heat storage was numerically investigated by Aldoss and Rahman [32], in which three types of paraffins with different phase change temperatures were encapsulated in spherical capsules and placed at different sections of the TES unit serving as different thermal energy storage stages. It was found that the multi-PCM design can improve the system dynamic performance by increasing the charging and discharging rates. However, only limited thermal benefit can be achieved by further increasing the stage number. A paraffin wax (with the melting temperature of around 56–65°C) was pulled into the cell side of a shell and tube heat exchanger by Mahfuz et al. [33] for thermal energy storage in a SWH system. The energy, exergy and life cycle cost of the system were analysed experimentally under various flow rates. It was found that a higher flow rate was beneficial to gaining a higher energy efficiency and a lower life cycle cost, while it resulted in a lower exergy efficiency. An air-based PCM packed bed was tested by Karthikeyan and Velraj [34] to validate a number of latent TES packed bed models. The experimental measurement was used to identify the suitable models for PCM TES packed bed units when using different working fluids as the HTFs.
\nAfter charged with thermal energy, the paraffin-based PCMs can be utilised to facilitate the indoor space heating directly or for indoor space cooling with the assistance of desiccant cooling devices. Either air or water can be used as the HTF in the systems, depending on the regeneration requirements. For instance, an air-based PCM TES unit was coupled with a solar-powered rotary desiccant cooling system by Ren et al. [35] to overcome the mismatch between energy demand for desiccant wheel regeneration and thermal energy generation from a hybrid photovoltaic thermal collector-solar air heater (PVT-SAH). The feasibility of using four paraffin-based PCMs (i.e. RT55, RT60, RT65 and RT70HC) as the TES media was investigated numerically in the proposed system. The results identified a near optimal system design for individual scenarios, in which RT65 was found to be the optimal paraffin-based PCM. When increasing the regeneration temperature from 60 to 70°C, the unsatisfied factor for supply air humidity ratio can be reduced from 24.2 to 6.0%, despite that it reduced the solar thermal contribution from 100.0 to 82.6%. The PVT-SAH and PCM-assisted rotary desiccant cooling systems were then further optimised to maximise its energy performance by the same authors [36] using a multilayer perceptron neural network and a genetic algorithm. It was found that the PCM phase change temperature was one of the most important factors, whose optimal value was 67.2°C. The design optimisation identified an optimal design; by using which, the specific net power generation and the solar thermal contribution of the proposed system can reach 10.32 kWh/m2 and 99.4%, respectively, compared to that of 3.77 kWh/m2 and 91.5% for a baseline case without optimisation. These studies indicated the importance of using the paraffin with proper thermal properties and optimal coupling of PCM TES in a solar-assisted desiccant cooling system for performance improvement.
\nBesides solid desiccant cooling, paraffin-based PCM TES designed for the regeneration of liquid desiccant materials was also reported. For instance, a triplex tube heat exchanger with integrated PCM as a TES unit was developed by Al-Abidi et al. [37, 38] and Mat et al. [39] for liquid desiccant air conditioning systems. A series of numerical modelling and experimental studies were carried out to investigate the thermal performance of the PCM TES unit. The results showed that the phase change time required can be reduced by more than 50%, if the triplex tube was intensively finned both internally and externally, and the melting process of the PCM can be accelerated by heating on both sides of the triplex tube. PCM TES units with various heat transfer enhancement techniques, including circular fins, longitudinal fins and multi-tube systems, were developed and experimentally investigated by Agyenim [40] to facilitate solar power absorption cooling systems and space heating/hot water systems. It was found that the multi-tube and longitudinal finned PCM TES units presented the most favourable charging and discharging performance, whose overall thermal energy utilisation efficiency reached 83.2% and 82.0%, respectively. It was therefore recommended to combine two heat transfer enhancement techniques to optimise the thermal performance of the PCM TES unit.
\nIt is worthwhile to mention that another potential application of paraffins is to integrate paraffin-based PCMs into building envelopes for demand side management. For instance, a number of shape-stabilised PCMs were prepared by Zhang et al. [41], in which the ones with the melting temperature of 60–62°C were developed for the electric underfloor space heating system, thereby facilitating the peak-load shifting and making use of the electricity tariff. The authors highlighted that building energy efficiency can be significantly improved by combining radiant floor heating and thermal storage. Even though the PCM layer reported in this study used electrical heat as the heat source, it can be easily modified by integrating with hot water/air hydraulic piping/ducting to store and distribute the solar heat.
\nThe rationalisation of solar thermal energy utilisation is an alternative solution to facilitate indoor space heating. Figure 2 illustrates the schematic of a solar-assisted radiant heating system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES. It mainly consists of evacuated tube solar collectors, a paraffin-based PCM TES unit, two pumps, an auxiliary electric heater, the terminal heat-distributing devices which are radiant floor panels in this study and the corresponding piping system. In this system, the evacuated tube solar collectors were used to generate hot water, which can then be supplied for indoor space heating directly through the radiant floor heating panels, or used to charge the PCM TES unit, or both, during the daytime. During the night-time, the indoor space heating was achieved by circulating the water between the PCM TES unit and the radiant floor heating panels to retrieve the stored heat for indoor space heating. It is worthwhile to mention that the discharging water flow directed through the PCM TES is reversed compared to the charging water flow, so as to maximise the thermal performance of the PCM TES unit. The supply water temperature for the radiant floor panels was controlled to be constant by mixing a fraction of the return water with the hot water supplied from the evacuated tube or the PCM TES unit. The auxiliary electric heater can be used to maintain the desired supply water temperature when the thermal energy generated or stored is not sufficient. The indoor heating demand was satisfied by varying the hot water flow rate through the radiant floor panels through changing the operating speed of the supply water pump.
\nSchematic of the solar-assisted radiant heating system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES.
The system performance was evaluated numerically using TRNSYS simulation studio [42]. In the system modelling, the building heating load of a typical Australian house with an air-conditioned floor area of 150 m2 [43, 44] under Sydney winter weather condition was modelled and used as the heating demand to be covered by the proposed system. This building heating load was simulated using Type 56 in TRNSYS based on the indoor air temperature setting of 20°C and the internal loads, occupancy schedule and internal adjustable shading settings required by the Australian Nationwide House Energy Rating Scheme (NatHERS) [45]. The evacuated tube solar collector, the auxiliary electric heater and the pumps employed were modelled using Type 71, Type 6 and Type 3 in TRNSYS, respectively. The radiant floor heating panels were modelled using an upgraded Type 1231 which was slightly revised by replacing the mean temperature difference with the log mean temperature difference to improve its accuracy. The PCM TES unit was a water-based tube-in-tank heat exchanger, in which the paraffin was encapsulated in the tube-side with water flowing through the cylinder-side. The PCM TES model was developed using an enhanced enthalpy method for accurate modelling of the phase change process and the finite difference method for discretisation of the energy balance equations. A similar PCM TES model can be found in Bourne and Novoselac [46]. The paraffin-based PCM used is a commercial PCM product RT69HC from Rubitherm [47], with a nominal phase change temperature of around 69°C. The key parameters used in the numerical system performance evaluation are summarised in Table 2.
\nParameter | \nRadiant heating | \nDesiccant cooling | \n
---|---|---|
Area of the evacuated tube solar collector (m2) | \n26.24 | \n59.04 | \n
Type of paraffin-based PCM | \nRt69HC [47] | \nRT69HC [47] | \n
Total amount of the paraffin-based PCM (kg) | \n632.7 | \n1476.3 | \n
Power of the pump in the solar heat collection circuit (W) | \n15 | \n38 | \n
Maximal power of the pump in the supply circuit (W) | \n35 | \n80 | \n
Supply water temperature setting (°C) | \n60 | \n64 | \n
Maximal power of the supply fan (W) | \n— | \n533.3 | \n
Maximal power of the regeneration fan (W) | \n— | \n533.3 | \n
Desiccant wheel outlet air humidity setting (g/kg) | \n— | \n8.1 | \n
Key parameters used in the performance evaluation of the solar-assisted radiant heating and desiccant cooling systems with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES.
Figure 3 presents the performance of the solar-assisted radiant heating system with the paraffin-based PCM over 3 winter days (note that the simulation results over an additional day before the 3 test days were not reported to avoid the influence from initial values). It can be seen from Figure 3a that the solar thermal energy collected and stored can fully cover the heating demand. The pumps were the only power consumers, in which the pump in the solar heat collection circuit was turned on during the daytime when the solar energy was sufficient to heat the water, while the power consumption of the pump in the supply circuit seemed to present a proportion trend to the heating load. Total power consumption was only 0.52 kWh which was much lower than the heating demand of 115.33 kWh over the 3 test days. Figure 3b illustrates the temperature variation of the inlet and outlet water of the paraffin-based PCM TES unit. When the hot water from the evacuated tube solar collector was drawn for PCM charging (highlighted with the red background), a clear thermal charging process can be observed, which presented a relatively constant outlet water temperature from the PCM TES unit. During the PCM discharging period, due to the reversed water flow through the PCM TES unit, a high outlet water temperature from the PCM TES unit was achieved. It enabled the supply of a high-temperature water for space heating, even though the return water from the radiant floor heating panels was low. Correspondingly, the thermal energy storage percentage in the paraffin-based PCM increased during the PCM charging periods rapidly and then reduced during the PCM discharging periods gradually, which varied from 48.96 to 91.54% over the 3 test winter days.
\nModelling results for the solar-assisted radiant heating system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES. (a) Power consumption and heating energy demand. (b) Inlet and outlet water temperatures of the paraffin-based PCM TES unit.
Rotary desiccant cooling systems, which combine rotary desiccant dehumidification and evaporative cooling technologies, have been recognised as an alternative to conventional vapour compression air conditioning systems [48, 49]. It offers the advantages including being free from CFCs, using low-grade thermal energy, and independent humidity and temperature control, which therefore is more energy efficient and environmentally friendly than conventional vapour compression air conditioning systems [49]. In a rotary desiccant cooling system, the coolness is generated by removing the moisture from the process air using desiccant materials, while the desiccant materials then need to be regenerated using low-grade heat, for which solar thermal energy is one of the most promising sources.
\nFigure 4 illustrates the schematic of a solar-assisted desiccant cooling system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES. It consists of the same solar heat collection and storage subsystem as the heating system introduced in Section 3 and a desiccant cooling subsystem including a solid desiccant wheel, a heat recovery ventilator, a water to air heat exchanger, an indirect evaporative cooler, an auxiliary electric heater, two fans and the corresponding ducting system. In this system, the solar heat collected by the evacuated tube solar collectors and/or stored in the paraffin-based PCM TES unit was used to heat the ambient air for the regeneration of the desiccant wheel, through the water to air heat exchanger. The PCM TES can also decouple the solar heat collection circuit and supply circuit, so that the retrieval of the stored thermal energy can occur by counterflow through PCM TES units during the daytime as well, if the hot water demand was higher than the hot water generated from the solar collectors. If the heat carried by the water was not sufficient for air heating, the auxiliary electric heater would be used. The desiccant wheel, together with the indirect evaporative cooler, and the heat recovery unit were used to cool the process air. In the indirect evaporative cooler, a fraction of process air was used as the secondary airflow and finally exhausted to the ambient. An ambient airflow was introduced and mixed with the return air after recovering the coolness from exhausted process air to compensate the airflow mismatch. The indoor cooling demand was satisfied by varying the airflow rate through changing the operating speed of the fans in the desiccant cooling subsystem. It is worthwhile to mention that a minimal supply airflow rate was assigned to the system operation to avoid the saturation of regeneration air after passing the desiccant wheel, and the relative humidity of the air can be further adjusted by a direct evaporative cooler before supplied to the indoor environment for space cooling.
\nSchematic of the solar-assisted radiant heating system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES.
A modelling system for this system was established using TRNSYS, in which the components for the solar heat collection and storage subsystem used were the same models as that in the heating system in Section 3. The heat exchanger, heat recovery ventilator, desiccant wheel, indirect evaporative cooler, auxiliary electric heater and fans were modelled using Type 5, Type 760, Type 716, Type 757, Type 6 and Type 111, respectively. The same typical Australian house was used to generate the building cooling load under Sydney summer weather conditions. Table 2 also summarised the key parameters used in the numerical system performance evaluation of this system.
\nFigure 5 presents the performance of this solar-assisted desiccant cooling system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES over 3 summer days. It can be seen from Figure 5a that the power consumption of the proposed system was from the operation of the pumps and fans, and no additional heat from the auxiliary heater was needed. The supply fan and process fan in the desiccant cooling subsystem consumed much more power (30.55 kWh) than that of the pumps (2.43 kWh) in the solar heat collection and storage subsystem. Even the fans were the major power consumers, the power consumption was much lower than the heat demand for the desiccant wheel regeneration, resulting in a high heat-to-power ratio reaching an average value of 16.55; and the corresponding average system COP reached 14.37. From Figure 5b, an effective charging process can be found during the PCM charging period (highlighted with the red background), while during the PCM discharging period, an outlet water temperature above 68.88°C can be achieved due to the effective thermal energy retrieval. The corresponding thermal energy storage fraction in the paraffin-based PCM fluctuated from 0.52 to 103.85% over the 3 summer test days, indicating the full utilisation of the PCM thermal energy storage capacitance.
\nModelling results for the solar-assisted desiccant cooling system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES. (a) Power consumption and heat-to-power ratio. (b) Inlet and outlet water temperatures of the PCM TES.
Paraffins, as one of the main categories of phase change materials, offer the favourable phase change temperatures for solar thermal energy storage. The application of paraffin-based PCM TES in buildings can effectively rationalise the utilisation of solar energy to overcome its intermittency. Two case studies, a solar-assisted radiant heating system and a solar-assisted desiccant cooling system with integrated paraffin-based PCM TES, were presented in this chapter. The results showed that both indoor space heating and cooling can benefit from the solar TES using paraffin-based PCMs. With the assistance of the solar thermal energy storage using the paraffin-based PCMs, the energy efficiency and the heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems can be significantly improved.
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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. 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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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