Typical SOC components.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4608",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Major Topics in Type 1 Diabetes",title:"Major Topics in Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Type 1 diabetes (TD1) is one of the most common endocrine disorders in children and can occur at any age. Incidences of T1D have steadily increased worldwide, and it is largely considered an autoimmune disorder resulting from the specific destruction of pancreatic beta-cells producing insulin. However, T1D pathophysiology is still not completely understood, and although insulin and other therapies ameliorate the manifestations of the disease, no cure is currently available. This book has been written by widely acknowledged experts, with each chapter providing unique information on emerging aspects of T1D. Because a large body of information has been available regarding T1D, this book highlights lesser explored topics linked to the subject using important and recent knowledge that presages directions for further research. Current possibilities to forestall diabetic complications are also explored.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2204-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4214-0",doi:"10.5772/59335",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"major-topics-in-type-1-diabetes",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"dc2bfb3804ab3384b3182cae2ffbcf3f",bookSignature:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",publishedDate:"November 14th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4608.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17529,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 30th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 21st 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 25th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 25th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",middleName:"Pedrosa",surname:"Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71405/images/2161_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kenia Pedrosa Nunes is a vascular biologist who studies diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and especially erectile dysfunction (ED). She received her master’s degree in Molecular and Biochemistry Pharmacology and her Ph.D. in Physiology from the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. As a postdoctoral fellow at the Medical College of Georgia, Dr. Nunes specialized in vascular function and dysfunction and started to study how the immune system contributes to the development of hypertension and diabetes-associated ED. The role of the immune system in diabetes and cardiovascular disease is now being investigated by many scientists around the world. Dr. Nunes’s research has been supported by the American Heart Association (AHA) since 2009. She is a professor of Human Physiology and Anatomy at the Florida Institute of Technology, where she continues to work on rewarding projects involving diabetes and hypertension, using animal models to investigate different pathways leading to vascular diseases and new treatment targets. She has to her credit more than 20 peer-reviewed manuscripts, 6 book chapters, and an international patent regarding pharmaceutical compositions to improve vasculogenic erectile function.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Florida Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1013",title:"Pediatric Endocrinology",slug:"pediatric-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"49505",title:"The Innate Immune System via Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) in Type 1 Diabetes - Mechanistic Insights",doi:"10.5772/61925",slug:"the-innate-immune-system-via-toll-like-receptors-tlrs-in-type-1-diabetes-mechanistic-insights",totalDownloads:2069,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a form of diabetes mellitus resulting from the lack of insulin secretion by the pancreatic beta cells and which accounts for approximately 5% of the total number of patients with diabetes worldwide. T1D is one of the most common endocrine disorders of children, and its incidence is steadily increasing. T1D is largely considered an autoimmune disorder resulting from the specific destruction of the pancreatic beta-cells that produce insulin. However, T1D pathophysiology is still not completely understood, and although insulin and other therapies ameliorate the manifestations of the disease, no cure is currently available. Traditionally, T1D has been thought of as a condition of cellular adaptive immunity, but evidence exists that components of the innate immune system, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), play a critical role in T1D development. TLRs have a central role in sensing microbial infections as well as endogenous alarm signals and trigger the release of inflammatory cytokines. The involvement of these receptors in the pathophysiology of several chronic diseases has become a major research interest, and in the last two decades, many studies have suggested the involvement of the innate immune system in the mechanism triggering T1D. Furthermore, microvascular complications in diabetic patients result in considerable morbidity, particularly diabetic nephropathy, retinopathy, and atherosclerosis. A hallmark of diabetic vascular pathology is inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Recent literature suggests that TLR signaling is involved in vascular inflammation and endothelial dysfunction and that TLR activation may play a crucial role in diabetic microangiopathy. However, the mechanisms by which TLRs and their ligands contribute to T1D are not yet clear, and further investigation is needed. The goal of the present chapter is to address the contribution of TLRs to the mechanisms leading to the development and progression of T1D and to review current possibilities of targeting TLRs to forestall diabetic complications.",signatures:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes, Eric Guisbert, Theodora Szasz and Clinton\nWebb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49505",authors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",surname:"Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes"}],corrections:null},{id:"49301",title:"The Pancreas Secreting Insulin for Decades after Onset of Type I Diabetes — Implications for Care and Management",doi:"10.5772/61234",slug:"the-pancreas-secreting-insulin-for-decades-after-onset-of-type-i-diabetes-implications-for-care-and-",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Up until recently, the prevailing dogma was that insulin secretion ceased within a couple of years after the diagnosis of type I diabetes, a clinical time period called the honeymoon. But a series of recent studies have established that release of C-peptide, which is the best measure of endogenous insulin production, can commonly persist for decades after disease onset. The release of C-peptide, even at low levels, is shown to have functional and clinical significance. For example, C-peptide levels >10 pmol/l are associated with fewer diabetes complications, i.e., nephropathy, neuropathy, foot ulcers, and retinopathy. The diabetic population may also be heterogeneous in risk for fall in C-peptide, with early age of diabetes onset a risk factor for more rapid C-peptide decline. The persistence of insulin release for decades and its functional and clinical significance suggest that assays for C-peptide should be a regular part of diabetes management. Furthermore, patients with established diabetes should be eligible to participate in clinical trials of immune therapies since preservation of these low levels appears clinically important to prevent complications.",signatures:"Denise L. Faustman and Miriam Davis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49301",authors:[{id:"173557",title:"Dr.",name:"Denise",surname:"Faustman",slug:"denise-faustman",fullName:"Denise Faustman"},{id:"173558",title:"Dr.",name:"Miriam",surname:"Davis",slug:"miriam-davis",fullName:"Miriam Davis"},{id:"177417",title:"Dr.",name:"Denise",surname:"Faustman",slug:"denise-faustman",fullName:"Denise Faustman"}],corrections:null},{id:"49234",title:"Management of Diabetic Retinopathy and Other Ocular Complications in Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/61276",slug:"management-of-diabetic-retinopathy-and-other-ocular-complications-in-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1724,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Type 1 diabetes can reduce vision by affecting various parts of the eye. Proactive, interdisciplinary coordination of treatment and timely referrals can aid in the minimization of visually threatening complications, significantly enhancing patient quality of life. The main causes of visual impairment in diabetes are proliferative diabetic retinopathy and macular edema. Until recently, the mainstay of treatment for both conditions was retinal laser, which prevented significant vision loss but was much less effective at improving vision, especially in macular edema. Over the past decade, exciting new advances in treating diabetic eye disease, namely intraocular steroid and antivascular endothelial growth factor injections, have greatly improved the visual prognosis for the majority of patients with diabetic eye disease.",signatures:"Efraim Berco, Daniel Rappoport, Ayala Pollack, Guy Kleinmann and\nYoel Greenwald",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49234",authors:[{id:"58067",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoel",surname:"Greenwald",slug:"yoel-greenwald",fullName:"Yoel Greenwald"}],corrections:null},{id:"49504",title:"Complication of Type 1 Diabetes in Craniofacial and Dental Hard Tissue",doi:"10.5772/61885",slug:"complication-of-type-1-diabetes-in-craniofacial-and-dental-hard-tissue",totalDownloads:1804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic systemic disease arisen under the conditions when the body cannot produce enough insulin or cannot use it effectively. Type 1 diabetes is caused by an autoimmune reaction, where the body’s defense system attacks the insulin-producing β-cells in the pancreas. Type 1 diabetes incidence has been rising all over the world, especially under the age of 15 years. There are strong premonitions of geographic difference; however, the overall annual increase in a number of affected population is estimated to be approximately 3%.",signatures:"Ippei Watari, Mona Aly Abbassy, Katarzyna Anna Podyma-Inoue\nand Takashi Ono",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49504",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49504",authors:[{id:"157142",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",surname:"Abbassy",slug:"mona-abbassy",fullName:"Mona Abbassy"},{id:"173677",title:"Dr.",name:"Ippei",surname:"Watari",slug:"ippei-watari",fullName:"Ippei Watari"},{id:"173858",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna A.",surname:"Podyma-Inoue",slug:"katarzyna-a.-podyma-inoue",fullName:"Katarzyna A. Podyma-Inoue"},{id:"173861",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Ono",slug:"takashi-ono",fullName:"Takashi Ono"}],corrections:null},{id:"49243",title:"Diabetic Ketoacidosis in the Pediatric Population with Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/60592",slug:"diabetic-ketoacidosis-in-the-pediatric-population-with-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:3151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1DM). Individuals familiar with this complication of diabetes should be able to identify the earliest signs and symptoms and act promptly to prevent further deterioration. However, even in patients with established diabetes, the rates of DKA are considerable. This chapter discusses in detail the various aspects of DKA in the pediatric population with T1DM. The prevalence and regional effects on the prevalence of DKA as well as the specific risk factors, whether disease, patient, or physician related, are reviewed. Patients with DKA experience a condition of starvation despite the abundance of metabolic substrate (i.e., glucose); the pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for the development of DKA are outlined. Next, a detailed discussion of the clinical aspects of DKA is provided. This includes the clinical findings at presentation, the approach to treatment, and potential complications. Prevention is the best method for reducing rates of DKA. Somewhat different factors apply in patients with new-onset diabetes when compared with those with established diabetes and these are reviewed.",signatures:"Michal Cohen, Smadar Shilo, Nehama Zuckerman-Levin and Naim\nShehadeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49243",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49243",authors:[{id:"174312",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",surname:"Cohen",slug:"michal-cohen",fullName:"Michal Cohen"},{id:"174313",title:"Prof.",name:"Naim",surname:"Shehadeh",slug:"naim-shehadeh",fullName:"Naim Shehadeh"},{id:"175588",title:"Prof.",name:"Nehama",surname:"Zukerman-Levin",slug:"nehama-zukerman-levin",fullName:"Nehama Zukerman-Levin"},{id:"175589",title:"Dr.",name:"Smadar",surname:"Shilo",slug:"smadar-shilo",fullName:"Smadar Shilo"}],corrections:null},{id:"48960",title:"Nutritional Management of Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/61150",slug:"nutritional-management-of-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:3539,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on medical nutrition therapy (MNT) in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), which is vital to achieve metabolic control in patients suffering from this disease. The nutritional goals for people with T1DM are reviewed, which aim at maintaining near-normal blood glucose levels by coordinating insulin therapy, diet, and physical activity patterns. A nutrition prescription is given, and recommendations for appropriate MNT in type 1 diabetes are deduced. Glycemic targets in people with T1DM are highlighted; moreover, the principle of carbohydrate consistency and insulin adjustments with food intake are stressed upon. Meal planning approaches to achieve carbohydrate consistency, including carbohydrate counting, exchange system, and sample meal plans, are explained. Weight management, energy requirements, macronutrients and micronutrients needs, as well as nutritional management during exercise and supports take special attention in this chapter.",signatures:"Shereen Abdelghaffar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48960",authors:[{id:"155245",title:"Prof.",name:"Shereen",surname:"Abdelghaffar",slug:"shereen-abdelghaffar",fullName:"Shereen Abdelghaffar"}],corrections:null},{id:"48762",title:"The Role of Family Functioning on Metabolic Control and Quality of Life in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/60732",slug:"the-role-of-family-functioning-on-metabolic-control-and-quality-of-life-in-adolescents-with-type-1-d",totalDownloads:2102,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) in childhood and adolescents is increasing worldwide and diagnosis of type 1 diabetes represents an important stressful condition for families and adolescents. The maintenance of normal glycemic results requires adherence to self-care behaviors in order to prevent disease complications. However, diabetes self-care requires extensive and daily behavioral demands from adolescents that may interfere with their quality of life.",signatures:"Ana Cristina Almeida, Engrácia Leandro and Maria da Graça Pereira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48762",authors:[{id:"57556",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Almeida",slug:"ana-cristina-almeida",fullName:"Ana Cristina Almeida"},{id:"173872",title:"Ph.D.",name:"M.Graça",surname:"Pereira",slug:"m.graca-pereira",fullName:"M.Graça Pereira"},{id:"173879",title:"Dr.",name:"Engrácia",surname:"Leandro",slug:"engracia-leandro",fullName:"Engrácia Leandro"}],corrections:null},{id:"49128",title:"Improving Adherence for Children with Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/60567",slug:"improving-adherence-for-children-with-diabetes",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides critical information on diabetes in children. Ideas for improving adherence to the child’s medical regimen are reviewed. In addition, factors that may hinder adherence are presented. Ideas for clinicians are presented in a case study.",signatures:"Laura Nabors, John Teminijesu, Alicia Aikens, Chris Berry, Bradley\nFevrier and Patrice DeLeon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49128",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49128",authors:[{id:"39858",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",surname:"Nabors",slug:"laura-nabors",fullName:"Laura Nabors"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"686",title:"Erectile Dysfunction",subtitle:"Disease-Associated Mechanisms and Novel Insights into Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5caa41eb9d576f7765dfcb06a6df94c",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-disease-associated-mechanisms-and-novel-insights-into-therapy",bookSignature:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",surname:"Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2666",title:"Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:"Insights and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49a714ae0be8a338523befe4ffc9352f",slug:"diabetes-mellitus-insights-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Oluwafemi O. 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Koopman-van Gemert",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Gabon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1030",title:"Immunohaematology",slug:"immunohaematology"}],chapters:[{id:"55513",title:"A Double In Vivo Biotinylation Technique to Assess Erythrocyte Turnover in Blood Circulation",slug:"a-double-in-vivo-biotinylation-technique-to-assess-erythrocyte-turnover-in-blood-circulation",totalDownloads:1575,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"202626",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajiv",surname:"Saxena",slug:"rajiv-saxena",fullName:"Rajiv Saxena"}]},{id:"55207",title:"Immunocamouflaged RBC for Alloimmunized Patients",slug:"immunocamouflaged-rbc-for-alloimmunized-patients",totalDownloads:1545,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"202243",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Scott",slug:"mark-scott",fullName:"Mark Scott"},{id:"205640",title:"BSc.",name:"Wendy",surname:"Toyofuku",slug:"wendy-toyofuku",fullName:"Wendy Toyofuku"},{id:"205641",title:"BSc.",name:"Xining",surname:"Yang",slug:"xining-yang",fullName:"Xining Yang"},{id:"205642",title:"Dr.",name:"Meera",surname:"Raj",slug:"meera-raj",fullName:"Meera Raj"},{id:"205643",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Kang",slug:"ning-kang",fullName:"Ning Kang"}]},{id:"55954",title:"Red Blood Cells and Relation to Thrombosis",slug:"red-blood-cells-and-relation-to-thrombosis",totalDownloads:2067,totalCrossrefCites:4,authors:[{id:"202814",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Tombak",slug:"anil-tombak",fullName:"Anil Tombak"}]},{id:"55635",title:"Platelet and Immunity in Transfusion Medicine",slug:"platelet-and-immunity-in-transfusion-medicine",totalDownloads:1464,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"200979",title:"Prof.",name:"Xingbin",surname:"Hu",slug:"xingbin-hu",fullName:"Xingbin Hu"},{id:"206182",title:"Ms.",name:"Jinmei",surname:"Xu",slug:"jinmei-xu",fullName:"Jinmei Xu"}]},{id:"55343",title:"Red Blood Cell Transfusion and Functional Dose",slug:"red-blood-cell-transfusion-and-functional-dose",totalDownloads:1289,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"202960",title:"Prof.",name:"Deqing",surname:"Wang",slug:"deqing-wang",fullName:"Deqing Wang"},{id:"202995",title:"Dr.",name:"Leiying",surname:"Zhang",slug:"leiying-zhang",fullName:"Leiying Zhang"}]},{id:"55676",title:"Transfusion in Transplantation",slug:"transfusion-in-transplantation",totalDownloads:1878,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"94230",title:"Prof.",name:"Guray",surname:"Saydam",slug:"guray-saydam",fullName:"Guray Saydam"},{id:"94231",title:"Prof.",name:"Fahri",surname:"Sahin",slug:"fahri-sahin",fullName:"Fahri Sahin"},{id:"202813",title:"M.D.",name:"Eren",surname:"Arslan Davulcu",slug:"eren-arslan-davulcu",fullName:"Eren Arslan Davulcu"}]},{id:"55256",title:"Red Blood Cell Transfusion Strategy for Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding",slug:"red-blood-cell-transfusion-strategy-for-upper-gastrointestinal-bleeding",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"197501",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingshun",surname:"Qi",slug:"xingshun-qi",fullName:"Xingshun Qi"},{id:"205228",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Romeiro",slug:"fernando-romeiro",fullName:"Fernando Romeiro"},{id:"207599",title:"Prof.",name:"Yiling",surname:"Li",slug:"yiling-li",fullName:"Yiling Li"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. 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They are commonly found in consumer electronics, games, telecommunication, industrial, control, automotive, aeronautics and military applications.
\nES development represents a hot topic in both academic research and industry. Contrary to conventional information systems, ES design needs software and hardware to be designed in a concurrently synergistic fashion, so the system functional/nonfunctional requirements are met. This new style of design is called Codesign [2]. Codesign is a collaborative and creative task requiring some specific skills in hardware, software and system engineering.
\nSemiconductor technology evolution (Moore law) pushes ES to be implemented as System On Chip (SOC) where all system functional elements or components are integrated in only one chip. Under time-to-market pressure, special customer requirements, rapid technologies changing, increasing applications complexity and diversity of design styles, methodologies and associated tools, ES designers must be assisted along the design process efficiently and interactively in order to minimize the cost of development and increase the productivity; many concepts have been borrowed from the software community, especially higher levels of abstraction, knowledge and experience reuse, project planning, cost/risk estimation and so on.
\nIn contrast to traditional embedded systems which are central, simple, closed and reactive, nowadays embedded systems are becoming more complex, more autonomous, more open, more networked and more intelligent. For instance, they can execute very complex intelligent tasks to help invalid and aged persons in their daily activities with minor human intervention. These new features have pushed researchers and ES specialists to tune some well-known intelligence methods and paradigms. Consequently, a new class of ES called intelligent embedded systems (IES) has emerged. IES are discussed in some detail later in Section 6.
\nThis book chapter puts the light on what we call intelligent embedded software.
\nFirst, we summarize all the specificities and the basic concepts which are related to traditional embedded system. Our focus is on embedded software models of computation and design methodologies. After that, we motivate the passage from embedded systems to intelligent embedded systems. Next, we define precisely what intelligent embedded software is and we discuss the possible models and approaches that can be used to model intelligent embedded software especially multiagent systems, expert systems, neural network, fuzzy logic, ontologies, bioinspired heuristics and hybrid models. We pass rapidly on organic computing. Finally, we present a possible intelligent embedded system design flow and present the main challenges and some future perspectives.
\nAn embedded system is a system that contains application-specific hardware and software suited to a particular task that is part of a larger system that is not necessarily computer (e.g., electronic, mechanical, electrical and so on). ES interact with the outside world via the sensors/actuators and are subjected to strict spatial, temporal and energy constraints. Indeed, ES are heterogeneous in nature. They typically combine software components (general-purpose processors, digital signal processors, etc.) and hardware components (ASIC, FPGA). Unlike a hardware implementation, a software implementation has the advantage of providing flexibility (i.e., the possibility of reprogramming), but at the price of satisfying performance constraints. ES are called real time if it is able to meet its timing constraints.
\nThe principal role of embedded software (ESo) is not the transformation of data as in conventional software, but rather the interaction with the physical world. It executes on machines that are not, first and foremost, computers. They are cars, airplanes, telephones, audio equipment, robots, appliances, toys, security systems, pacemakers, heart monitors, weapons, television sets, printers, scanners, climate control systems, manufacturing systems and so on [3]. Traditionally, embedded software consisted of simple device drivers with or without an operating system support. ESo functions are activated by external controls, either external actions of the device itself or remote input. Embedded software varies in complexity as much the devices it is used to control. But with an increasing demand for wired and wireless communication, embedded software has started to use middleware to hide the implementation details of low-level communication.
\nNow, embedded software is becoming a large part of the engineering cost of embedded systems. That makes embedded software a likely place to look for engineering efficiencies and time-to-market improvements. Efficiency and time-to-market improvements come from good methodologies, good tools and talented programmers.
\nThe rapid evolution in the semiconductor technology led to the emerging of a new paradigm called System On Chip or SOC. The SOC can typically include a collection of heterogeneous processing elements such as embedded processors (RISC) for general purpose usage, microcontrollers for control-oriented processing, DSP for digital signal processing, ASIC to implement specific optimized processing, FPGA to implement reconfigurable computing, on-chip memories, analog part, RF part for wireless communication, an on-chip communication infrastructure such as buses, crossbars, buses hierarchies or a micronetwork, diagnostic elements, power management components, specific I/O interface modules and so on. The SOC can be seen as a compromise between hardware and software solutions. Table 1 summarizes the main hardware components found in a typical SOC. Table 2 recaptures our possible classification of SOC architectures. In traditional SOC (TSOC), the SOC architecture is centered on one master Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) processor and the other components are slaves playing the role of hardware accelerators. When SOC comprises many processors, we obtain multiprocessor SOC (MPSOC); this architecture is inspired from the multiprocessor architecture in general computers. When most application functionalities are implemented as software, the bulk of processors are ISA, and the architecture is called Software SOC (SSOC). In this case, real-time operating system (RTOS) is a first class. In the extreme case, when most of the application functionalities are implemented in hardware, the bulk of processors are ASICs and the result is what we call Hardware SOC (HSOC).
\nComponent | \nMain application | \nMain characteristics | \n
---|---|---|
Embedded RISC processor (ex. ARM) | \nGeneral computing | \nLow performance, high flexibility, low cost | \n
Microcontroller | \nControl-dominated computing | \nHigh performance, good flexibility, high cost | \n
DSP: digital signal processor | \nData-dominated computing | \nHigh performance, good flexibility, high cost | \n
ASIC: application-specific integrated circuit | \nSpecific computing | \nVery high performance, low flexibility, very high cost | \n
ASIP: application-specific instruction set processor | \nSpecific application domain | \nHigh performance, good flexibility, high cost | \n
FPGA | \nReconfigurable computing | \nGood performance, high flexibility, high cost | \n
Typical SOC components.
SOC class | \nMain characteristics | \n
---|---|
TSOC: traditional SOC | \nOne central processor (master) with many hardware accelerators (slaves) | \n
MPSOC: multiprocessor SOC | \nMultiprocessors architecture | \n
SSOC: software-oriented SOC | \nSOC where software implementation is the prominent part; the architecture is mainly composed of ISA processors | \n
HSOC: hardware-oriented SOC | \nSOC where hardware implementation is the prominent part; the architecture is mainly composed of ASICs | \n
RSOC: reconfigurable SOC | \nFPGA-based | \n
NOC: network on chip | \nA microcommunication network | \n
PPSOC: plug and play SOC | \nSOC with IP reuse | \n
PNOC: photonic NOC | \nPhotonic technology | \n
WNOC: wireless NOC | \nA combination between wired and wireless communications | \n
QSOC: quantum SOC | \nSOC that contains all the components needed for a quantum information processor | \n
CSOC: chaotic SOC | \nChaotic computing-based | \n
SOC architectures.
With the rapid advance in reconfigurable circuits, SOC tends to integrate more FPGA; this tendency helps to create what we call RSOC or reconfigurable SOC. This class of SOCs targets rapid prototyping.
\nThe shared bus architecture represents a bottleneck in performance and scalability; for these reasons, researchers in the field had resorted to the Internet technology and tailor the ISO stack to create what we call Network On Chip (NOC) that integrates a micronetwork generally with three layers (physical, linking and network) to manage the big communication traffic between processors. With this network, scalability is also improved. One of the major problems in NOC is high power dissipation due to wired communication. The WNOC or wireless NOC presents a promised solution where some communication is done wirelessly by adding some antennas and RF modules. PNOC is a particular case of NOC where photonic technology is used [4]. QSOC [5] and CSOC [6] represent some new tendencies and refer to a SOC implementing quantum computing and chaotic computing, respectively.
\nIt has been emphasized that the best way to meet system-level objectives is exploiting the trade-offs between hardware and software in a system through their concurrent design. That is what we call Codesign. In the traditional ES design approach, the software/hardware teams work independently and generally the “hardware first” approach is adopted; when the hardware engineers synthesize their design, the software engineers begin to develop their software, implement and tune it to fit the hardware architecture. We can say that this style of design was imposed (the only solution) due to the lack of a unified modeling substrate supporting both hardware and software modeling at higher level of abstraction and co-simulation.
\nBut with the advancement in system level languages, EDA and CAD tools, simulation and emulation, both hardware and software teams are able to work in a collaborative fashion and communicate from the early stages of design and consequently to reduce the cost and optimize the quality of the final product. Table 3 summarizes our taxonomy of the most important ES Codesign approaches. CCodesign refers to the conventional (traditional) Codesign approach. Figure 1 depicts the main activities in the CCodesign. Starting from a unified system functional specification, the flow then proceeds toward Hw/Sw partitioning where decisions on parts that should be implemented as hardware and parts that should be implemented as software are made. Many optimization algorithms and metrics can be applied at this stage. Three flows in parallel are outputted from Hw/Sw partitioning: the embedded software synthesis or compilation, the hardware synthesis, and the Hw/Sw interface synthesis. The outputs of these three flows will be then integrated for evaluation and co-simulation. As it is seen in the figure, the flow is iterative to seek for better partitions that satisfy the objectives of the design.
\nCodesign methodology | \nMain characteristics | \n
---|---|
CCodesign: Conventional Codesign | \nTraditional codesign | \n
IP-based Codesign | \nCCodesign + IP reuse | \n
Platform-based Codesign | \nCCodesign + platform reuse | \n
Design pattern-based Codesign | \nCCodesign + design pattern reuse | \n
Codesign for reuse | \nCodesign to produce reusable components | \n
MDCodesign: model-driven Codesign | \nCodesign + model transformation technology | \n
AsCodesign: aspect-oriented Codesign | \nCodesign based on aspect engineering | \n
Web-based Codesign | \nCodesign in the context of Internet | \n
Cloud-based Codesign | \nCodesign in the context of cloud computing | \n
IDE-based Codesign | \nCodesign using an integrated development environment | \n
FCodesign: Formal Codesign | \nCodesign-based formal specifications and verifications (for critical systems) | \n
PCodesign: Prototypic Codesign | \nRapid Codesign-based emulation/simulation | \n
SOC main Codesign methodologies.
Conventional Codesign flow.
The system specification is the first key for the successfulness of the Codesign approach; the more the specification is expressive, complete and precise, the more the implementation will be efficient. Many requirements are identified for a good specification. Most authors prefer to use a unified unbiased model for both hardware and software. In the traditional method, such model did not exist. Embedded software is traditionally programmed in C or assembly language; such low-level languages are not portable and cannot anywhere meet system-level specification requirements. On the other hand, hardware parts were commonly specified using VHDL; but with the remarkable progress in modeling theory and programming language semantics, designers are now benefited from what we call model of computation or MOC. The latter defines formal syntax and semantic of computation and communication.
\nTable 4 summarizes a set of well-known untimed MOCs. Depending on the application domain, we find a collection of MOCs with different semantics. A multi-MOC denotes a MOC composing of multiple MOCs. The combination of heterogeneous MOCs is a hot research topic. Ptolemy is a good example of an environment allowing the combination of multiple MOCs hierarchically. We note the existence of a second class of MOCs called timed MOCs. The latter models and manipulates the time explicitly. As examples of timed MOCs, we find timed automata, timed Petri nets and so on.
\nModel of computation | \nApplication | \n
---|---|
DF: data flow | \nData-oriented processing | \n
SDF: synchronous DF | \nData-oriented processing when the input/output size is known | \n
KPN: Kahn process network | \nDeterministic data-oriented processing with infinite buffer | \n
DE: discrete event | \nDiscrete time processing | \n
CT: continuous time | \nContinuous time processing (analog parts) | \n
FSM: finite-state machine | \nControl-oriented sequential processing | \n
DFSM: data path fsm | \nControl-/data-oriented processing | \n
Statecharts | \nControl-oriented processing supporting concurrency and hierarchy | \n
RS: reactive synchronous | \nReactive systems with zero delay computing assumptions | \n
Petri nets | \nReactive systems (formal specification/verification) | \n
Multi-MOC | \nHeterogeneous systems | \n
The most used models of computation.
Most existing specification/programming languages are based on one or more MOCs. We note that nowadays Codesign flows adopt SystemC [7] as the standard language for system-level specification. SystemC is an extension of the C++ language for both software and hardware programming. It supports many levels of abstraction such as transactional and RTL levels. In its earlier versions, SystemC used a discrete event simulator but with new versions it supports well other MOCs.
\nEDA and CAD tools are also important in Codesign flow automation. Depending on the objective of the designer, we can find a plenty of tools for modeling, simulation, emulation, formal analysis, automatic code generation, optimization and verification, performances estimation, synthesis, and so on [8, 9]. The good choice of such tools may have a great impact on the quality of the final product.
\nThe embedded software synthesis is part of the Codesign flow (Figure 2) [10].
\nEmbedded software synthesis flow.
Besides system-level description language (SLDL), which is able to capture both hard and software components, three major elements are needed in order to support the software aspect of the design flow:
Processor models that capture the processor at different levels of abstraction.
RTOS support for the processor.
A software generation tool that synthesizes user code targeted for the selected RTOS.
An RTOS provides at least the core real-time scheduling functionality, inter-task communication, timing and synchronization primitives. It is implemented and described as a real-time kernel or real-time executive. The scheduler in RTOS is designed to provide a predictable execution pattern. This is particularly of interest to embedded systems as embedded systems often have real-time requirements.
\nTends to shorten the time-to-market and minimize the cost of SOC design, the IP-based Codesign [11] emphasizes on reuse of predesigned and pre-verified components called intellectual properties (IPs). IPs may have many formats and specified at many levels of abstractions. In general, IPs are classified into three main classes called: soft IPs, firm IPs and hard IPs. IP reuse comes at the price of integration effort especially for incompatible IPs.
\nInstead of reusing individual IPs, this style of Codesign uses an entire platform specific for a certain application domain. The effort of design is limited to tuning the platform for the given application (bottom-up methodology) or to tuning the application for the given platform (top-down methodology). Certainly, this approach reduces considerably the effort of design, but at the price of nonoptimized designs furthermore, finding the existing platform that matches designer requirements is not trivial [12].
\nIn software engineering, a pattern is a general repeatable solution to a commonly occurring problem. A pattern is an abstract template that needs to be refined and adapted before it can be integrated into the code. Patterns focus on descriptions that communicate the reasons for design decisions. In the field of SOC Codesign, the definition of generic patterns is more difficult. For instance, design patterns to generate wrappers for IPs integration have been already proposed and others to promote reuse beyond code reuse [13].
\nPutting a collection of tools that may be obtained from different providers and organizations in one environment to facilitate the SOC Codesign is the philosophy of the IDE-based Codesign. The main challenge in this style of Codesign is the interoperability between tools [14].
\nCodesign for reuse tends to design reusable IPs. These reusable components can be soft, firm or hard, described in a standard format and well documented and catalogued for easy integration [15].
\nThe aspect-oriented engineering tends to increase reuse by separating in early stages between functional and nonfunctional aspects and to propose some mechanisms to integrate them lately to generate the full code. This new technology was rapidly borrowed by SOC designers [16]. This strategy will bring many advantages regarding the portability and reuse but at the price of time overhead.
\nThis approach is relatively very recent and becomes very popular. It tends to apply the model-driven engineering technologies in SOC Codesign. The impetus behind this is to increase productivity by the use of a unified graphical notation (source models) to model different views of the system (functional, structural, behavioral, etc.) and the automatic transformation of such graphical notations to one or many other notations (target models). The source, the target meta-models and the transformation rules are expressed explicitly and can be used either to transform one model to another model or to refine the initial model. In this context, many UML profiles for SOC Codesign were proposed [17].
\nBy web-based Codesign, we refer to SOC Codesign in an Internet-based context. In this style of Codesign, designers develop their SOC online and, consequently, they can exploit available environments, tools and download what they need to accomplish their tasks. For instance, they can use sophisticated Internet research tools for IP selection, simulation and verification tools. They can also contact SOC experts and share the experience online [18].
\nAs a new form of Internet-based computing, cloud computing is an emerging computing style that tends to enable ubiquitous, on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., computer networks, servers, storage, applications and services) which can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort. Cloud Codesign refers to CCodesign but in the context of cloud [19].
\nFormal Codesign tends to develop SOCs implementing critical applications with hard constraints. This style of Codesign uses formal specification languages and formal verification techniques such as model checking and theorem proving to ensure the correctness of the system. The methodology itself starts from an initial formal specification and then proceeds by refinement till the code generation. Examples of such languages are B, Esterel, Lotos, Petri nets, abstract automata and so on. Generally, SOC designers are not very familiar with formal specifications requiring a deep mathematical background; for this reason, instead of dealing directly with such specifications, many tools have been developed to generate formal specification from graphical notations (UML) [20].
\nThe first objective of prototypic Codesign is to provide a rapid prototype of SOC to the customer. The prototype is generally implemented in FPGA. By exploiting existing tools of emulation/simulation, the customer requirements can be earlier validated without engaging into details. This style is very suitable when the customer requirements cannot be captured entirely in the requirements analysis phase or because the requirements change rapidly over time; in this case, SOC designers can incrementally validate the functionality using reconfigurable SOC.
\nIntelligent embedded systems represent a novel and promising generation of embedded systems. The word “intelligent” or “smart” may imply many things: for instance, it can imply the ability to make decisions, the capability of learning from external stimuli, adapting to changes or the possibility of executing computationally intelligent algorithms.
\nIn this context, we will define an IES as a conventional ES with the capacity of reasoning about their external environments and adapt their behavior accordingly. IES have some main characteristics such as self-learning, self-optimizing and self-repairing (Figure 3).
\nIntelligent embedded system features.
A good example where IES can be found is robotics. Robotics are basically intelligent machines whose functionality is controlled by embedded systems. Robotics contain embedded systems at their heart to perform the functions required for them, for example, pick and place systems in manufacturing industry, welding robots used in automobile assembly, and so on. Elmenreich [21] identified some potential reasons for employing an intelligent solution for embedded systems among them, such as dependability, efficiency, autonomy, easy modeling, maintenance costs and insufficient alternatives. Beyond these reasons, we can say that the first impetus behind IES is to render the human life easier, more comfortable and more secure. For instance, IES are now present in what we call smart homes, smart cities, Internet of things (IoT) and so on. IES can execute intelligent real-time tasks to manage power and water, help aged and invalid persons in their daily activities, and control smart cars and drones and many other smart devices. The presence of IES in our life becomes a necessity.
\nAn IESo is first an ESo that has the capacity to gather and analyze data and communicate with other systems. Other criteria include the capacity to learn from experience, security, connectivity, the ability to adapt according to current data and the capacity for remote monitoring and management. As intelligent conventional software, IESo can also include sophisticated AI-based software systems, such as expert systems and other types of software. IESo exists all around us in terminals, digital televisions, traffic lights, automobiles, and airplane controls, among a great number of other possibilities. Figure 4 depicts a possible flow for an adaptable IESo having the capability of learning from a dynamic changing environment. The IES have to resort to some concepts in order to interpret and comprehend the semantic of new features [22].
\nAdaptable embedded software flow.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming more and more attractive to model and simulate control intelligent system behavior [23]. An example is the use of knowledge-based technology for control systems that cannot be completely modeled mathematically. Recently, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques in real-time control applications has emerged. In terms of embedded systems, this gives rise to the possibility of developing systems that can learn from their environment and that can change their own control programs to adapt to new situations, and these features are required to operate autonomous devices. In this section, we try to highlight some of AI methods that have been applied in the field of electronic and ES design at the same time and we will show the possibility of applying such methods in the context of IESo.
\nThe application of IA in the field of electronic design is not new. It returned to 1980s where EDA tools profited from expert system technology to assist electronic designers to make routing/placement and hardware synthesis [24].
\nWith the ever-increasing in the semiconductor technology integration, using expert systems in IES design becomes questionable since they demand much time for reasoning, the knowledge base will be unmanaged, furthermore, rules of type if-else cannot model complex deduction process. Some works are proposed to implement expert systems in hardware, and other works are proposed to parallelize the inference process to gain time.
\nExpert systems have been maturated, and many environments and languages are now available to assist designers to develop their own domain-specific expert systems. Traditional expert systems are less interactive and have not the capabilities of learning; to overcome these drawbacks, researchers tend to integrate Neural Networks (NN) with expert systems, so they can learn and modify inference rules/knowledge base dynamically. Similarly, to deal with uncertain/incomplete information, fuzzy logic and some mathematical theories like rough sets have had been integrated with expert systems and NN.
\nIn the context of IESo, fuzzy expert systems and neural networks can be applied especially in fault detection and diagnosis [25]. Cotton [26] proposed a solution for implementing neural networks on microcontrollers for many embedded applications. A new class of SOC called neural or nerve SOC implementing neural computing has been emerged [27].
\nMultiagent systems (MAS) have been successfully applied to model and manage complex distributed systems since they offer high capabilities for complex interactions, autonomy and reactive/cognitive behavior modeling. In the context of IES design, some authors proposed to model intelligent agents for IP research and web-based SOC design. An IP can be soft and consequently used to execute an IESo module. Other works have applied MAS to model complex IESo, and the result is what we call embedded agents. The latter can be later synthesized as software embedded agent or hardware embedded agent [28–30].
\nRecently, the use of ontologies in software engineering has gained popularity because they facilitate the semantic interoperability and machine reasoning. Ontology is a formal representation of domain-specific knowledge. In the context of ES Codesign, some researchers, used ontologies for IP research in web semantics, for instance authors in [31], defined a VHDL ontology. The work in [32] defined ontology for IP reuse-based SOC design. The IP can be of course soft. Other works have been tried to use ontologies in the context of the Internet of things (IoT) to guarantee interoperability [33]. For example, in Figure 4, we can use ontologies to model the set of concepts.
\nNature/bioinspired optimization meta-heuristics has gained more attention by ES designers especially in Hw/Sw partitioning and hardware synthesis. The latter is qualified as NP-hard problems. Among bioinspired meta-heuristics, we find genetic algorithms and their variants, simulated annealing, taboo search, ant colony, PSO and so on. In contrast to exact methods, meta-heuristics is more general and aims to compromise between solution quality and search time. In the context of IESo, optimization meta-heuristics can be applied to solve the RTOS energy aware scheduling problem or jointly with neural networks.
\nIn AI, constraint satisfaction is the process of finding a solution to a set of constraints that impose conditions that the variables must satisfy. Many activities are considered as constraint satisfaction problems, especially the hardware/software partitioning including allocation, assignation and scheduling problems [34].
\nThe effort of designing hardware capable of supporting the declarative programming model for logic derivations can now lead to intelligent embedded designs which are considerably more efficient compared to the traditional procedural ones. For instance, Panagopoulos et al. [35] proposed an extension of the RISC architecture microprocessor for knowledge representation, based on attribute grammar evaluation, in an effort of achieving design efficiency for intelligent embedded systems.
\nHybrid AI models refer to the combination of the above-mentioned models. For instance, we can combine between MAS and expert systems/NN/fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms to model the cognitive part of agents.
\nOrganic computer (OC) is a new emerging computing paradigm inspired from the biological organic model. It is based on the insight that we will soon be surrounded by large collections of autonomous systems, which are equipped with sensors and actuators, aware of their environment, communicate freely, and organize themselves in order to perform the actions and services that seem to be required. An organic computing system is a technical system which adapts dynamically to exogenous and endogenous change. It is characterized by the properties of self-organization, self-configuration, self-optimization, self-healing, self-protection, self-explaining and context awareness. Figure 5 depicts the IBM’s MAPE cycle for autonomic computing which is the basis for OC. Here, M is for Monitor, A for Analyze, P for Plan, E for Execute, and K for Knowledge (the autonomic element). Figure 6 shows the OC system generic architecture which is based on the observer/controller architecture. Here, SuOC designates system under observation and control. It is composed of a set of interacting elements/agents, and it does not depend on the existence of observer/controller [36, 37].
\nIBM’s MAPE cycle for autonomic computing.
The generic OC system architecture.
Recently, a new class of self-adaptive SOCs emerges as a new paradigm inspired from the organic computing and especially the self-x properties. This class of SOC is called organic SOC (OSOC), more suitable for smart applications having the capabilities of self-adaptation, self-control and evolvability. This new architecture is comprised of many layers and integrates more components to assure the self-x properties [38].
\nAs embedded systems become intelligent, the situation gets much more complicated regarding the application of traditional ES Codesign methodologies. In Table 5, we show some main differences between embedded computing and intelligent computing. The main challenge resides in how can we integrate these two styles or philosophies of computing?
\nEmbedded computing | \nIntelligent computing | \n
---|---|
Software and hardware are both first class | \nSoftware is first class | \n
Resources constrained | \nUnlimited resources | \n
Simple tasks | \nVery complex tasks | \n
Small computing power | \nSignificant computing power | \n
Reactive | \nCognitive | \n
Low-level models and programming languages (Assembly, C) | \nHigh-level programming models beyond procedural paradigm | \n
Static and completely specified environment | \nDynamic and imprecise environments | \n
Human intervention is weak | \nHuman intervention is prominent | \n
Embedded computing vs. intelligent computing.
In response to this aim, we propose what we call
IA-based IES Codesign.
In the rapidly changing life requirements and technology, embedded software continues to dominate the values and costs of intelligent embedded systems industry. Despite the proliferation of IES over the last years, the industry of electronics and embedded systems has afraid from AI and the main question is: Can AI be a reality and apply it in IES industry efficiently without side effect?
\nIf we know that when referring to AI, we automatically refer to human intellectual activities such as perception, learning, reasoning and memorization, self-optimization, self-adaptation and so on. The industry judgment is maybe due to the fact that the intellectual activities consume much time that can be a bottleneck for performance especially in a real-time context, where activities or tasks have deadlines or another form of timing constraints, or maybe due to the fact that AI does not reach a certain level of maturity especially at the pragmatic stage; so it can be applied efficiently in real physical systems.
\nFor instance, multiagent systems and despite their solid theoretic basis and maturity, they are not well supported by industry. Experience from both academia and industry has proved that MAS have been used successfully to design complex, self-adaptable and even real-time systems. Currently, there are more than 80 MAS design methodologies. We think that most existing MAS methodologies in their current state are not able to deal with IES specificities; however, with some tuning and enhancement, MAS can be efficient to develop IES [41]. We note that the application of fuzzy expert systems and NN to model and simulate fault detection and diagnostics in IES is an attractive tendency. For instance, experience from both academy and industry has proved that NN have been used successfully to design self-adaptable IES.
\nOrganic computing seems to be an attractive solution for IES but needs much effort to prove its efficiency in the industry.
\nIn a real-time context, reasoning is known to be a bottleneck with regard to performances so in order to solve this dilemma, we can for instance parallelize reasoning or to implement it as hardware components. In all cases, we see that we must create a bridge between AI models and existing well-practiced ES Codesign methodologies and associated tools [42]. On the other hand, the progress in hardware technologies will certainly contribute in efficient implementations of IES, notably those targeting multicores and reconfigurable architectures like FPGA. Reconfigurable architectures match well dynamic and adaptable IES.
\nMesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are progenitors of connective tissues, initially characterized as plastic adherent, fibroblastic cells, with the potential to differentiate into many types of cells, including predominantly osteoblasts (cells that secrete the matrix of the bones), chondrocytes (cells embedded in the lacunae of the cartilage matrix), and adipocytes (fat-storing cells), under appropriate conditions. MSC studies have progressed rapidly since the initial report of human MSC isolation from bone marrow. MSCs have been shown to reside within the connective tissues of most organs. Owing to their ease of isolation and unique characteristics, MSCs have been widely regarded as potential candidates for tissue engineering and repair. Further, the fate decision of MSCs has also piqued the interest of scientists. During the last two decades, various signaling molecules important to MSC differentiation have been identified, and the epigenetic regulation of MSC differentiation has recently become a research hotspot.
The transformation process of MSCs from a self-renewing state to a specific lineage is always accompanied by changes in cell morphology and function, which are largely determined by the differential expression of genes. Specifically, genes related to self-renewal are turned off, and transcription of cell type-specific genes is activated. Epigenetic regulation refers to the phenotypic change through gene differential expression without DNA sequence alteration, including four main categories: [1] DNA methylation, [2] histone modifications, and [3] chromatin remodeling (nucleosome positioning); and [4] non-coding RNAs. It has been widely reported that epigenetic and post-translational modifications have a broad and far-reaching influence on MSC differentiation at multiple levels. Here, we provide an overview of the recent findings regarding the roles of epigenetic modification in the fate decision of MSCs.
DNA methylation is an important epigenetic modification referring to the addition of a methyl (-CH3) group to the fifth carbon atom of a cytosine ring to form 5-methylcytosine (5-mC). The process is catalyzed by enzymes known as DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). DNA methylation was the first epigenetic mark to be discovered, and it plays an important role in normal human growth, development, aging, tumorigenesis, and other genetic and epigenetic diseases. This epigenetic mark has the ability to turn genes on or off and can be inherited through cell division. Recent studies have suggested that methylation and demethylation of specific genes, such as
According to numerous studies, DNA methylation is dynamically involved in the osteogenesis of MSCs. Generally, it may be considered that DNA methylation has a repressor role in the promoter regions with CpG islands, blocking gene expression. During osteogenic differentiation, demethylation was observed at specific CpG regions in the promoters of osteogenic lineage-specific genes, such as
Villagra
Adipogenesis is highly regulated by a sequential cascade of transcriptional events. Key transcriptional factors controlling adipogenesis include several CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) family members, including C/EBPα, β, and δ, and the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator γ (PPARγ). On the other hand, a number of negative transcriptional factors have also been identified, including GATA2/3, chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor (COUP-TF), interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), and Wnt family proteins.
Barrand
DNA methylation and demethylation status also influence MSC chondrogenic differentiation. DNA methylation at specific CpGs has been shown to influence genes such as
Histone modification, a common form of epigenetic regulation, refers to post-translational modifications that are added to the N-terminal tail of histones. Histone modification has been shown to play important roles in regulating cell-specific gene expression. So far, more than sixty different residues on core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, H4) with potential to be modified have been reported. These modifications made to histones, including acylation, methylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and sumoylation, can impact gene expression by altering the chromatin structure or recruiting histone modifiers. Histone proteins function to package DNA, which wraps around the eight histones, into chromosomes. In general, it has been well established that histones on the promoter regions of master transcription factors associated with MSC cell fate commitment, such as
Involved epigenetic histone modification | Factor | Mechanism | Result | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Histone deacetylation | HDAC inhibitor | Stimulate the transcription of p21CIP1/WAF1 through enhancing the H3 and H4 acetylation | Arrest the cell cycle at the G2/M check point, inhibit adipogenic, chondrogenic, and neurogenic differentiation; promote osteogenesis | [18] |
Histone acetylation | Knockdown of PCAF (histone H3K9 acetyltransferase) | Insufficient to increase H3K9 acetylation at promoters of BMP2, BMP4, BMPR2B, and Runx2 | INHIBIT adipogenic differentiation and promote osteogenic differentiation in MSCs; reduce the bone formation both in vitro and in vivo | [19] |
Histone acetylation | GCN5 knockdown | Insufficient to inhibit NF-κB signaling by mediating the proteasomal degradation of p65 (acetyl K310) | Inhibits osteogenic differentiation of MSCs | [20] |
Histone deacetylation | SIRT1 knockout | Insufficient to deacetylate β-catenin to promote its accumulation in the nucleus | Reduce differentiation towards osteoblasts, and chondrocytes | [21] |
Histone demethylation | Overexpression of KDM5A | Decrease H3K4me3 levels on promoters of Runx2 by demethylating H3K4me3 | Inhibit osteogeninsis; lead to osteoporosis | [22] |
Histone methylation | G9a inhibitor | Unclear (correlate with PPARγ and C/EBPα expression) | Impair the proliferation but the anti-proliferative effect is not sustained; increase adipogenic potential and decrease osteogenic potential of MSCs | [23] |
Histone methylation | Downregulation of BMI1 | Insufficient to recruit and stabilize PRC2 which trimethylate H3K27 | Cellular senescence | [24] |
Histone methylation | Downregulation of EZH2 | Insufficient to trimethylate H3K27 as catalytic subunit of PRC2 and keep a high extent of H3K27me3 to suppress p16INK4A-induced senescence | Cellular senescence | [24] |
Histone modification in MSC differentiation and aging.
Histone acetylation is an epigenetic modification characterized by the addition of an acetyl group (COCH3) to histone proteins, specifically to lysine residues within the N-terminal tail. Histone acetylation is one of the most common epigenetic modifications, which leads to the neutralization of the positive charge on the histone proteins, weakening their interaction with DNA, and finally promoting the opening of chromatin structure and activating gene transcription. On the other hand, histone deacetylation is related to chromatin transcription inhibition. The level of histone acetylation is mainly regulated by histone acetylase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC).
The degree of histone acetylation of related regulatory genes can reflect the maintenance of stemness and the differentiation status of MSCs. During the process of osteogenic differentiation, the expression of osteogenic genes (such as
Histone methylation is another common post-translational modification by which methyl groups are transferred to the amino acids of histone proteins that make up the nucleosomes. Histone methylation can occur at various sites in histone proteins, primarily on lysine and arginine residues, and it can be governed by multiple positive and negative regulators, even at a single site, to either activate or repress transcription. Histone methylation is regulated by histone methyltransferase (HMT) and histone demethylase (HDM), which can be monomethylated, dimethylated, or trimethylated.
The increase in methylation usually promotes the affinity of histones to DNA and increases the degree of transcriptional inhibition, such as H3K9 methylation and H3K27 methylation. H3K9 dimethylation and trimethylation are typical repressive histone modifications that mediate the formation of heterochromatic regions. It was reported that the knockdown of ESET, a H3K9 methyltransferase, causes an aberrant expression of Runx2 and finally leads to the impairment of osteogenic differentiation and bone defects in mice. On the other hand, the knockdown of EHMT1, a H3K9 specific methyltransferase, resulted in decreased H3K9me2 levels on the promoters of Runx2, thereby upregulating transcription in mouse tissues. With respect to the adipogenic differentiation of MSCs, it was found that the enrichment of H3K9me1 and H3K9me2 on the promoters of C/EBP and PPARγ was negatively associated with adipogenic differentiation. Lowering the H3K9 methylation levels in these regions by either H3K9 demethylase or HMT inhibitors ultimately promoted adipogenic differentiation. In addition, H3K9me3 levels in the promoter region of Sox9, as well as its target genes
The mechanisms of histones modification.
Chromatin remodeling is the dynamic modification of chromatin architecture, which is an important mechanism for regulating gene expression. In eukaryotes, DNA is tightly wound into a complex called chromatin. Chromatin remodeling allows the access of tightly condensed DNA to various regulatory factors, such as transcription factors and components of DNA replication, so that specific genes can be expressed. The basic mechanism of chromatin remodeling depends on the three dynamic properties of nucleosomes: reconstruction, enzyme-induced covalent modification, and repositioning. In addition, the aforementioned histone modification is another important aspect of chromatin remodeling. Aberrations in chromatin remodeling proteins are associated with various human disorders and diseases. The major activities involved in nucleosome structure alterations use the energy supplied by ATP hydrolysis to affect nucleosomes. These enzymes are called ATP-dependent chromatin (or nucleosome) remodeling factors. The system involves four subfamilies of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes, namely switch/sucrose non-fermentable (SWI/SNF), nucleosome remodeler deacetylase (NuRD), INO80, and imitation switch (ISWI).
Several studies have demonstrated that functional SWI/SNF machinery plays an important role in regulating MSC tri-lineage differentiation by interacting with tissue-specific transcription factors and crosstalk with cell signaling pathways. Brahma-associated factor (BAF) complex subunits have been implicated in MSC osteo-lineage commitment. For example, depletion of BRG1 leads to constitutive osteo-lineage gene expression [37]. BRM negatively regulates osteocalcin expression [38]. Loss of the classical BAF restricted subunit Pbrm1/Arid2/Brd7 leads to reduced osteogenesis without compromising adipogenesis [39]. It has also been reported that SWI/SNF-dependent chromatin remodeling is involved in MSC adipogenic differentiation. BRG1 overexpression was associated with promoted adipogenic differentiation, which was associated with a marked increase in the differentiation markers PPARγ and LPL [40]. BAF45A was identified as an important regulator of adipogenic differentiation in human MSCs [41]. In addition, other ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers, such as chromodomain helicase DNA binding (CHD) proteins, are also involved in MSC lineage commitment. CHD4 was reported to be implicated in chondrogenesis. Simon
The RNA world is divided into two classes: 1) RNAs that have coding potential (mRNAs) and 2) RNAs without coding potential, referred to as non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Although mRNAs have been extensively studied, ncRNAs span more than 98% of DNA transcripts. In the past, these molecules were considered as “evolutionary junk” but increasing evidence suggests that these molecules spatiotemporally regulate protein-coding gene expression in several molecular mechanisms. With improved RNA-sequencing techniques, in recent years, there have been great advances in identifying and understanding ncRNAs. Epigenetic ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA), have been reported to play key roles in the regulation of various diseases and biological processes, including cellular differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, gene regulation, and cancer development.
lncRNA is a novel class of noncoding RNAs longer than 200 nt, which can regulate gene expression at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. LncRNAs are mainly located in the cell nucleus or cytoplasm, affecting the status and fate of cells through different post-transcriptional mechanisms. Nuclear lncRNAs guide chromatin modifiers, such as DNA methyltransferase, histone methyltransferase, and heteronuclear ribosome protein, to a specific genetic locus and induce chromatin structure remodeling, which in turn regulates gene expression either positively or negatively. Cytoplasmic lncRNAs can either block the functional site or alter the structure and modification of specific proteins, thereby regulating the function and stabilization of these proteins, and ultimately alter the fate and function of cells. During the last decade, multiple studies have demonstrated that lncRNAs are widely involved in growth and development by controlling the fate of cells, including MSCs.
Studies have demonstrated the importance of lncRNAs in bone regeneration and bone formation. Many lncRNAs regulating the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs have been identified, including ANCR, AK141205, AK028326, DANCR, MALAT1, MEG3, MORD, and POIR; these either promote or inhibit osteogenic differentiation through diverse pathways. For example, MALAT1 promotes
MicroRNAs are the most abundant class of small ncRNAs with a length of 21–25 nt, and have been studied extensively. miRNAs are also involved in the epigenetic regulation of genes in both the cytoplasm and nucleus through different mechanisms. Their main action is the negative regulation of gene expression by specifically binding to a target mRNA through base complementary pairing and inducing its degradation or the inhibition of its translation.
Accumulating evidence indicates that miRNAs play an important role in the maintenance of stemness and differentiation of MSCs (Table 2). As mentioned above, lineage differentiation of MSCs is a complex biological process. For example, MSCs differentiate into osteogenic progenitor cells and subsequently osteoblasts, and then gradually become mature bone cells along with a variety of extracellular matrix mineralization. This process involves a large number of secretory and transcription factors. In addition, the differentiation and maturation of MSCs also involves signaling pathways such as WNT, BMP, and PI3K/Akt. The key effector molecules in these pathways can be regulated by miRNAs, which in turn affects MSC fate decisions. Recently, various miRNAs, including miR-20b, -29b, -30a-5p, -142-3p, -196a, -210, -746-5p, -2861, -3960, -335-5p, etc., have been reported to enhance osteogenic differentiation, whereas miR -23a, -26a, -30c, -34b, -34c, -125, -133a, -135a, -137, -141, -148, -200a, -204, -205, -206, -217, and -338 could impede osteogenic differentiation, and miR-143, -24, -31, -30c, and -642a-3p are involved in regulating adipogenesis. Oskowitz
Involved miRNA | Mechanism | Result | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
miR-23a | targets LRP5 and subsequently suppress the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway | Inhibit osteogenesis of MSCs | [51] |
miR-26a | in BMSCs: targets GSK3 in ADSCs: targets Smad1 mainly and inhibits BMP signaling pathway | Inhibit osteogenesis of ADSCs and promote osteogenesis of BMSCs | [52] |
miR-30c | reduces Runx2 protein | Inhibit osteogenesis of MSCs | [53] |
miR-34c | |||
miR-133a | |||
miR-135a | |||
miR-137 | |||
miR-204 | |||
miR-205 | |||
miR-217 | |||
miR-338 | |||
miR-20b | Activate the BMPs/Runx2 signaling pathway at four levels, which consists of repressing PPARγ, Bambi and Crim1 | Promote ostegenesis | [54, 55] |
miR-29b | activates the AKT/β-catenin signaling pathway by inhibiting PTEN expression | Promote osteogenesis of hADSCs | [56] |
miR-196a | targets HOXC8 (a negative regulator of SMAD1) | Inhibit proliferation and promote osteogenesis of hDASCs | [57] |
miR-17-5p | Represses the Wnt signaling pathway effector Tcf7l2 | Promote adipogenesis of BM-MSCs | [58, 59] |
miR-21 | Alters SMAD3 phosphorylation without affecting total levels of SMAD3 protein and modulate TGF-β signaling pathway | [59, 60] | |
miR-143 | Directly represses MAP2K5 (a key member of the MAPKK family in the MAPK signaling pathway) | [59, 61] | |
miR-30a | Targets Runx2 | Promote adipogenesis | [62] |
miR-30d | |||
miR-642a-3p | unknown | In a high level in adipogenesis | [62] |
miRNA and MSCs differentiation.
“Epigenetics” was first used to define the complex interactions between the genome and the environment that are involved in the development and differentiation of organisms. Nowadays, the term refers to heritable alterations in gene expression that are not mediated at the DNA sequence level. Accumulating evidence has suggested that the processes of epigenetic modifications are crucial and largely responsible for the variable activation and repression of specific genes at specific time points during the lifespan of stem cells, allowing for the terminally differentiated phenotype. With the advances in biological and experimental technologies, a variety of epigenetic modifications involved in the cell fate determination of MSCs have been discovered in recent years. In addition to the types of epigenetic modifications introduced in the article, some researchers have suggested the role of histone phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and other modifications in the differentiation of MSCs. On this basis this information, drugs that effectively regulate these modifications have been developed to provide precise differentiation conditions for MSCs and make them more effective in clinical treatment. The disadvantage of epigenetic therapy using small molecule drugs is the lack of specificity, which needs to be further studied. In summary, epigenetic modifications play an important regulatory role in the cell fate determination of MSCs, but the precise function of these modifications in different MSC types, as well as the associated underlying mechanisms, remain to be thoroughly investigated. In-depth research in this field would provide important reference data for the differentiation mechanism research and clinical application of MSCs.
The authors were supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2020YFA0113003, 2018YFC1004803) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
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Consequently, knowledge of exoplanets is considerably more limited than Solar System planets. This chapter reviews the essential characteristics of Solar System planets and associated data derived from a variety of observational approaches. Exoplanet characteristics and their comparison to Solar System planets are provided as well as general detection methods and planned probes to gather additional data.",book:{id:"10210",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets"},signatures:"Joseph Bevelacqua",authors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"John",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua"}]},{id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",totalDownloads:1025,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"Petrovich",surname:"Kondratyev",slug:"boris-kondratyev",fullName:"Boris Kondratyev"}]},{id:"68357",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: System Analyses, Vehicles, and Moon Bases for Saturn Exploration",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-system-analyses-vehicles-and-moon",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human and robotic missions to Saturn are presented and analyzed with a range of propulsion options. Historical studies of space exploration, planetary spacecraft and astronomy, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), and industrialization all point to the vastness of natural resources in the solar system. Advanced propulsion is benefitted from these resources in many ways. While advanced propulsion systems were proposed in these historical studies, further investigation of nuclear options using high-power nuclear electric and nuclear pulse propulsion as well as advanced chemical propulsion can significantly enhance these scenarios. Updated analyses based on these historical visions are presented. At Saturn, nuclear pulse propulsion with alternate propellant feed systems and Saturn moon exploration with chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion options are discussed. Issues with using in situ resource utilization on Saturn’s moons are discussed. At Saturn, the best locations for exploration and the use of the moons as central locations for Saturn moon exploration are assessed. Environmental issues on Titan’s surface may present extreme challenges for some ISRU processes. In-space bases for moon-orbiting propellant processing and ground-based processing will be assessed.",book:{id:"7338",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Creating a presence and an industrial capability on the Moon is essential for the development of humankind. There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32533",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2785,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1617",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"98",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82332",title:"Access to Space, Access to the Moon – Two Sides of the Same Coin?",slug:"access-to-space-access-to-the-moon-two-sides-of-the-same-coin-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105175",abstract:"The dynamics of human expansion towards space are going through Earth external layers, orbital space and the Moon. With its low gravity, slingshot effect relative to Earth, on-site resources and relative proximity to Earth in the solar system, the renewed space race is effectively returning first to the Moon. A psychological bridge to enlarge our civilization with a permanent bridge to our natural satellite. The development of this Earth-Moon system, requires enormous amount of finances, energy, science, technology, but over all, opportunities. This chapter deals with the efforts and the mental changes that may eventually result from all of these changes.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:87,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:126,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. It also considers other key properties such as structural robustness, thermal insulation, and micrometeoroid protection that all have to be considered in parallel when proposing regolith-based solutions. The biological hazards of radiation exposure on the Moon are presented and put in the context of lunar exploration-type missions and current astronaut career dose limits. These factors guide the research in radiation protection done with lunar regolith simulants, which are used in research and development activities on Earth due to the reduced accessibility of returned lunar samples. The ways in which regolith can be used in construction influence its protective properties. Areal density, which plays a key role in the radiation shielding capacity of a given material, can be optimized through different regolith processing techniques. At the same time, density will also affect other important properties of the construction, e.g. thermal insulation. 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He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). 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He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",slug:"cecilia-cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"gil-goncalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",slug:"johann-f.-osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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