Maize Yield (kg/ha) under 4 different Management Practices after 2 years of
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5483",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Adiposity - Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities",title:"Adiposity",subtitle:"Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book is the first in a series of two, featuring the Adiposity - Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities, serving as a summary of the traditional views on how the organ systems are affected when higher organs start to suffer from enhanced body weight, where most of this additional weight consists of white adipose tissue (WAT). The understanding of the "epidemiology" of obesity will consequently enable clinicians and researchers to better understand the untoward "trends" of "metabolic aberrations" from a well-organized and health-bringing homeostasis, with fully responding WAT and BAT, thus enabling a balance between fat-producing and fat-metabolizing tissues for the benefit of the various organ systems taking care of the fat and carbohydrate metabolism, normally yielding a balanced energy turnover, ensuring "healthy" cell phenotypes, which optimally coordinate the energy metabolism in a well-functioning organism throughout a lifetime.',isbn:"978-953-51-2996-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2995-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7351-9",doi:"10.5772/63121",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",numberOfPages:252,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5f19b6a0755b8a29538e3b2043d4a854",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5483.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27018,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:50,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 19th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:"Oxholm",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36345/images/3823_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jan O. Gordeladze, Ph.D. (born 25th of April, 1950), holds a triple professor competence (Medical Biochemistry, Physiology, and Pharmacology), and is presently working as a Professor Emeritus at the Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Basic Medical Science, University of Oslo, Norway. He has previously been employed as the Medical Director of MSD, Norway, serving two years as a Fulbright scholar at the NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. From 2006-2009 he was employed as Associate Professor at the University of Montpellier, France. He is a member of the Norwegian Stem Cell Center, and his research has over the past 7-10 years been devoted to differentiation of osteochondral cells from stem cells focusing on the impact of transcription factors and microRNA species constituting regulatory loop interactions with functional target genes. He has published more than 120 scientific articles, reviews/book chapters and presented more than 250 abstracts/posters/talks at conferences worldwide. Dr. Gordeladze has served as a Fulbright Scholar at The National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Washington DC during the years 1990-91.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1134",title:"Population Health",slug:"population-health"}],chapters:[{id:"54140",title:"Introductory Chapter: Obesity – A Worldwide Problem",doi:"10.5772/67688",slug:"introductory-chapter-obesity-a-worldwide-problem",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54140",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54140",authors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],corrections:null},{id:"52728",title:"Obesity as a Growing Public Health Problem",doi:"10.5772/65718",slug:"obesity-as-a-growing-public-health-problem",totalDownloads:2414,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Obesity is one of the most important reasons for reduced life expectancy within the “modern” world. The prevalence of overweight and obesity continues to increase both in developing and in developed countries. It is common in every age group, from pediatric to geriatric individuals, which serve as our future and heritage in the universe. It was clearly seen in reported studies around the world that overweight and obesity are still growing epidemic health problems. It is well known that obesity results in impaired health and premature death. Obesity does not only impair the physical and mental health of people but also impairs economic wealth of most communities. The heavy burden of treatment cost and reductions in effective labor power leads to financial losses all over the world. Obesity has a higher morbidity rate than diseases emanating from underweight. Primarily, we have to find a reasonable and sustainable solution to this problem, in order to reach the longer life expectancy and more qualified life span in the twenty-first century. The policy makers in health services and health professionals in medicine have important roles to prevent and cure this “contemporary” epidemic. Additionally, the most crucial step for people is to get rid of the prevailing inertia and take personal responsibility for their health development.",signatures:"Hülya Çakmur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52728",authors:[{id:"190636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hülya",surname:"Çakmur",slug:"hulya-cakmur",fullName:"Hülya Çakmur"}],corrections:null},{id:"52377",title:"Lay Theories of Obesity: Causes and Consequences",doi:"10.5772/65341",slug:"lay-theories-of-obesity-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:2270,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Both the scientific community and the general public have come to recognize the increasing prevalence of obesity as a significant public health crisis. To help address this issue, recent research has begun to explore lay theories of obesity—the mental models that structure how non-experts think about the causes and consequences of the condition. In this chapter, we develop an integrative review of the literature on lay theories of obesity, drawing on research in public health, communications, and psychology to illuminate the factors that shape beliefs and attitudes toward the condition, as well as the consequences of specific lay theories for cognition and behavior. At the individual level, we discuss how certain ways of thinking about obesity facilitate obesity treatment and prevention. At the societal level, we discuss how certain ways of thinking about obesity lead people to support (and oppose) specific types of obesity-related policy interventions. We pay special attention to the role of narrative framing and individual demographics in the etiology of lay beliefs and explore how particular psychological mechanisms (e.g., empathy) can affect attributions and attitudes.",signatures:"Paul H. Thibodeau and Stephen J. Flusberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52377",authors:[{id:"190818",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Thibodeau",slug:"paul-thibodeau",fullName:"Paul Thibodeau"},{id:"190820",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Flusberg",slug:"stephen-flusberg",fullName:"Stephen Flusberg"}],corrections:null},{id:"52667",title:"Network Analysis of Obesity Expression Data",doi:"10.5772/65292",slug:"network-analysis-of-obesity-expression-data",totalDownloads:1434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are numerous genetic and environmental factors associated significantly with obesity, which could be used as potential diagnostic biomarkers. The molecular mechanisms, development, differentiation, and disease gene expression data provide crucial insights as these differentially expressed genes could have major effects on diet-induced obesity and such effect is not seen in animals. Genomics and proteomics are major branches for better understanding the normal function of the tissues and their interactions with the environment i.e. characterizing the tissues in which the newly discovered genes are expressed, helps in understanding the development of tissues, ageing mechanisms, and signalling routes that enable the tissues to function and also direct the similitude, parallelism and other levels of aptness betwixt two or more gene artefacts. It is traditionally known that hypothalamic and brain stem centres are intricate in the mandate of food absorption and energy equilibrium, but statistics on the associated governing elements and their genes was scant until the utmost decagon and have been identified to be strongly expressed in variety of tissues. NPY plays a notable part in anxiety, tension, corpulence, and vitality homeostasis through incitement of NPY-Y1 receptors (Y1Rs) in the mind. NPY1R quality is the protein accomplice of qualities that are utilized as model as a part of mouse and in addition in people. Utilizing diverse bioinformatics instruments, the relative examination of NPY1R at quality and additionally at protein level can be assessed for biomarker of stoutness malady. In this manner, the system science thinks about point to predict the quality of heftiness which could be taken as a biomarker in human by examining with the quality that already has been utilized as marker as a part of model life forms.",signatures:"Ashok Kumar and Kanika Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52667",authors:[{id:"189975",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"},{id:"194760",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kanika",surname:"Gupta",slug:"kanika-gupta",fullName:"Kanika Gupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"52120",title:"The Brain, the Environment, and Human Obesity: An Evolutionary Perspective on the Difficulty with Maintaining Long-Term Weight Loss",doi:"10.5772/64989",slug:"the-brain-the-environment-and-human-obesity-an-evolutionary-perspective-on-the-difficulty-with-maint",totalDownloads:3616,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The dramatic increase in obesity within one or two generations cannot possibly be due to a change in genetics. It is the processing, distribution, and availability of foods that have changed, not the brain. For most people, in the presence of pleasant tasting (high calorie) foods, the brain’s reward circuitry overwhelms the satiety signals. For 2 million years, overeating (on the occasional basis when that was possible) had adaptive value, and it has only been since the rise of an omnipresent obesogenic environment that such behavior has become maladaptive, resulting in widespread obesity. Long-term weight loss is, at minimum, a two-part process: (1) initial weight loss and (2) relapse prevention. All weight loss programs (diet, pharmacology, or surgical) work in the short run, but none used alone have proven widely effective in the long term. After initial weight loss, relapse is common because until recently interventions failed to consider our evolutionary history and thus have underestimated the sensory/reward aspects of feeding behavior. Strongly heritable behavioral characteristics that differentiate obesity-prone individuals from others (e.g., food cue responsiveness, satiety responsiveness) have now been identified and can potentially be targeted to help people learn how to better interact with an obesogenic environment.",signatures:"Bruce M. King",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52120",authors:[{id:"191542",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruce",surname:"King",slug:"bruce-king",fullName:"Bruce King"}],corrections:null},{id:"52576",title:"Epidemiology of Abdominal Obesity",doi:"10.5772/65342",slug:"epidemiology-of-abdominal-obesity",totalDownloads:1728,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Abdominal obesity (AO) is associated with endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, metabolic syndrome, and cancer. AO is a multifactorial disorder arising from genetic, environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors. Thus, in this chapter, we devote ourselves to the exercise of trying to explain the epidemiology of AO in adults. We showed the increasing prevalence of AO around the world, and a gender difference in this determination was observed. Among women, the population group who is the most affected by AO, a higher prevalence of AO is observed in individuals living in low- or middle-income countries (LMIC), who are older, multiparous, and in the menopausal transition, and who belong to the poorest strata and have lower educational level. While among men, the risk of AO is positively associated with socioeconomic status, particularly in LMIC. Regarding behavioral factors (eating frequency, sleep duration, physical activity, and smoking), gender differences are difficult to be detected due to the lack of studies investigating their association with AO according to sex. However, the current evidence suggests that men benefit more from consuming a greater number of meals a day and women are more affected by the harmful effects of physical inactivity. We argued AO, despite biological conditions associated with behavior factors, should be examined as an important issue of gender inequality in health, possibly mediated by socioeconomic and behavioral differences between men and women.",signatures:"Maria Teresa Anselmo Olinto, Heloísa Theodoro and Raquel Canuto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52576",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52576",authors:[{id:"192253",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Anselmo Olinto",slug:"maria-teresa-anselmo-olinto",fullName:"Maria Teresa Anselmo Olinto"}],corrections:null},{id:"52778",title:"Childhood Obesity",doi:"10.5772/65914",slug:"childhood-obesity",totalDownloads:1759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, the prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents and related complications is considered one of the most important nutritional problems globally. The prevalence of childhood obesity in Europe is 10 times higher now than it was in the 1970s. Initial assessments of these patients should include taking a careful history (investigating comorbidities, family history and potentially modifiable behaviors) and physical examination. The degree of investigation is dependent on the patient's age and severity of obesity, the findings on history and physical examination and associated familial risk factors. Childhood obesity treatment is based on sustained lifestyle changes with family involvement. Management intervention strategies include nutrition, physical activity, behavior and lifestyle changes, medication and surgical considerations.",signatures:"Laura Mihaela Trandafir, Ileana Ioniuc and Ingrith Miron",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52778",authors:[{id:"190712",title:"Prof.",name:"Ingrith",surname:"Miron",slug:"ingrith-miron",fullName:"Ingrith Miron"},{id:"194284",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",surname:"Trandafir",slug:"laura-trandafir",fullName:"Laura Trandafir"}],corrections:null},{id:"53011",title:"Multimodal Lifestyle Intervention: Outlines and Outcomes",doi:"10.5772/66371",slug:"multimodal-lifestyle-intervention-outlines-and-outcomes",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multimodal lifestyle intervention is an essential step in obesity management. This chapter will discuss the structure and components of a proper multimodal lifestyle intervention. The setting for suppling this intervention is preferred to be served by a multidisciplinary team in a secondary care setting, but primary healthcare or even online setting is effective. The results of this type of holistic intervention are much more promising than single-discipline outcome. Success rates of intensive multimodal lifestyle intervention are growing to make it as a potential alternative to bariatric surgery in selected morbidly obese cases. However, this intervention has some limitations such as unpredicted outcomes and high dropout rates. Future studies should augment its curing effects and address the underlying mechanisms.",signatures:"Mahmoud M. A. Abulmeaty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53011",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53011",authors:[{id:"190647",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Abulmeaty",slug:"mahmoud-abulmeaty",fullName:"Mahmoud Abulmeaty"}],corrections:null},{id:"51636",title:"Physical Activity and Obesity in Adults",doi:"10.5772/64672",slug:"physical-activity-and-obesity-in-adults",totalDownloads:3364,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Both obesity and physical inactivity are global health problems responsible for the risk increment of non-communicable diseases. Obese individuals usually cannot perform the recommended level of physical activity because of their low physical fitness and comorbidities. The purpose of this chapter is summarizing and evaluating the effects of physical activity on obesity. The author also focuses on the association between non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) and obesity. The author has reviewed 13 systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of physical activity on obesity. Exercise is essential for the management of obesity. However, exercise alone is not sufficient for long-term weight loss and improving cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. Diet seems to be more effective for treating obesity than exercise. On the other hand, exercise improves cardiorespiratory fitness and skeletal muscle fitness, which leads to prevent sarcopenic obesity in the elderly. Exercise therapy should be performed in conjunction with diet therapy to improve obesity. NEAT is the main determinant of variability in daily energy expenditure, which considerably contributes to weight change in humans. The current evidence regarding NEAT is limited; however, NEAT appears to be effective for the management of metabolic diseases as well as weight loss. To reveal the optimal mode of physical activity and to elucidate the effects of NEAT on health beyond weight lowering, further well-designed studies are warranted.",signatures:"Hidetaka Hamasaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51636",authors:[{id:"190631",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",surname:"Hamasaki",slug:"hidetaka-hamasaki",fullName:"Hidetaka Hamasaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"52262",title:"Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Obese Pediatric Population: Relation to Serum Leptin Concentrations",doi:"10.5772/65098",slug:"prevalence-of-metabolic-syndrome-in-obese-pediatric-population-relation-to-serum-leptin-concentratio",totalDownloads:1561,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Childhood obesity represents the most relevant nutritional disorder in our environment. This study examines the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in an obese pediatric population and its relation to serum leptin concentrations. A cross-sectional clinical and metabolic study was accomplished in a group of 106 obese children (47 males and 59 females). Patients were classified into prepubertal group (Tanner stage I) and pubertal group (Tanner stages II–V). Prevalence of insulin resistance [homeostasis model assessment (HOMA)], hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and arterial hypertension (HTA) was 38.7, 45.3, 28.3 and 33.8%, respectively. Metabolic syndrome prevalence (30.2%) was significantly higher in the pubertal group (38%) than the prepubertal group (23.2%). There was a positive correlation between leptin and body mass index (BMI) (r = 0.529), leptin and HOMA indexes (r = 0.562) and leptin and triglycerides (r = 0.314). In addition, there was a positive correlation between HOMA indexes and triglycerides (r = 0.596). Clinical and metabolic disorders associated with obesity and related to the so-called metabolic syndrome are already present in pediatric population. Leptin could play an important role in the etiopathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome.",signatures:"Teodoro Durá-Travé, Fidel Gallinas-Victoriano, Leyre Lloreda-\nMartín, Alberto Ríos-Muñoz, Inés Niyubahwe and Ander Ernaga-\nLorea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52262",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52262",authors:[{id:"53819",title:"Prof.",name:"Teodoro",surname:"Durá-Travé",slug:"teodoro-dura-trave",fullName:"Teodoro Durá-Travé"}],corrections:null},{id:"52888",title:"Dietary and Hormonal Factors Involved in Healthy or Unhealthy Visceral Adipose Tissue Expansion",doi:"10.5772/65927",slug:"dietary-and-hormonal-factors-involved-in-healthy-or-unhealthy-visceral-adipose-tissue-expansion",totalDownloads:1731,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"White adipose tissue (WAT) expansion is related to the development of metabolic disorders found in obesity. WAT expansion is the result of generation of new adipose cells by activation of adipogenesis and/or the increase in adipose cell size (hypertrophy). The balance between these two processes determines whether WAT expansion occurs predominantly by hyperplasia, which means the increase in the number of adipocytes, or hypertrophy. Hypertrophic adipocytes are characterized by changes in adipokine secretion pattern, insulin resistance and altered lipid metabolism, which is the reason why WAT-hypertrophic expansion is considered unhealthy. Conversely, the generation of new mature adipocytes by adipogenesis contributes to reduction of the development of hypertrophic adipocytes and therefore maintain normal WAT functions, leading to healthy hyperplastic expansion. The adipogenic capacity of adipose tissue depends on the adipogenic potential and the number of adipocyte precursor cells. Different factors are known to regulate adipogenic process and adipose tissue function, contributing to a healthy or unhealthy expansion that occurs under positive energy balance. This chapter discusses the role of fructose intake and glucocorticoids and testosterone as regulators of adipose tissue function and expansion.",signatures:"María Guillermina Zubiría, Ana Alzamendi, Luisina Ongaro, Eduardo\nSpinedi and Andrés Giovambattista",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52888",authors:[{id:"191011",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrés",surname:"Giovambattista",slug:"andres-giovambattista",fullName:"Andrés Giovambattista"},{id:"191724",title:"Dr.",name:"María Guillermina",surname:"Zubiría",slug:"maria-guillermina-zubiria",fullName:"María Guillermina Zubiría"},{id:"191729",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Alzamendi",slug:"ana-alzamendi",fullName:"Ana Alzamendi"},{id:"191731",title:"Dr.",name:"Luisina",surname:"Ongaro Gambino",slug:"luisina-ongaro-gambino",fullName:"Luisina Ongaro Gambino"},{id:"191733",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Spinedi",slug:"eduardo-spinedi",fullName:"Eduardo Spinedi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53472",title:"Nutrition Labelling: Educational Tool for Reducing Risks of Obesity-Related Non-communicable Diseases",doi:"10.5772/65728",slug:"nutrition-labelling-educational-tool-for-reducing-risks-of-obesity-related-non-communicable-diseases",totalDownloads:1929,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Food and nutrition education is globally recognized as the most efficient tool for reducing the risks of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). For decades, different nutrition labelling formats found on the back of food packages have been used as educational tools to provide information on amounts of nutrients for preventing both under- and over-nutrition. However, these traditional panels have proven to be ineffective for consumer education due to their complexity. Other systems, so-called ‘Simplified Nutrition Labelling’, which are normally shown on the front of a food package, were then introduced as ‘Front-of-Pack, FOP’ labelling. These labelling panels normally contain only the nutrients that relate to NCDs and that should be limited for consumption. At least four types of FOP nutrition labelling panels exist, namely, nutrient specific, summary indicator, food group information and hybrids. These panels using different patterns provide consumers with three types of information: non-evaluative, evaluative or interpretative and conclusive. In this chapter, the advantages and disadvantages of different types of nutrition labelling are discussed, especially their roles in reducing the risk of obesity-related NCDs in a population.",signatures:"Visith Chavasit, Wantanee Kriengsinyos, Mayuree Ditmetharoj,\nManasuwee Phaichamanan, Kangsadan Singsoong, Prapaisri\nSirichakwal and Araya Rojjanawanicharkorn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53472",authors:[{id:"191830",title:"Prof.",name:"Visith",surname:"Chavasit",slug:"visith-chavasit",fullName:"Visith Chavasit"}],corrections:null},{id:"52533",title:"New Potential Beta-3 Adrenergic Agonists with Beta- Phenylethylamine Structure, Synthesized for the Treatment of Dyslipidemia and Obesity",doi:"10.5772/65328",slug:"new-potential-beta-3-adrenergic-agonists-with-beta-phenylethylamine-structure-synthesized-for-the-tr",totalDownloads:1755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Beta-3 adrenergic receptors have important physiological implications, being expressed in many places in the body, including brown adipose tissue. Of the effects studied in preclinical research on lipid metabolism attributable to stimulation of these receptors, we can mention the increased thermogenesis and metabolic rate in the brown adipose tissue, reduction of body weight in obese diabetic rats, lowering of intra-abdominal and subepithelial fat in nonobese and nondiabetic rats, decrease of triglyceride, and increase of HDL cholesterol levels. Carbohydrate metabolism is also changed by beta-3 adrenergic agonists, the most prevalent effects being blood glucose lowering in diabetic rats, increasing insulin secretion of the pancreas, or increasing glucose tolerance. Metabolic effects of 13 newly synthesized compounds of beta-phenylethylamine structure and reference BRL 37344 were investigated in order to identify a potential affinity for beta-3 adrenergic receptors. The antidiabetic and hypolipemiant effects were investigated on a rat model of alloxan-induced diabetes. The results demonstrated that new beta-phenylethylamine derivatives produced marked biological activity over lipid profile. All compounds have markedly decreased the values of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides and also have increased the values of antiatherogenic HDL cholesterol. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3037.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1485",title:"Applications of Monte Carlo Method in Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08abe20f1549c83cfb208c83e12ee7df",slug:"applications-of-monte-carlo-method-in-science-and-engineering",bookSignature:"Shaul Mordechai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21994",title:"Prof.",name:"Shaul",surname:"Mordechai",slug:"shaul-mordechai",fullName:"Shaul Mordechai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1025",title:"Engineering Education and Research Using MATLAB",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e4cf9f0e6d7dccba13bc8edc4bf8e70",slug:"engineering-education-and-research-using-matlab",bookSignature:"Ali H. Assi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12279",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Assi",slug:"ali-assi",fullName:"Ali Assi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41128",title:"Enhancing Soil Fertility for Cereal Crop Production Through Biological Practices and the Integration of Organic and In- Organic Fertilizers in Northern Savanna Zone of Ghana",doi:"10.5772/53414",slug:"enhancing-soil-fertility-for-cereal-crop-production-through-biological-practices-and-the-integration",body:'In Ghana, it has been estimated that 60 % of the population makes their living from subsistence farming with an average of 27% living in extreme poverty (MoFA, 2002). This is because the most dominant economic activity of the area is agriculture and once agriculture is not well developed, one of the effects is poverty. As observed by many, one of the characteristics of underdeveloped agriculture is the dominance of subsistence farming in these regions (MoFA, 2002, RELC 2004). The slow economic growth and high poverty level prevailing in Northern Ghana (Upper East, Upper West and the Brong-Ahafo regions) is therefore directly linked to the underdeveloped agricultural sector of the area.
The most affected area in the country is Northern Ghana as it is estimated that up to 80% of the population in this part of the country is poor (Ekekpi and Kombiok, 2008). The many agricultural interventions to transform the small scale farming system and reduce poverty in northern Ghana have largely failed due to several problems such erratic rainfall and poor soils. Further analysis of the northern Ghana agricultural sector problems indicates that poor soils result in low crop yields which are negatively affecting the development of Agriculture (RELC, 2005).
It is therefore not surprising that low soil fertility has always been mentioned by farmers as one of the constraints affecting cereal production in Northern Ghana (RELC, 2005). This is confirmed by the fact that low grain yields of cereals attributed to poor soils for the past decade has been ranked first among the constraints collated from all the districts of northern Ghana at the various regional planning sessions.
The low soil fertility in this part of the country is therefore blamed on the bush fires which usually occur annually during the dry season commencing from October to April the following year (SARI, 1995). This situation renders the soil bare exposing it to both wind and water erosion in the dry and rainy seasons respectively thereby depleting the macro-nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK) and organic matter from the soil.
Initially, farmers used to replenish the soil with its nutrients by practicing shifting cultivation or land rotation. However, with the increase in population which has put pressure on land use, this practice is not being sustained and this therefore calls for other measures to maintain soil fertility for sustainable crop production in the savanna zone of Ghana.
The purpose of this chapter is therefore to expose to Agricultural science teachers/trainers, scientists and farmers:
to the available soil fertility enhancing practices applicable in the Savanna zone of Northern Ghana.
To discuss and recommend for adoption the most proven practices involving organic and in-organic materials either by applying each individually or the combination of both in the management of soil fertility for crop production in the Savanna zone of Ghana.
Materials used were the various works done in the area of soil fertility management in the Savanna regions within the sub-Saharan Africa. These are published books, journal papers, annual reports and technical reports. It also included works done by the author, students dissertation supervised by the author and personal experiences gathered. Success stories from other interventions by the Government and Non-governmental Organizations implemented in the form of projects to raise soil fertility status in the zone were also considered. All were reviewed, discussed and conclusions drawn from the results of these various practices.
The various interventions being practiced within the Sub-region to enhance or maintain the soil fertility status include the manipulating of the crops planted (cropping systems) in the area. Others are land rotation, conservation agriculture and the application of different types of soil fertility enhancing materials and the integration of some or all of these as a single treatment. The difficulties associated with adoption of these practices will also be outlined. Some of these are:
It is a crop production system based on rotation of cultivated period on a given piece of land. The cultivated period is always shorter than the fallow period because the system is characterized by the use of very little or no external soil fertility improving inputs. The soil fertility is therefore recovered by a natural process which is often very slow. The length of fallow period is determined by land availability but can last between 10 and 20 years after which the vegetation is cut back to allow another cycle of farming activities(EPA, 2011). This is no longer practiced because of the scarcity of arable land as a result of high growth in population of the country.
The practice of planting certain crops to cover the cultivated area of fallow land thereby providing protection for the purpose of reducing erosion by rain drop splash and surface runoff and weed growth is referred to as cover cropping. Where necessary, cover crops are cut down or killed by weedicides so that the seasonal crops can be planted in the mulch.
Improved short fallow is the planting of leguminous cover crops consciously with the objective of protecting the soil surface and fixing nitrogen as part of the crop fallow. The system is practiced where land is limited and farmers rely on little or no external soil enhancing materials to improve the soil fertility status. Examples of cover crops
Improved fallow systems using e.g.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1-Residue not removed /No till 2-Residue removed/No till 3-Residue worked in by hoeing 4-Residue removed/hoeing Mean | \n\t\t\t4110 3043 3542 3249 3486 | \n\t\t\t4630 3825 5176 4249 4470 | \n\t\t\t4370 3434 4359 3749 3978 | \n\t\t
Maize Yield (kg/ha) under 4 different Management Practices after 2 years of
Source: Kombiok et al 1995
In the wetter southern parts of the country,
Similarly, in a 2-yr study on a typical plinthic Planleustalf in the savanna zone of Ghana, Kombiok and Clottey (2003) found that maize grain yields obtained after two years of interplanting
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Control 6 WAP 8 WAP 10 WAP | \n\t\t\t1800 a 1500 b 1130 c 1100 c | \n\t\t\t1180 b 1620 a 1110 b 1530 a | \n\t\t\t1050 d 1850 a 1650 b 1250 c | \n\t\t
Maize grain yield as affected by time of interplanting mucuna in maize and after two years of continuous mucuna
1For a factor. means followed by a similar letter in a column are not significant at 5% level of significance
2WAP. Weeks after planting
Source: Kombiok and Clottey 2003
In some cases where weed infestation is high, farmers still have to do one weeding. After establishment, the
In places where rice cultivation is significant, farmers have developed and adapted
A cropping system may be defined as a community of plants which is managed by a farm unit to achieve various human goals (FAO, 1995). In this particular case the cropping system is to achieve an enhanced soil fertility status for increased crop production.
It is the growing of different arable crops and /or other crops on a given piece of land at the same time. The aim is to increase the productivity from the land while providing protection of the soil from erosion. Growing more than one crop at the same time also cushions the farmer against total crop failure as adverse growing conditions might not affect the different crops equally-
Some of the reasons advanced for the persistence of this system of cropping have been precautions against uncertainty and instability of income and unstable soil fertility maintenance (Abalu, 1977). In most of the intercropping trials implemented in the sub-region the results of the crop yields showed that there have been agronomic advantages in the practice since the Land Equivalent ration (LER) is always more than one (1). In addition to the agronomic advantage in terms of yield associated with intercropping systems, a substantial amount of N is also fixed by the leguminous component of the system (Table 3).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Sole | \n\t\t\t2734 | \n\t\t\t2400 | \n\t\t\t1401 | \n\t\t\t1153 | \n\t\t\t40.47 | \n\t\t\t62.42 | \n\t\t
Inter | \n\t\t\t1069 | \n\t\t\t1731 | \n\t\t\t954 | \n\t\t\t544 | \n\t\t\t30.20 | \n\t\t\t34.74 | \n\t\t
Intra | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t1938 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t473 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t28.72 | \n\t\t
SE | \n\t\t\t124 | \n\t\t\t111 | \n\t\t\t52 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t6.08 | \n\t\t\t10.89 | \n\t\t
LSD (0.05) | \n\t\t\t398 | \n\t\t\t355 | \n\t\t\t166 | \n\t\t\t91 | \n\t\t\tNS | \n\t\t\tNS | \n\t\t
Grain yields (kg ha-1) of maize and cowpea and percent N fixed as affected cropping Systems 2000 and 2001
Source: Kombiok et al 2005
It was found that more than 50% N was fixed by the component cowpea in maize cowpea mixture. This is very beneficial to the farmers since the cereal crop component of the system will benefit from this N fixed if the legume matures earlier than the cereal. Secondly, there will also be a residual N left in the soil for use by any subsequent crop grown on the same piece of land in the next cropping season.
Cereal production in Ghana, especially northern Ghana is limited by low levels of nitrogen in the soil. Strategies such as intercropping/mixed cropping and crop rotations involving cereals and legumes have been adopted to raise crop yields as they fix substantial amounts of atmospheric N, can provide large amounts of N-rich biomass. Legumes grown as a food crop or live mulch (cover crop) can be successfully rotated with a crop which produces high biomass or intercropped with tree species (e.g. alley cropping) in order to provide N, enhance organic matter content and agroforestry. The amount of N returned from legume rotations depends on whether the legume is harvested for seed, used for forage, or incorporated as a green manure.
Crop rotation entails the growing of different crops in a well defined sequence on the same piece of land- Changing the type of crops grown in the field each season or year. Eg; a field could be planted to maize in the major season as in the south of Ghana and after harvesting, the same field is planted to cowpea in the minor season of the year. In the savanna region this will be done yearly since there is only one rainy season/cropping season in a year.
Crop rotation forms a central pillar of CA, and many approaches highlight the use of cereal–legume rotations. Rotations allow crops with different rooting patterns to use the soil sequentially, reduce pests and diseases harmful to crops and sustain the productivity of the cropping system. The most widely grown legumes in the farming systems of Ghana are the grain legumes; groundnut, cowpea and soybean. These crops have the advantage over other legumes in that they provide a direct economic yield for food or for sale. Yet unless there is a ready market for the grain, farmers tend to grow grain legumes on only a small proportion of their land, and certainly not sufficient to provide a rotation across the farm. Analyses in northern Ghana, where farmers indicated their normal rotation is cereal/legume, showed that the actual area sown to the legume was often less than 30% of the farm area. Further investigation indicated that crop rotations tended to be practiced more on the fertile ‘homefields’ than on the poorer outfields.
The yield response of cereal crop following a legume can be substantial. In Ghana, the grain yield of sorghum crop following groundnut averaged 30-40% higher than the yield of continuous sorghum (Schmidt and Frey, 1992; Buah, 2004). Horst and Härdter (1994) showed large maize yields in northern Ghana following cowpea. In all the cases, crop residue was not removed from the field after harvest. Nonetheless, crop residues are often removed from the field at harvest so they do not provide the mulch cover wanted for CA. Various field experiments have shown that crop rotation of maize with various legumes was beneficial for maize production and that maize following groundnut often had the greatest yields when compared with maize following other legumes (Härdter, 1989; Horst and Härdter, 1994; Schmidt and Frey, 1992). Cotton-maize rotation is the most common rotation system in the northern part of Ghana. Cotton, even though not a legume, its production is accompanied by the application of inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals. Maize is therefore planted after cotton to take advantage of the residual fertilizers applied in the previous year. Farmers have reported increases in maize yields in the north by several tons per hectare as a result of cultivating maize after cotton in a rotation system. In southern Ghana where there are two cropping seasons, maize is planted in the major season (April-June) and an edible legume such as cowpea or a cover crop (
A legume as a candidate crop in intercrop systems is again being encouraged because of the same reason as above. In the northern part of Ghana where the soils are low in both organic matter and essential nutrients, farmers intercrop cereals with legumes. The most common intercropping systems in this area are maize/cowpea, millet/cowpea, and maize/soybean. In some cases, both in the north and south of Ghana cover crops such as
One approach that has proved to be inherently attractive to farmers and is standard practice in most parts of northern Ghana is intercropping maize or sorghum with the grain legume cowpea or groundnut. If cowpea is sown between maize rows, the plant population and yield of maize can be maintained, whilst reaping the advantage of yield from the cowpea harvest. There is high labour requirement in the practice of intercropping because more than one crop is being planted at a time. So, labour is required for planting the component crops and for the careful control of weeds in the system. Insecticides are needed for the control of insect pests on the legume component either being rotated or intercropped.
Pigeon pea is an ideal legume for intercropping with cereals. Its slow initial growth affords little competition with the cereal for light or water, and it continues growing into the dry season after the maize crop has been harvested. The leaves that fall from pigeon pea before harvest provide a mulch and can add as much as 90 kg N/ha to the soil that then mineralizes relatively slowly during the subsequent season, releasing N for the next maize crop (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 2007). Thus a substantial rotational benefit, although not a perfect soil cover, can be achieved for the next season.
Conservation Agriculture (CA) is described as a set of practices or procedures carried out that ensure higher agricultural productivity and profitability whilst improving soil health and environment. It is known to be hinged on three basic principles which are (i) Little or no disturbances of the soil, (ii) The soil should have a cover all year round and (iii) the crops should be in rotation from season to the other or in intercropping situations.
Conservation Agriculture was introduced into Ghana in the early 1970s, mostly through donor funded Agricultural projects. Even though results in terms of crop yields from the various on-farm experiments have been found to be higher than the yields from the traditional slash and burn method of farming, it has not been easy to convince farmers to adopt the practice holistically. Generally the adoption of CA by farmers in Ghana is therefore low and those who are said to have adopted CA may either be practicing one or two of the principles of CA such as no-till, no-till with intercropping but not all the three principles of the practice. Comparatively, climatic and weather conditions in the southern part of the country favour the adoption of some of these principles. For example, the rainfall system in the south is bi-modal with only a dry period of less than three months. This allows the growth and development of vegetation all year round and therefore not prone to bush fires. The decay of these vegetative matter when killed by weedicide, will go a long way to enrich the soil with its nutrients.
On the other hand, the northern part of Ghana has only one rainy season which commences in late May and ends in early November with a dry period of about five months which is characterized by the Hamattan winds. During the dry season, the vegetative matter is dried up and therefore prone to bush fires. The occurrence of bush fires either accidentally or intentionally, clears up all the dry vegetative cover exposing the soil to the Harmattan winds in the dry season and the running water during the rainy season which robs the soil of its nutrients. It is therefore not surprising to know that farmers in the northern part of the country consider any technology that conserves soil and water such as soil bunding as a CA technology. Table 4 shows the results of a survey that was carried out to identify technologies related to CA practiced by farmers in the northern part of Ghana. Comparatively, among the districts covered, East Mamprusi recorded a higher percentage of farmers practicing some of these technologies than Lawra or Bawku which according to Ekekpi and Kombiok (2008) could be indicative of better extension services in that district.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Contour bunding | \n\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t47 | \n\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t
Crop rotation/intercropping | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t
Agro-forestry | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
Manure/refuse application | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t
Minimum tillage | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Crop residue management | \n\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t
Composting/application | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t63 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t
Organic farming | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Animal traction | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t
Rotation kraaling | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Bush fallow | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Percentage of farmer respondents on CA technologies in the savanna zone
Number of respondents = 32
Source: Ekekpi and Kombiok, 2008
Direct seeding of crops is carried out without tilling the land in most parts of Ghana. In the southern part of the country (forest zone) where vegetation exists all year round, the vegetation is slashed using a cutlass and the residue instead of burning, is left as mulch on the farm. However, in the north, the crops (maize, sorghum and millet) are planted directly on the bare soil since all vegetative matter would have been burnt during the dry season. In both cases, the crops are planted using a dibbling stick or cutlass to create holes either on the bare soil (North) or inside the mulch as in the case of the South. This is advantageous in the South since the farmer will benefit from the mulch as it will conserve soil water and eventually decay with time to add nutrients to the soil within the season. Under such a situation, the physical and biological properties of the soil are also expected to improve after the mulch decomposes. In the north however, weeding should be carried out within three weeks after planting after which fertilizer or manure would be applied to the farm since the soil is devoid of vegetative cover at planting. This is to be sure that the crops are supplied with enough nutrients and to avoid heavy weed infestation on the farm which can reduce crop yields.
Minimum tillage is the reduction in the number of times the soil is being tilled as in conventional tillage method (ploughing/harrow/ridge) before and after the crop is planted. In Ghana, most farmers have adopted the use of weedicide to reduce tillage for land preparation for crop production because of its additional benefits of reducing labour cost. Other benefits of minimum tillage include the reduction in energy costs and it enhances the organic matter content of the soil while conserving the soil.
The vegetation is either slashed or sprayed with weedicides followed by either burning the dead vegetation as done in the forest and transitional zones of Ghana before crops are planted. This implies the land is not tilled before planting. However, weeds in this system are controlled by the use of cutlasses in the south while in northern Ghana, this done by hand hoe or the use of bullocks thus reducing the number of times the soil is tilled. The use of hoe as practiced in the north in weed control helps to bury the young weeds that have just emerged after planting which easily decay and return nutrients in to the soil for crop use. The burning of the vegetation before planting the crop by farmers in the south has been discouraged since the full benefits of mulch which include improved moisture infiltration to reduce soil erosion will not be realized in such a situation (Wagger and Denton, 1992).
It is common to see farmers in northern Ghana planting annual crops such as maize, millet and sorghum on the old ridges constructed in the previous year. In the southern part of Ghana, it is the use of
In some cases, the application of pre-emergent weedicides such as Atrazine for maize production can also help to delay or avoid the use of hand hoe to remove weeds after planting of the crop. Comparing the north and south, not much fertilizer is applied in the south probably because the fertility of the soil is always improved after the mulch decomposes in the subsequent seasons. For high yields of crops in the north, application of higher rates of fertilizers is required.
Alley cropping is not widely practiced in Ghana but this is found in few places in the southern part of Ghana. It is similar to agro-forestry systems where fast growing shrubs or trees such as pigeon pea is planted in alleys while cover crops such as
The planting of alternating strips of several crops aligned on the contour in the field is known as strip cropping. It is an effective conservation measure on slope between 5 and 10%. In this case, erosion is largely limited to the row crop strip and soil removed from these is trapped in the next strip down slope which is generally planted to close growing crops.
Strip cropping involving pigeon pea has many additional advantages especially in a mixed farming situation. In northern Ghana, almost every farm family raises livestock (goats, sheep and cattle) as well as poultry in addition to crop production (SARI, 1995). It is therefore common to find strips of pigeon pea on most fields where the grain is harvested and cooked on the farm as lunch for the family. Studies have shown that the biomass of pigeon pea can be pruned over three times within a year and shade-dried to feed livestock during the dry season. Among the three pruning heights of pigeon pea at 30, 60 and 90 cm in the trial, it was found that pruning at 90 cm height for livestock, the pigeon pea would still be able to produce seed at the end of the year which would not be significantly (p<0.05) different from the plant that was not pruned (Table 5). With the exception of the pigeon pea pruned at 30 cm, which produced significant highest amount of litter, the quantity of litter produced by those pruned at 60 cm and 90 cm were similar.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | 1997 | \n\t\t\t1998 | \n\t\t\t1998 | \n\t\t\t1999 | \n\t\t\t1998 | \n\t\t
Pigeon pea (no pruning) | \n\t\t\t2.13 | \n\t\t\t4.27 | \n\t\t\t3.32 | \n\t\t\t1.16 | \n\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t
Pigeon pea (30 cm) | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t0.73 | \n\t\t\t3.42 | \n\t\t\t0.69 | \n\t\t\t0.06 | \n\t\t
Pigeon pea (60 cm) | \n\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t\t1.77 | \n\t\t\t2.80 | \n\t\t\t0.93 | \n\t\t\t0.36 | \n\t\t
Pigeon pea (90 cm) | \n\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t1.97 | \n\t\t\t2.53 | \n\t\t\t0.93 | \n\t\t\t0.62 | \n\t\t
Effect of pruning on leaf litter production, grain yield of pigeon pea and maize yield after two years of fallow in the northern Savanna zone of Ghana.
Source: Agyare et al, 2002
It was found that maize yield after two years of pigeon pea fallow was highest in 1998 at 30 cm pruning height which was followed by the pigeon pea not pruned at all in the trial. But maize yields from plots with pigeon pea pruned at 60 and 90 cm heights were similar in value but significantly lower than the yield obtained from the plots with pigeon pea pruned at 30 cm. The high maize yields at no pruning and the pruning at 30 cm height were attributed to the higher quantity of litter fall from the pigeon pea.
It was then concluded that biomass obtained from the pruning of pigeon pea up to 60 cm will be able to provide sufficient fodder that may be used to supplement livestock feeding in the dry season (Agyare et. al., 2002). This situation would not be sacrificing much in terms of soil fertility status, pigeon pea grain yield and yield of subsequent maize crop. This option makes pigeon pea a valuable leguminous shrub for short season fallow for the mixed farmer.
Agroforestry involves the integration of trees/shrubs and sometimes animal husbandry in the farming system. It combines annual crops with herbaceous perennials or trees on the same units.
Both exotic and local tree species were screened for Agro-forestry purposes in SARI as from 1985 (Table 6). The results showed that
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
0 | \n\t\t\t1397 | \n\t\t\t1397 | \n\t\t\t1533 | \n\t\t\t2240 | \n\t\t\t1227 | \n\t\t\t1987 | \n\t\t\t1625 | \n\t\t
40 | \n\t\t\t2250 | \n\t\t\t1960 | \n\t\t\t1937 | \n\t\t\t2623 | \n\t\t\t1887 | \n\t\t\t2860 | \n\t\t\t2253 | \n\t\t
80 | \n\t\t\t2203 | \n\t\t\t2643 | \n\t\t\t2333 | \n\t\t\t2630 | \n\t\t\t1833 | \n\t\t\t3180 | \n\t\t\t2471 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Maize grain yield (kg/ha) under agroforestry system at SARI.
Source: SARI, 1985
The most common of the materials used as soil fertility enhancing substances however, are the organic and in- organic fertilizers. The recommended rates of in-organic fertilizers for the production of cereals especially maize in Ghana are the basal application of compound fertilizer made up of 15 % each of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK) at planting or two weeks after planting of 2 fifty kilograms (50 kg) bags per acre. This is followed by the application of either sulphate of Ammonia or urea at 1 fifty kilogram bag (50kg bag) or twenty-five kilogram bag (25 kg bag) per acre respectively just before the tasseling of maize. However, the acquisition of these materials whether the organic or in-organic fertilizers by farmers have also been faced with a lot of challenges.
In the first place, most of the small scale farmers are poor and cannot afford the recommended rates of the in-organic fertilizers to increase their crop yields. Most often, they just purchase the quantities that they can afford which are far below the recommended rates for the crops and therefore those quantities are unable to increase their yields. As a result, their crop yields still remain low and that explains why they remain poor.
Secondly, even though almost every farm family in northern Ghana possesses few livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats and or poultry, the dung (manure) they produce is highly inadequate to fertilize an area of one acre. Most of these categories of livestock are also on free range thereby making the gathering of their dung very difficult. In addition, some of the farms are very far from their homes so carting these bulky materials to their farmlands posses another challenge.
The above situation where farmers cannot afford recommended rates of in-organic fertilizers because they are poor and they also do not have enough animal dung to fertilize their crops call for the combination of both.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t | ||
Bullock Manual \n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.98 1.06 \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.21 0.85 \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.41 0.08 \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
NPK Manure (6t/ha) 1/2 rates (manure &NPK) FP (No NPK/No manure) \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.12 0.70 1.00 0.54 \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.46 0.99 1.09 0.60 \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.30 0.16 0.37 0.24 \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Effect of tillage and fertilizer on maize grain yields at Bunkpurugu, walewale and Karaga
Source: CSIR-SARI 2007 Annual report
Studies have been conducted on the effect of tillage and fertilizers on the yield of maize for three consecutive years in three communities of the northern part of Ghana by the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI). Results confirmed that the application of the combination of half the rates of the organic and recommended in-organic fertilizers was as good as the application of the recommended in-organic fertilizers (Table 7) This suggests that, farmers with limited number of livestock or poultry can always supplement the manure they generate from these animals with half the rates of the recommended in-organic fertilizers to obtain high crop yields. The results however showed that there was no significant difference in yield of maize between the bullock and manual tillage systems indicating that any of the tillage systems will give similar maize yields.
Similarly, it has been found that the household waste generated and deposited outside the houses for several years are as rich in nutrients as the animal manure. Kombiok et al 1995 compared the yields of maize fertilized by animal dung and household waste in four communities of the East Mamprusi District of the Northern Region (Table.8).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t | |
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Yaroyili | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t3.4 | \n\t\t\t0.60 | \n\t\t
Bowku | \n\t\t\t2.7 | \n\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t1.33 | \n\t\t
Boayini | \n\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t1.06 | \n\t\t
Tangbini | \n\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t
Average | \n\t\t\t2.65 | \n\t\t\t2.68 | \n\t\t\t0.99 | \n\t\t
Effect of refuse and animal dung on the yield of maize at 4 sites in West Mamprusi District
Source: Kombiok et al 1995
The results showed that in some of the communities, the yields of maize under the animal manure and the household refuse were similar suggesting that both materials could contain similar quantity of nutrients. The use of these as soil fertility enhancing materials will not only increase crop yields but will also help to improve the sanitation status of these communities since all these heaps would be carted to the farms.
Table 9 shows the nutrient (NPK) values before and after some soil fertility enhancing interventions initiated by scientists within the Savanna zone of Ghana. The initial values of N in particular show that the highest was 0.049% and the lowest was 0.022% within this zone. These values are percent total nitrogen and not available N which means that not all these will even be available to the plant. The low N content of these soils therefore explains why yields of cereal crops are very low and in some cases no yield is obtained if no soil fertility enhancing material is applied to the soil. Results from omission trials carried out in Nyankpala for three consecutive years (2002-2005) showed that among the three major plant nutrients, nitrogen was the most limiting element for maize production (SARI, 2005)
With a minimum of two years of the various interventions however, there were increases in the nutrient (NPK) values which is indicative of the positive influence of these interventions on these elements in the soil. In most of the studies, the N values after the interventions were significantly (p< 0.05) higher than the initial N values but for P and K, there were no significant differences between the initial and after two years of intervention. The significant increases of percent N in the soil as a result of the various interventions also show how limited nitrogen is in the savanna soils.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tInitial soil N | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tInitial Soil P | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tInitial Soil K | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Intercropping | \n\t\t\t0.024 | \n\t\t\t0.043 | \n\t\t\t15.59 | \n\t\t\t11.96 | \n\t\t\t49.90 | \n\t\t\t45.65 | \n\t\t
Effect of pigeon pea pruned at 30cm | \n\t\t\t0.028 | \n\t\t\t0.095 | \n\t\t\t14.89 | \n\t\t\t19.25 | \n\t\t\t46.36 | \n\t\t\t52.85 | \n\t\t
2 years of | \n\t\t\t0.049 | \n\t\t\t0.062 | \n\t\t\t13.60 | \n\t\t\t23.90 | \n\t\t\t39.58 | \n\t\t\t42.62 | \n\t\t
The application of house hold refuse | \n\t\t\t0.022 | \n\t\t\t0.085 | \n\t\t\t14.83 | \n\t\t\t20.08 | \n\t\t\t45.60 | \n\t\t\t48.45 | \n\t\t
The application of manure (cow dung) | \n\t\t\t0.028 | \n\t\t\t0.092 | \n\t\t\t16.58 | \n\t\t\t22.65 | \n\t\t\t40.01 | \n\t\t\t44.82 | \n\t\t
Improved fallow | \n\t\t\t0.026 | \n\t\t\t0.088 | \n\t\t\t18.65 | \n\t\t\t20.80 | \n\t\t\t42.60 | \n\t\t\t46.25 | \n\t\t
Effect of different soil fertility enhancing interventions on soil NPK values within the Savanna zone of Ghana
The average cereal yields of farmers in Ghana are very low. There may be many causes to the low crop yields obtained by farmers in Ghana. These include the use of local crop varieties which are low yielding; poor management of the crop on the field (late weed removal, inadequate plant population, late harvesting) but paramount among these is low soil fertility. This is because the same variety used by farmers without adequate supply of plant nutrients have been found to yield lower than the same variety properly managed by research scientists including the provision of adequate quantities of nutrients especially nitrogen.
Table 10 shows some of the average yields of cereal crops by farmers in Ghana as against the yields obtained from properly managed fields with adequate supply of nutrients which leaves a very large yield gap of more than 40 %. Among the crops, sorghum has the largest yield gap of about 60 % with millet recording the lowest of about 30 %. Farmers in northern Ghana are of the view that sorghum does not require fertilizer for high yields and therefore do not apply fertilizer to the sorghum crop. On the other hand, the millet available are mostly local varieties and do not respond to fertilizer. With the application of fertilizers and adequate management of the millet crop, the increase in yield was just 0. 5 tons/ha compared to the rest of the crops which had increases in yield of more than 1 ton/ha.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Maize | \n\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t
Rice - rainfed | \n\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t49 | \n\t\t
Sorghum | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t
Millet | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t33 | \n\t\t
National average yields (tons/ha) of some selected cereal crops in Ghana
Source: Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA)
Conservation agriculture and some of the practices that enhance the fertility of soil for crop production have been tested on-station by research in Ghana and most of them have been found to be proven. These practices are now at the on-farm testing stages by research and the Ministry of Food Agriculture in different parts of the country. Some of these practices are either new to the farmers such as conservation Agriculture, Agro-forestry and Alley cropping or they are the improved versions of farmers’ practices such as crop rotation (alternating cereal and legumes), intercropping cereal and legumes, root crops with cereals and legumes, cover cropping. Despite the benefits demonstrated to farmers from the use of these technologies, adoption rate is very low. Some of the challenges militating against the adoption of these practices by farmers include:
Most of the farmers in Ghana do not own the land they farm on and they are therefore described as settler or migrant farmers if they come from other parts of the country and settle at that particular place. The amount of money to invest on such rented lands by these farmers will therefore depend on the length of time the land is rented for farming. A farmer with one year rent period will not be willing to invest so much on that land for farming compared to a farmer who is renting the land for over ten years. Secondly, the land owners may not even allow farmers to introduce long term investments on such short term rented lands. It will therefore be difficult for such farmers to adopt soil fertility enhancing techniques such as Agro-forestry system or even the cultivation of tree crops since this will take a long time to yield benefits to the farmer. However, It was found that the system of land tenure in the forest or the transitional zones where the farmers are allowed to use a plot for several years for farming may not have difficulties in adopting no-till as part of soil fertility management practices. This, according to Ekboir et al. (2002) if these farmers are allowed to use such lands for several years it will enable them to recoup the profits of their investments. Also, data collected on the farmers adopting any particular tillage system showed that farmers using their own lands adopted CA practices more easily than farmers on rented lands (Adjei et al. 2003).
Farmers in the forest and transition zones where share cropping arrangements exist between the settler or migrant farmer and land owners, they are encouraged to practice CA and other related practices because increase in the productivity of their crops will lead to an increase in their share of the harvest. Unlike in the north, lands are almost given out free to settler farmers and can also be seized back at anytime by land owners without any notice as there is no agreement signed between the farmers and their land owners. There are certain times land owners even seize back their lands when they find increases in crop yields of the settler farmers. In such situations, farmers in the northern Savanna zone will definitely be discouraged from adopting any of these soil fertility improving practices since the land owners do not benefit from such increases and there is also no agreement signed between them to protect the farmers from their lands being seized back.
One of the three pillars CA is hinged on is the provision of adequate soil cover and it is one of the several ways of enhancing soil nitrogen. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to provide soil cover in the northern Savanna zone of Ghana because of rampant bush fires during the dry season. The northern part of the country also houses most of the country’s livestock (goats, sheep and cattle). These animals either feed on the available crop residue left as a cover to the soil or the residues are removed and fed to them at home by the farmers. The removal of crop residue from the soil for livestock or the destruction by bush fires renders the soil bare. This exposes the soil to sunshine which is followed by erosion by the harmattan winds during the dry season and by running water at the beginning of the rainy season.
Most of the cover crops being promoted as materials for soil fertility improvement are not edible and so farmers are not very enthusiastic in adopting them for use. Most farmers therefore choose grain legumes among the range of soil fertility management practices due to the immediate provision of food (Chikowo et al., 2004; Adjei-Nsiah et al., 2007; Kerr et al., 2007; Ojiem et al., 2007). It has however been found that practices such as green manures and agro-forestry legumes even though do not provide immediate benefits, they are more efficient in providing nitrogen and mulch for subsequent crops (Giller and Cadisch, 1995). Experience has shown that farmers in the northern part of Ghana do not regard cover crops as part of their traditional crops and therefore cover crops have no significance in monetary terms to them. This explains why farmers are not adopting cover crops such as
Farmers in northern Ghana practice mixed-cropping which mostly involves cereals/legumes and cereal/cereal and this situation does not favour the inclusion of
Reports from farmers in the forest and transition zones also indicate that planting crops in no-till system is time consuming and laborious since it is by using a dibbler or a cutlass to create holes for placing the seeds. Farmers further complained that germination of seeds was negatively affected when these were planted in high amounts of soil cover. In such situations, the reduction of the soil surface mulch by partial burning becomes necessary to enhance germination which gives the farmer additional work. Other difficulties involved in planting crops under thick mulch include hidden tree stumps which could wound farmers in the process or dangerous reptiles like snakes hiding in the mulch to bite farmers during planting or weed control by hand. The introduction of jab planters reduced the time used in planting crops in the mulch but it was also dependent on the experience of the farmers.
Farmers in northern Ghana traditionally use crop residues as livestock feed, for housing, craft materials and as household energy source. Using crop residues as soil cover and organic matter replacement is therefore foreign and conflicts with the uses that they are already familiar with for several years. The use of crop residues such as millet or sorghum stover as livestock feed in the Upper East region of Ghana where farmers produce crops alongside rearing of animals is very common. In the Upper East region in particular, due to high population density in that part of the country, there is pressure on land use resulting into small farm lands. Despite the fact that common lands for livestock grazing is limited due to lack of land, farmers still rear livestock because of the high culture and economic value the natives place on livestock. Farm families keep livestock as investment and insurance against the risk of crop failure, for traction, for manure production and for milk and meat. These according to the farmers, make use of crop residue to feed livestock to take precedence over other uses. Animals are therefore allowed to feed on crop residues directly on the farm or the residues are carted home and fed to them. Some of the farmers are able to transport the manure from these crop residues consumed by the animals back to the fields others do not thereby depriving the soils of organic matter.
Of late, there have been increases in livestock numbers in the drier part of northern Ghana especially in the Upper East Region. The increase in the livestock industry in this region has also led to an increase for the demand for their feed and since they depend on crop residues for dry season feeding, residue for mulching the soil will be on the decrease. As a result of this intensification of livestock production, there is a fast developing market for crop residues in these areas which further encourage the removal of these residues for sale to raise income for the family at the expense of maintaining the fertility of the soil. In the northern Savanna zone of Ghana where most farmers practice mixed farming, it is therefore left for the individual either to use the crop residue for mulch or use the residues as livestock feed. So far, experience has shown that most of the farmers go in for the earlier option where they use the residues to feed their livestock. Farmers however, still have several options of improving the fertility of their soils for high yields. These include selling some of the livestock to buy in-organic fertilizers, returning the residue in the form of manure to the farm or in some cases when the plot sizes are small, compost is produced and applied to the crops.
Experience has also shown that in areas where livestock numbers are low such as in the forest and transition zones, the crop residues are not left as mulch but burnt as practiced in the traditional slash and burn system of farming. Apart from burning to control weeds in that system, it has also been found that burning helps to control pests and to reduce the population of rodents which tend to increase when crop residues are left on the field. Even though retention of crop residues is always advocated in CA, under situation of very high mulch content, retention is not feasible and burning to reduce it seems to be a good option.
At first sight, spraying to kill the existing vegetation in the northern Savanna zone to plant a crop as in CA system appears like no other weed will ever germinate again. However, two weeks after planting the crop, one finds a huge mass and diversity of weeds vigorously springing up thereby making the first weeding after planting very difficult and laborious since this is done by hand. At times the high infestation of weeds in such a system is due to bad selection of weedicide, low doses of the chemical and poor spraying techniques.
Rio (1992) estimated over 45 % as the annual yield loss of crops due to weed infestation in heavily infested fields. Other effects include waste of human energy in controlling weeds. It has been found that reducing tillage intensity alone as described in CA without adequately covering the soil as practiced by most farmers is one way of promoting weed infestation on their fields. In the situation whereby crops are planted haphazardly leaving some gaps, weeds quickly infest and occupy these areas making their control very difficult as this requires weeding several times by hand hoe.
Even though some farmers now know the benefits of growing cover crops as an intercrop with their cereals or in a short fallow system, seeds of these cover crops are not easily available. Few of the cover crops which have been tested and found useful for soil fertility enhancing materials are
Cover crops which are not edible as mentioned earlier are less attractive to farmers because they do not give immediate benefit to the farmer. The option of growing cover crops as short season fallows is more feasible in the transition zones where population is less dense with large farms but not in areas where there is pressure on land use and there is no fallow period permitted. Practicing no-till on bare soil with less than 10 % surface mulch as in the Savanna zone with rampant bush burning may result in reduced crop yields.
The practice of some of the soil fertility enhancing technologies such as in Agro-forestry and CA require the use of some equipments, inputs and tools. It has been observed that the required inputs such as glyphosate as used in CA land preparation are mostly not available at the appropriate time needed by farmers. At times where they are available the cost may be so high that the average farmer may not be able to afford. Agro-inputs distribution is therefore described as being poor because the right inputs are always not available at the right time needed. Chemical fertilizers which are needed to generate biomass at the beginning of CA practice in the Savanna zone have their depots located in the regional capitals of the country making it almost impossible for most of the farmers who are in rural areas. One of the difficulties involved in the implementation CA and other technologies designed to enhance crop yields may be lack of accessibility to inputs such as weedicides.
The Food Crops Development Project (financed by the African Development Bank) implemented mostly in the forest and transition zones saw the supply of inputs to project clients by some major agro-input companies. According to Boahen et al., (2007) farmers use the project as collateral to gain access to the inputs for crop production. In that system the Project sent a request to the shop to provide a certain quantity of inputs, for which the farmer pays later into a bank account created for this purpose. The Inputs and tools supplied to the farmers in this system ranged from pesticides and fertilizer to equipment and tools like knapsack sprayers, cutlasses and hoes. The above indicates that the implementation of any soil fertility enhancing technologies in Ghana by donors through projects is always successful but the systems breaks down immediately the project ends.
This calls for sustainability to be built into every project implemented to make sure that the farmers own and operate the system even after the project. Some of the suggestions given to introduce sustainability into such projects include:
Urging the farmers to form co-operatives where they can be registered and linked to financial institutions such that even after the project, the farmers can get financial assistance from such Institutions
Secondly, training of farmers on both the process and the content of the project will be very important for the visibility of the project after it has been concluded.
The donors or project implementers should always look for their local partners and work with them. This will enable the activities of the project to continue through the efforts of the local partners after the duration of the project.
Farmers in the north of Ghana have expressed their gratitude for the introduction of CA and other related technologies as labour is scarce and some of these practices are ways of reducing labour costs for crop production. Technologies such as no-till and direct seeding are practices demonstrated to the farmers of the north which are devoid of tilling the land either by hand hoe or tractors. Even though the introduction of these technologies are appropriate, the equipments and tools to go with these practices are not yet available for sale in Ghana except those used for the demonstrations. The planting of the crops in the mulch without these tools remains a challenge to the adoption of these technologies as farmers spend more time to get the seeds planted using dibblers and cutlasses. Implements like knife-rollers, rippers and no-till seeders are needed to facilitate planting in CA which are yet to be made available in the country. According to the farmers, planting is easier with dibblers or cutlasses when the soil is bare but becomes more difficult if there is a high surface mulch as in CA and the crop is to be planted in rows.
Currently in Ghana, the most common practice available for medium- and large-scale farmers is the tractor-mounted disc plough and harrow which are imported and sold to either individuals or group of farmers. However, due to the fragile nature of the Savanna soils, these equipments have been observed to be responsible for the destruction of the soil structure and increase soil erosion by running water during the rainy season. So far, the components of CA being demonstrated are targeting the small-scale farmers but if it is to be adopted by the medium and large-scale farmers, the availability of machines and equipment becomes very necessary. In order to expose the technologies to these category of farmers, there is the need to develop appropriate machinery, tools and other implements or at best adapt the existing ones, fabricate them and make them accessible to such farmers. This can be done by effectively training the local artisans and craft men/women to produce such equipments for the farmers. Even though most of these equipments are operated by tractors, if those to be produced are designed to be operated by bullocks and donkeys, it would attract many more farmers to adopt the practice.
Farmers in northern Ghana have been known to be poor probably because of the poor harvest they obtain from their crops which is traced mostly to low soil fertility and erratic rainfall. Most of them therefore lack collateral security to obtain financial assistance from these financial Institutions. Meanwhile the adoption of any soil restoration practices such as CA requires the purchase of inputs such as weedicides and fertilizers and other equipments for direct planting and spraying of the weedicides. The inability to purchase these inputs therefore means that such farmers would not be able to adopt such soil fertility enhancing practices.
The system where farmers sell their crop produce through the middlemen is one of the reasons why most of them remain poor. Prices offered to the farmers by these middlemen for their produce are so low that they are never able to pay for the cost of production. Farmers whose activities for crop production are pre-financed by these middle men suffer most as they take the produce in lieu of cash at harvesting time when prices are generally low. In addition such farmers might not easily adopt some soil fertility techniques such as CA which does not give immediate returns to the farmer.
Experience has shown that providing thick soil mulch creates a micro-climate for reptiles such as snakes that can bite farmers operating on the land without protective clothing. Most farmers also complained of the increase in scorpions and other insects which can cause significant losses to the crops planted in the mulch. Some farmers who were introduced to direct seeding in the mulch complained of poor plant stand due to damage by crickets and grass hoppers. According to the farmers, that is why they have cultivated the habit of burning the crop residues before planting. It is now well known by farmers who have ever produced cover crops such as
In the first place, in Ghana the number of extension agents of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) responsible for agricultural extension services is very low. This makes it impossible for them to have a large coverage of farmers within a specific time to effectively extend whatever new technology developed by Research. Also, the knowledge of these extension agents in the various soil fertility restorations may be low compared to other subject areas. It has been realized from experience that the knowledge and lessons learnt from the past soil fertility enhancement project have not been made use of by the agents indicating that they have not been trained in that line.
Until recently, MoFA was structured into departments such as crop and extension services departments and for soil fertility restoration technologies to be extended effectively for adoption, there is need to establish a unit to champion the activities of this subject which is neither crops nor extension services.
So far, areas with conservation Agriculture and its related practices have been traced to the existence of donor projects. The donors of all these projects have been in collaboration with MoFA with the activities carried out since the extension agents have been responsible for site and farmer selection. However, Boahen et al. (2007) reported that the number of farmers using these technologies reduced by an estimated 30% when the related projects ended. It was also found that the visits by extension agents to these project communities reduced from twice a week to once every two weeks since the project was no longer giving them fuel allowances and the associated cost of travel.
For farmers to adopt the soil fertility regeneration and maintenance practices, its extension needs to be well co-ordinated and collaborated among major stakeholders in soil health. In that way, the numerous benefits of CA can be realized and appreciated by farmers, researchers and extension staff of MoFA. So far, even though the activities of these projects have been carried out in collaboration with MoFA, data on the practice and adoption of these including CA are scanty. It has been observed that even where data exists, they may not be coherent or accurate. There are few success stories on some of the practices that can regenerate and maintain soil fertility for crop production but these are not properly packaged for extension and for policy makers. Both donors and the implementers of CA in Ghana have therefore not been able to convince policy makers the benefits of these practices for support. This may explain why the Government still imports tractors with both disc ploughs and harrows without considering the importation of equipment and tools used in CA. The adoption of CA and its related practices by farmers does not really depend on the availability of these tools and inputs; it also depends on the attitudes of all stakeholders in the supply chain such as the input dealers and manufacturers.
The Government of Ghana’s modernization of agriculture programme through the Ministry of Food and Agriculture seeks to modernize and mechanize agriculture in Ghana. This programme has begun with the importation of modern tractors equipped with new disc ploughs and harrows probably targeting the medium and large scale farmers with the neglect of the small scale farmers of less than one hectare. This situation also makes it difficult for even the donors to fund such soil fertility regeneration practices like the CA because it would be like working directly against the government’s programme. A compromise could have reached by the importation of tractors and no-till seeders and other equipments for the small scale farmer who can not afford the services of the tractor ploughing services.
The activities of research and development in producing any agricultural technology for the farmer should be seen to be improving or incorporating farmers’ indigenous knowledge and not producing modern technology that seem not to have any input from them. The adoption of any technology developed in a participatory manner among the farmer the researcher and the extension agent seem to be faster than when indigenous knowledge from the farmers are ignored. This situation calls for in-depth studies on traditional practices and the strategies farmers employ to cope with the declining soil fertility status of the savanna region. This will assist in the development of a technology that will not be difficult to extend to the farmers for adoption if the technology is built on the existing indigenous knowledge of the farmers. The introduction of the use of herbicides to kill the weeds for the planting the crop was met with happiness in some parts of the northern region of Ghana where farmers plant on the bare soil immediately after the onset of rains without tilling the soil. In another development, earth and stone bunding to control both soil and water has not been difficult to extend the technology for adoption by farmers with their farms located on steep slopes and rocky areas because they were already doing something similar before. Most of the farmers are not adopting the cultivation of cover crops such as
From experience, conservation agriculture and other related practices geared towards regenerating soil fertility for crop production had many important impacts on the lives of adopters. Practices such as Agro-forestry, use of cover crops and many more have helped in increasing grain yields of crops several folds. Also reducing the number of times the soil is tilled as in CA has helped to reduce energy and labour costs and the decay of the vegetative mater has improved soil fertility status which in several places has translated into high crop yields.
From the numerous works done in the areas of soil fertility management and other related field activities carried out in the past, showed that conservation technologies in general, is site-specific and depends on the local bio-physical and socio-economic settings. Also from the interaction with farmers, there are many important changes that CA brought to farming activities, they mentioned reduced investment in cash and labour, higher yields, easier weed and pest control, and saved time for farmers.
From the knowledge gained in the past from several desk tops research and other methods of research conducted to assess the extent which CA and other soil fertility enhancing practices have been adopted by farmers in Ghana, the following observations and conclusions have been drawn:
Farmers adopting CA in the savanna region of Ghana are faced with challenges of generating enough biomass to begin with and the control of weeds in the transitional phase of the system. Related to weed control in CA is the knowledge of the type of herbicide to use and mode of application for effective control of the emerged weeds.
In order to effectively extend CA and other practices related to soil fertility regeneration for adoption, enough information especially on cover crops and their profitability are needed. Also knowledge on how they fit into the various ecologies of Ghana, the best crop associations possible and their effects on soil fertility status, are essential for the dissemination of the cover crop technology among farmers.
It is essential to have relevant knowledge in the selection of herbicides and mode of application. The selection and timely incorporation of cover crops in the various cropping systems are also important in the practice of CA. Some of the skills required by farmers practicing CA are the ways and means of controlling rodents and other pests in order to obtain high yields.
In the Savanna zone of Ghana, it is difficult to maintain soil cover with crop residue or cover crops because of the rampant bush fires during the long dry season and the grazing of several different livestock on free range.
Tools and inputs such as seeds of appropriate types of cover crops, the required herbicides to be used in CA practices are essential requirements for the practice of CA which may not be easily available to farmers at the right time.
Some of the requirement for the practice of soil fertility regeneration technologies such as agro-forestry and growing of cover crops in improved fallows system help to raise the total cost of production. This is because these require initial land clearing in the case of the cover crop fallow, additional labour for spreading the mulch and planting through the residue, which is laborious and time wasting.
Even though direct planting without tillage in CA is said to be cheaper than conventional land preparation, due to the scarcity of herbicides at planting time, the price of the commodity is high enough to cause significant impact on cash demand of farmers during the farming season.
Manual planting by hand, using stick or cutlass on fields with mulch is more difficult and time wasting than using the same tools to plant on bare or conventionally ploughed fields.
It is important to impact basic knowledge in handling of equipment like spray machines for herbicides or application of other chemicals to farmers. Farmers’ yields can be enhanced if they are assisted in decision making on appropriate crops to be grown, rotations, record keeping and costing of each operations.
Following the observations and findings from our experiences on soil fertility management for crop production, the following recommendations are made for further observation and consideration:
Depending on the availability of ready market, emphasis on cereal-legume rotations/intercropping for CA should involve multipurpose grain and fodder legumes. The production of fodder in the system will take care of the livestock component since on the average every farm family rears animals alongside crop production in the Savanna zone of Ghana.
Training farmers on aspects of CA and introducing to them simple and appropriate CA equipment and implements will significantly enhance labour productivity and encourage many more farmers to adopt CA and other related soil fertility improvement practices.
In order for the Donor-led projects to build a good number of success stories on the various soil fertility management practices including CA, the knowledge and experience acquired over the past years should be harnessed, repackaged and used. In this way, they will be able to convince the government on the benefits, of CA and its potential to resolve food security problems and promote a sustainable source of livelihood for rural small-scale farmers.
The promotion of most of these practices of CA should go beyond the small scale farmer since there are emerging medium scale farmers who can help broaden the scope of the programme. This can be done through adaptive research targeting different groups of farmers in the different environments and socio-economic settings.
The first step in promoting CA effectively is to consider National institutions and farmers’ groups to be the driving forces of CA in the country. These groups can re-package and properly lobby the policy regularly for support.
Messages developed for extension services should be specific for the occasion and not blanket for all issues as it is now. This will assist the farmers to be able to assess their constraints and be able to opt for suitable practices that can maintain and improve soil fertility for sustainable crop production.
Both farmers and extension officers need to understand the processes through which the soil fertility can be maintained for extension to enable farmers to adopt if the practices are imported from other regions and not for adaptation alone. This is important because if the environmental factors of the place the practice is imported from are the same with the local environment, but the socio-economic setting may be different.
Intensification of the integration of cover crops and crop rotation in CA systems should be pursued and monitored since there are several cover crops and other crop varieties. This situation can lead to the reduction of pests and diseases in the CA systems.
Farmers should be encouraged to form co-operatives. This is because if the groups are well co-ordinated, agricultural policies including the regeneration of soil fertility for crop production can be well implemented
Sensing and responding to environmental stimuli is necessary for bacteria to adjust the expression of related genes and adapt to changing habitats. The two-component systems (TCSs) are the most widespread regulation system in bacteria [8]. The TCS is mainly composed of two proteins, histidine kinase (HK) and their cognate response regulator (RR) (Figure 1). Histidine kinase is a membrane protein that can sense extracellular signals and autophosphorylate its histidine. The phosphorylated HK can transfer the phosphoryl group to its cognate RR protein leading to the phosphorylation of the RR protein at the aspartate residue (Asp) and the activation of RR protein. The activated RR protein is able to change its conformation by dimerization or multimerization and regulates the expression of its target genes. In general, the RR protein can regulate gene transcription by binding to specific sequences in the promoter region of related genes located upstream of the RNA polymerase binding region.
Two-component system regulation mechanism.
Although not completely understood, the study of molecular regulation mechanisms in acidophilic bacteria has recently been progressing. In this chapter, we discuss the occurrence of the TCS in these bacteria, the regulation mechanism of sulfur and iron oxidation, and the future prospects in the TCS regulation research.
The occurrence of the TCSs in the acidophilic bacteria was compared among different species on basis of the reported TspS-TspR, RsrS-RsrR, and RegB-RegA two-component systems [7, 9, 10] (Figure 2). The sulfur oxidization (Sox) system is a critical sulfur oxidization pathway of chemotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, and the regulation of the Sox system in
Distribution of two-component system in acidophilic bacteria. The identities of corresponding protein were indicated by the percentage values with the first line of each part set as 100%. Accession numbers (GenBank) for proteins in Sox pathway are as follows,
The S4I pathway is also an important thiosulfate oxidization pathway composed of tetrathionate hydrolase (TetH) and thiosulfate: quinone oxidoreductase (DoxDA), and its regulation by the RsrS-RsrR system was reported [9, 11]. However, a similar distribution of this gene cluster was only found in
The RegB-RegA is a well-studied global redox responding regulatory system in
Hence, the TCSs are widespread in the sulfur and iron oxidization bacteria, while different distributions are revealed by bioinformatics analysis and different regulation mechanism maybe adapted, which deserves further studies.
Gene transcription is a fundamental process in bacteria, which is carried out by multi-subunit RNA polymerase (RNAP). σ factors determine transcription specificity by recognizing specific promoter sequences. Bacterial σ factors can be divided into two distinct classes: σ70 and σ54 [14]. σ70 recognizes the consensus −10 and − 35 regions and recruits RNAP to a specific promoter region to initiate gene transcription [15]. σ70 controls transcription of most housekeeping genes, whereas σ54 regulates the genes involved in nitrogen assimilation [16], phage shock response [17], infection [18], and other cellular stresses [19, 20]. σ54 recognizes distinct sequences in the −12 (GC) and − 24 (GG) regions of the promoter. The requirement of the bacterial enhancer binding proteins (bEBPs) is a remarkable feature of σ54-dependent transcription initiation [20]. Accordingly, two kinds of transcription regulation were reported in acidophilic bacteria (Figure 3).
Different TCS regulation mechanisms between the sox system and the S4I pathway. Sox system and the S4I pathway are important sulfur oxidation system in
The
The RR protein of TCS can function as the activator of σ54-dependent transcription initiation, which converts the closed RNAP-σ54 holoenzyme complex to open state to initiate transcription. σ54 -dependent RR proteins have been reported in several bacteria [21, 22, 23]. It was reported that the two-component system TspS-TspR could regulate the sulfur oxidization (Sox) system in
When
Moreover, other regulatory proteins may be involved in the regulation of these genes. The transcription factor Fur was proven to control the transcription of
Based on the reported results, the regulation model for RegBA two-component system is portrayed in Figure 4. When Fe (II) is used as the electro donor, RegB is able to sense the low potential state and activate through autophosphorylation. It then activates the RegA protein by transferring the phosphoryl group to the conserved Asp residue of RegA. Phosphorylated RegA protein multimerizes and binds to the promoter region of the target genes, which may activate iron oxidation genes by repressing the binding of other repressor proteins such as Fur for
Regulation of sulfur and ferrous iron oxidation by the TCS system. The regulation in
Two component systems possess critical roles in the regulation of sulfur and iron oxidation in acidophilic bacteria. In the sulfur oxidizing species
This work was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31900116), the Scientific and Technological Projects of Henan Province (202102310395), the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (6622320549) and the Medical Science and Technology Projects of Henan Province (LHGJ20190955).
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
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\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\n\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\n\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\n\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\n\nEXAMPLES:
\n\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
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Al Hadithi"},{id:"16314",title:"Prof.",name:"Agustin",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez",slug:"agustin-jimenez",fullName:"Agustin Jimenez"},{id:"16315",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Matia",slug:"fernando-matia",fullName:"Fernando Matia"}]},{id:"13973",doi:"10.5772/13879",title:"Fuzzy Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques Applied to a Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System",slug:"fuzzy-maximum-power-point-tracking-techniques-applied-to-a-grid-connected-photovoltaic-system",totalDownloads:3890,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"39",slug:"fuzzy-controllers-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Controllers",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Controllers, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Neson Diaz, Johann Hernández and Oscar Duarte",authors:[{id:"16158",title:"BSc.",name:"Nelson",middleName:null,surname:"Diaz",slug:"nelson-diaz",fullName:"Nelson Diaz"},{id:"18354",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Duarte",slug:"oscar-duarte",fullName:"Oscar Duarte"},{id:"18355",title:"MSc.",name:"Johann",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"johann-hernandez",fullName:"Johann Hernandez"}]},{id:"63709",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80424",title:"Energy Efficient Speed Control of Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor",slug:"energy-efficient-speed-control-of-interior-permanent-magnet-synchronous-motor",totalDownloads:1261,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"In this chapter, methods for the structural realization of a speed control system for the interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) using the “maximum torque per ampere” (MTA) and “maximum torque per volt” (MTV) optimal control strategies are considered. In the system in constant torque region, is a technique for adapting the speed controller to the presence of the reactive motor torque component, which improves the quality of the transient processes, is proposed. It is also recommended to approximate the dependence of the flux-forming current component on the motor torque by the “dead zone” nonlinearity, which will simplify the optimal control algorithm and avoid solving the fourth-degree algebraic equation in real time. For the speed control with field weakening technique, a novel system is recommended. In this system, the control algorithms are switched by the variable of the direct stator current component constraint generated in accordance with the MTA law: the upper limit is calculated in accordance with the “field weakening control” (FWC) strategy, and the lower limit in accordance with the MTV strategy. The steady-state stator voltage constraint is implemented through the variable quadrature stator current component limitation. The effectiveness of the proposed solutions is confirmed by the simulation results.",book:{id:"7485",slug:"applied-modern-control",title:"Applied Modern Control",fullTitle:"Applied Modern Control"},signatures:"Olga Tolochko",authors:[{id:"249845",title:"Dr.",name:"Tolochko",middleName:null,surname:"Olga",slug:"tolochko-olga",fullName:"Tolochko Olga"}]},{id:"62036",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78786",title:"Development of a Genetic Fuzzy Controller and Its Application to a Noisy Inverted Double Pendulum",slug:"development-of-a-genetic-fuzzy-controller-and-its-application-to-a-noisy-inverted-double-pendulum",totalDownloads:785,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Fuzzy logic is used in a variety of applications due to its universal approximator attribute and non-linear characteristics. The tuning of the parameters of a fuzzy logic system, viz. the membership functions and the rulebase, requires a lot of trial and error. This process could be simplified by using a heuristic search algorithm like genetic algorithm (GA). In this chapter, we discuss the design of such a genetic fuzzy controller that can control an inverted double pendulum. GA improves the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) with each generation during the training process to obtain an FLC that can bring the pendulum to its inverted position. After training, the effectiveness of the FLC is tested for different scenarios by varying the initial conditions. We also show the effectiveness of the FLC even when subjected to noise and how the performance improves when the controller is tuned with noise.",book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Anoop Sathyan and Kelly Cohen",authors:[{id:"200834",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen",slug:"kelly-cohen",fullName:"Kelly Cohen"},{id:"243285",title:"Dr.",name:"Anoop",middleName:null,surname:"Sathyan",slug:"anoop-sathyan",fullName:"Anoop Sathyan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"75699",title:"Data Clustering for Fuzzyfier Value Derivation",slug:"data-clustering-for-fuzzyfier-value-derivation",totalDownloads:292,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The fuzzifier value m is improving significant factor for achieving the accuracy of data. Therefore, in this chapter, various clustering method is introduced with the definition of important values for clustering. To adaptively calculate the appropriate purge value of the gap type −2 fuzzy c-means, two fuzzy values m1 and m2 are provided by extracting information from individual data points using a histogram scheme. Most of the clustering in this chapter automatically obtains determination of m1 and m2 values that depended on existent repeated experiments. Also, in order to increase efficiency on deriving valid fuzzifier value, we introduce the Interval type-2 possibilistic fuzzy C-means (IT2PFCM), as one of advanced fuzzy clustering method to classify a fixed pattern. In Efficient IT2PFCM method, proper fuzzifier values for each data is obtained from an algorithm including histogram analysis and Gaussian Curve Fitting method. Using the extracted information form fuzzifier values, two modified fuzzifier value m1 and m2 are determined. These updated fuzzifier values are used to calculated the new membership values. Determining these updated values improve not only the clustering accuracy rate of the measured sensor data, but also can be used without additional procedure such as data labeling. It is also efficient at monitoring numerous sensors, managing and verifying sensor data obtained in real time such as smart cities.",book:{id:"9976",slug:"fuzzy-systems-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Systems",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Systems - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"JaeHyuk Cho",authors:[{id:"329648",title:"Prof.",name:"JaeHyuk",middleName:null,surname:"Cho",slug:"jaehyuk-cho",fullName:"JaeHyuk Cho"}]},{id:"62600",title:"Introductory Chapter: Which Membership Function is Appropriate in Fuzzy System?",slug:"introductory-chapter-which-membership-function-is-appropriate-in-fuzzy-system-",totalDownloads:1923,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:null,book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Ali Sadollah",authors:[{id:"147215",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Sadollah",slug:"ali-sadollah",fullName:"Ali Sadollah"}]},{id:"63216",title:"The Design and Development of Control System for High Vacuum Deoxygenated and Water-Removal Glove Box with Cycling Cleaning and Regeneration",slug:"the-design-and-development-of-control-system-for-high-vacuum-deoxygenated-and-water-removal-glove-bo",totalDownloads:1064,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This study proposed a high vacuum deoxygenated and water removal glove box control system. Through parameter setting, the system can automatically perform various glove box cleaning operations and quickly reach the micro-oxygen and micro-water concentration requirements. In addition, two sets of reaction tanks are built in the system, and the hardware pipeline switching design and monitoring software control are used to provide two sets of reaction tanks to execute the cycling cleaning and cycling regeneration operation procedures synchronously, which can effectively solve the problem of interruption of the experimental process, improve the efficiency of its cleaning operations, and greatly reduce the manpower and material costs of the glove box operation. In addition, the system can automatically record the relevant data during various operations for the analysis of glove box monitoring effectiveness.",book:{id:"7485",slug:"applied-modern-control",title:"Applied Modern Control",fullTitle:"Applied Modern Control"},signatures:"Ming-Sen Hu",authors:[{id:"248986",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ming-Sen",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"ming-sen-hu",fullName:"Ming-Sen Hu"}]},{id:"63072",title:"Fuzzy Controller-Based MPPT of PV Power System",slug:"fuzzy-controller-based-mppt-of-pv-power-system",totalDownloads:1923,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The power demand has been increasing day by day due to population growth, new industrial development, etc. Meeting power demand is one of the challenge factors for fossil fuel-based power generation alone as well as the environmental issue of carbon footprint. Consequently, there is a need to concentrate on alternate energy sources to meet the power demand. In this chapter, the photovoltaic (PV) cell operation under various weather conditions is analysed, and based on the performance, the MPPT controller is developed by using fuzzy logic controller. The proposed system has been modelled in MATLAB environment, and the system performance has been analysed. Finally, the simulation results are evaluated and compared with IEEE 1547 standard for proving the effectiveness of the proposed system.",book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"M. Venkateshkumar",authors:[{id:"243101",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Mven",slug:"m-mven",fullName:"M Mven"}]},{id:"62654",title:"Fuzzy Information Measures with Multiple Parameters",slug:"fuzzy-information-measures-with-multiple-parameters",totalDownloads:952,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Information theory deals with the study of problems concerning any system. This includes information processing, information storage, information retrieval and decision making. Information theory studies all theoretical problems connected with the transmission of information over communication channels. This includes the study of uncertainty (information) measures and various practical and economical methods of coding information for transmission. In this chapter, the introduction of a new generalised measure of fuzzy information involving two real parameters is given. The proposed measure satisfies all the necessary properties of being a measure. Some additional properties of the proposed measure have also been studied. Further, the monotonic nature of generalised fuzzy information measure with respect to the parameters is studied and validity of the same is checked by constructing the computed tables and plots on taking different fuzzy sets and different values of the parameters. Also, a new generalised fuzzy information measure involving three parameters has been introduced.",book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Anjali Munde",authors:[{id:"254393",title:"Dr.",name:"Anjali",middleName:null,surname:"Munde",slug:"anjali-munde",fullName:"Anjali Munde"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"721",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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