\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8427",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"To prevent bacterial adherence, invasion and infection, antimicrobials such as antibiotics are being used and vastly researched nowdays. Several factors such as natural selection, mutations in genes, the presence of efflux pumps, impermeability of the cell wall, structural changes in enzymes and receptors, biofilm formation, and quorum sensing cause microorganisms to develop resistance against antimicrobials. Isolates that synthesize extended spectrum-β-lactamases (ESBL), induced β-lactamases (IBL), carbapenamases, metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs), and New Delhi metallo-β-lactamases (NDM) have emerged. Determining virulence factors such as biofilms and the level of antimicrobial activities of antimicrobial agents alone and in combination with appropriate doses against microorganisms is very important for the diagnosis, inhibition, and prevention of microbial infection. The goal of this book is to provide information on all these topics.",isbn:"978-1-78985-790-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-789-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-103-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78751",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0fdedc9bf6c23241235a0ae011c0304c",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",publishedDate:"April 3rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8427.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21362,numberOfWosCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:75,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:152,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 28th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 18th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 17th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 4th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179460/images/system/179460.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Kırmusaoğlu, PhD, is an assistant professor of Microbiology\nat the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, T.C. Haliç\nUniversity. She specialized in Microbiology at Abant Izzet Baysal\nUniversity (Biology Department), Turkey. Her previous experience\nincludes laboratory manager at microbiology laboratories in several\nresearch and private hospitals. Throughout her career, she collaborated\nwith academicians/researchers from Abant Izzate Baysal University (AIBU), Middle East Technical University (METU), and Istanbul\nUniversity Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, and has participated in various research projects.\nDr. Kırmusaoğlu’s research interests include medical microbiology, pathogenic bacteria, bacterial biofilms, antibiofilm and antibacterial activity, bacterial drug resistance, pathogen–host interactions, pathogenesis, molecular microbiology, and microbiota. She has published several international research articles, books, book chapters, and congress proceedings.\nShe is also the editor of Disinfection, Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibacterial Control,\nand Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods\npublished by IntechOpen. In addition to these, she wrote the book Genel Biyoloji Laboratuvar\nKılavuzu (General Biology Laboratory Manual) published by Hipokrat Publisher.\nShe has contributed to a chapter translation of the book Sherris Medical Microbiology\nby Ryan et al. as one of the translation authors of Sherris Tıbbi Mikrobiyoloji, which is a\nTurkish translated book edited by Prof. Dr. Dürdal Us and Prof. Dr. Ahmet Başustaoğlu.",institutionString:"Haliç University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Haliç University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"897",title:"Pharmaceutical Microbiology",slug:"pharmaceutical-microbiology"}],chapters:[{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85211",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65914",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65914",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64597",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82303",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:1244,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) pose an emerging threat to public health sector worldwide. They are one of the potent nosocomial pathogens and cause variety of infections including pneumonia, septicaemia, wound infections, urinary tract infections and catheter-associated infections. From the last two decades, these pathogens are becoming more powerful due to the acquisition of resistomes on different types of plasmids and transposons. There are four main mechanisms of antibacterial resistance such as efflux pump, target alteration, membrane permeability and notably enzymes hydrolysis. K. pneumoniae produce different types of enzymes but most importantly extended spectrum-β-lactamase (ESBL), carbapenemase and metallo-β-lactamase (MBL). K. pneumoniae carbapenemases (KPCs) and New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM) producing isolates displayed resistance not only against the β-lactam drugs (penicillins, cephalosporins and carbapenems) but also to other classes of antibiotics (aminoglycosides and quinolones). Therapeutic options available to treat serious infections caused by these extensively drug-resistant pathogens are limited to colistin, tigecycline and fosfomycin. Hence, combination therapy has also been recommended to treat such bacteria with clinical side effects, therefore, new treatment regime must be required. Moreover, we are relying on conventional diagnostic tools, however, novel techniques must be required for robust identification of multi-drug-resistant bacteria.",signatures:"Muhammad Usman Qamar, Muhammad Hidayat Rasool, Shah Jahan,\nMuhammad Shafique and Bilal Aslam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64597",authors:[{id:"201590",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",surname:"Aslam",slug:"bilal-aslam",fullName:"Bilal Aslam"},{id:"229169",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Shafique",slug:"muhammad-shafique",fullName:"Muhammad Shafique"},{id:"247821",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Usman",surname:"Qamar",slug:"muhammad-usman-qamar",fullName:"Muhammad Usman Qamar"},{id:"261133",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Hidayat",surname:"Rasool",slug:"muhammad-hidayat-rasool",fullName:"Muhammad Hidayat Rasool"},{id:"261134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",surname:"Jahan",slug:"shah-jahan",fullName:"Shah Jahan"}],corrections:null},{id:"64267",title:"Alternative Approaches to Combat Medicinally Important Biofilm-Forming Pathogens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80341",slug:"alternative-approaches-to-combat-medicinally-important-biofilm-forming-pathogens",totalDownloads:1186,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bacteria have developed the capability to produce structured communities (or cluster of cells) via adherence to surface to form biofilms that facilitate or prolong their survival under extreme environmental condition. Bacterial biomass adheres to inanimate and biotic surfaces in the hospital setting as well as in the environment. In the healthcare system, the biofilm formation on medical devices allows bacteria to sustain as a reservoir and becomes more resistant to antimicrobial agents. However, biofilm formation facilitates pathogens to sabotage the host defenses that are linked to long-term retention within the host cell. Therefore, in this review, we provide some steps leading to the formation of biofilm within the host and on inanimate surfaces, also emphasizing various medically significant pathogens and debate current developments on novel approaches that aimed to prevent biofilm formations and its dispersion to patients.",signatures:"Mansab Ali Saleemi, Navindra Kumari Palanisamy and Eng Hwa Wong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64267",authors:[{id:"256712",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eng Hwa",surname:"Wong",slug:"eng-hwa-wong",fullName:"Eng Hwa Wong"},{id:"264554",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mansab",surname:"Saleemi",slug:"mansab-saleemi",fullName:"Mansab Saleemi"},{id:"264555",title:"Dr.",name:"Navindra Kumari",surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"navindra-kumari-palanisamy",fullName:"Navindra Kumari Palanisamy"}],corrections:null},{id:"62795",title:"Origin and Control Strategies of Biofilms in the Cultural Heritage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79617",slug:"origin-and-control-strategies-of-biofilms-in-the-cultural-heritage",totalDownloads:1596,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biodeterioration is defined as the undesirable change in the properties of materials caused by the activity of biological agents. This process is complex and involves alterations in the physicochemical and mechanical properties by the action of organisms and depends on the microorganisms involved, type of substrate, and environmental conditions. The biodeterioration of cultural heritage is the physical or chemical damage caused by microorganisms on objects, monuments, or buildings that belong to the cultural heritage. Among the main materials that can be affected are: stone, metal, ceramic, polymers, and other materials. Among the main undesirable effects to these materials are: discoloration, dissolution, rupture, and efflorescence among others. Biofilms represent the usual form of growth of bacteria and consist of communities of microorganisms that grow attached to an inert surface or a living tissue, surrounded by an extracellular matrix that they themselves synthesize. The importance of biodeterioration by biofilms is mainly related to changes in pH values, ionic concentrations, oxide-reduction reactions in the biofilm thickness, and in the interface with the substrate and enzymatic degradation. This chapter presents evidence of the participation of biofilms and associated mechanisms in biodeterioration as well as the main prevention and control strategies.",signatures:"Laura E. Castrillón Rivera, Alejandro Palma Ramos,\nJorge I. Castañeda Sánchez and María Elisa Drago Serrano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62795",authors:[{id:"59716",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elisa",surname:"Drago-Serrano",slug:"maria-elisa-drago-serrano",fullName:"Maria Elisa Drago-Serrano"},{id:"74103",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Castrillon Rivera",slug:"laura-castrillon-rivera",fullName:"Laura Castrillon Rivera"},{id:"208136",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Ismael",surname:"Castañeda-Sánchez",slug:"jorge-ismael-castaneda-sanchez",fullName:"Jorge Ismael Castañeda-Sánchez"},{id:"253064",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Palma Ramos",slug:"alejandro-palma-ramos",fullName:"Alejandro Palma Ramos"}],corrections:null},{id:"65644",title:"Antimicrobial Agents: Antibacterial Agents, Anti-biofilm Agents, Antibacterial Natural Compounds, and Antibacterial Chemicals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82560",slug:"antimicrobial-agents-antibacterial-agents-anti-biofilm-agents-antibacterial-natural-compounds-and-an",totalDownloads:1952,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The surge in antimicrobial resistance coupled with the decline in the antimicrobial drug pipeline calls for the discovery and development of new agents to tackle antibiotic resistance and prevent a return to a post-antibiotic era. Several factors account for resistance of microbes; some are natural and others are acquired. Natural selection, presence of efflux pumps, impermeable cell wall, biofilm formation and quorum sensing are some of the factors. Though it is difficult to outwit the pathogens, the discovery and development of compounds with pleiotropic modes or mechanisms of action different from the conventional drugs currently being used can help us tackle antimicrobial resistance. Natural products have been known to be a rich source of bioactive compounds with diverse structures and functional group chirality. Various reports indicate medicinal plants with antibacterial, anti-biofilm, efflux pump inhibition, wound healing effects or properties and others used for upper respiratory and urinary tract infections. There is an urgent need to research into natural products particularly plants for antimicrobial agents including antibacterial agents, anti-biofilm agents, antibacterial natural compounds and antibacterial chemicals. This chapter throws more light on such antimicrobials.",signatures:"Yaw Duah Boakye, Newman Osafo, Cynthia Amaning Danquah,\nFrancis Adu and Christian Agyare",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65644",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"196452",title:"Dr.",name:"Newman",surname:"Osafo",slug:"newman-osafo",fullName:"Newman Osafo"},{id:"252789",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaw Duah",surname:"Boakye",slug:"yaw-duah-boakye",fullName:"Yaw Duah Boakye"},{id:"262750",title:"Dr.",name:"Cynthia",surname:"Amaning Danquah",slug:"cynthia-amaning-danquah",fullName:"Cynthia Amaning Danquah"},{id:"262752",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis",surname:"Adu",slug:"francis-adu",fullName:"Francis Adu"}],corrections:null},{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9281,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65613",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65613",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"64272",title:"Streptomyces as a Source of Antimicrobials: Novel Approaches to Activate Cryptic Secondary Metabolite Pathways",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81812",slug:"streptomyces-as-a-source-of-antimicrobials-novel-approaches-to-activate-cryptic-secondary-metabolite",totalDownloads:1680,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Streptomyces is the most important bacterial genus for bioactive compound production. These soil bacteria are characterized by a complex differentiation cycle. Streptomyces is extremely important in biotechnology, producing approximately two thirds of all antibiotics, as well as many compounds of medical and agricultural interest. Drug discovery from streptomycetes became challenging once the most common compounds were discovered, and the system was basically abandoned by industry. Simultaneously, antibiotic resistance is increasing dramatically, and new antibiotics are required. Screening from nature is being resumed (exploring new environments, looking for elicitors, metagenome, etc.). Secondary metabolism is conditioned by differentiation; although the relationship between both has long remained elusive, differentiation as a trigger for antibiotic production remains basically unexplored. Most cultures used in screening campaigns for new bioactive molecules have been performed empirically, and workflow was extremely productive during the so-called golden age of antibiotics; however, currently there is a bottleneck. Streptomyces is still the most important natural source of antibiotics, and it also harbors many cryptic secondary metabolite pathways not expressed under laboratory conditions. In this chapter, we review strategies based on differentiation, one of the keys improving secondary metabolite production and activating cryptic pathways to face the challenges of drug discovery.",signatures:"Ángel Manteca and Paula Yagüe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64272",authors:[{id:"269991",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel",surname:"Manteca",slug:"angel-manteca",fullName:"Angel Manteca"},{id:"272633",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Yagüe",slug:"paula-yague",fullName:"Paula Yagüe"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"23",label:"women in science book program"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6148",title:"Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibacterial Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"92128a5094670f6b0c9321640f60d3a3",slug:"bacterial-pathogenesis-and-antibacterial-control",bookSignature:"Sahra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8133",title:"Pathogenic Bacteria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b26e69f94525a38ead8ac88e3c68631a",slug:"pathogenic-bacteria",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu and Sonia Bhonchal Bhardwaj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8133.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8032",title:"Staphylococcus and Streptococcus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9ddbf132ac8ea9d2a7613836e5a27ca",slug:"staphylococcus-and-streptococcus",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8032.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6601",title:"Disinfection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea121cf9b26d006bc6d7c7f92195852d",slug:"disinfection",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6601.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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\r\n\tThis book will cover the processes of the fungi that attach themselves to plant roots forming mycorrhizae, the mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi are symbiotrophic mutualists, meaning that they grow and feed on living plant tissues without harming the host tissues. Arbuscular mycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae, and ectoendomycorrhizae will be discussed in more detail. We will cover the taxonomic classification of spore germination and biotrophism. The establishment of mycorrhizae results in a series of events coordinated by the fungus and the plant and their interactions. Therefore we will have the possibility to further explore the molecular and biochemical signals of mycorrhization, its intra and extra root signals, and their occurrence. Furthermore, we want to address the availability of nutrients in the soil according to its characteristics and those of the host plants. Finally, we will address the characteristics, use, and management of the soil for a better symbiotic association between the fungi and the roots. Thus, a better response to the growth of the host plants will be observed in this book.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-090-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-089-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-091-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"dddc237ff52d11c9acbfbd488686336b",bookSignature:"Dr. Rodrigo De Sousa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12144.jpg",keywords:"Fungi, Glomeromycota, Arbuscular Mycorrhizae, Ectomycorrhiza, Ectoendomycorrhizae, Obligatory Biotrophs, Quiescence, Symbiosis, Occurrence of Mycorrhiza, Stimulation of Plant Growth, Nutrient Use Efficiency, Mycorrhizal Dependence",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 4th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. de Sousa is a researcher on alternative sources of fertilizers in Brazil. He obtained a Ph.D. in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition from the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil. Dr. de Sousa completed an internship at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"297508",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"De Sousa",slug:"rodrigo-de-sousa",fullName:"Rodrigo De Sousa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297508/images/system/297508.jpg",biography:"Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa obtained an undergraduate degree in Agronomic Engineering and a master’s in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition from the Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil, in 2016 and 2018, respectively. He obtained a Ph.D. in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition from the University of São Paulo (USP). From 2014 to 2015, he studied at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, USA. He also completed an internship at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, USA, in 2015, for which he studied the management of nitrogen fertilization in corn crops. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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In fact, there is a significant increase in nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical products, based on natural compounds. The main interest has been observed for natural substances with strong antioxidant activity because oxidative stress induced by multiple factors is the main cause of many pathological conditions such as inflammation, cancer, coronary heart disease and even skin aging. Also, there has been a significant consumer interest in health enhancing the role of specific foods or physiologically active food components.
\nUnsaturated lipids have been widely recognized for their role in the maintenance of human health. These lipids, especially those from the omega-3 (ω-3) series, have been linked to inhibitory effects on atherosclerosis cardiovascular and Alzheimer’s diseases [1–3]. However, the use of such lipids remains strongly limited due to their high susceptibility to autoxidation. To overcome this difficulty, a lot of researches have been carried out focusing on the development and the use of antioxidants that could delay or even prevent omega-3 lipid oxidative degradation. In this context, natural plant phenols were perceived by many researchers as potential substitutes for controversial synthetic antioxidants; however, the major drawback of these compounds is their low solubility in matrices that strongly restrains their use in food applications [4, 5].
\nThe hydrophilic nature of phenolic compound reduces their effectiveness in oil-based formulae and emulsions [6]. The synthesis of more lipophilic derivatives, especially esters, could help to increase their lipophilicity and then their interactions with lipidic phases that need to be stabilized. To achieve this goal, acylation with fatty acids appears as a promising way (lipophilization) that could extend the scope of application of phenolic antioxidants in lipid-rich food matrices. When applied to polyunsaturated lipids, this approach is expected to provide stable ingredients with high nutritional value and high antioxidant potential. Additional effects could be an increased bioavailability of phenols as well as cumulative and even synergistic biological activities [7, 8].
\nMany studies reported the enzymatic synthesis of phenolic lipids based on the ability of lipases to catalyze the acylation of phenolic compounds with either fatty acids or triacylglycerols (TAGs) [9–13]. Main advantages of enzyme-catalyzed processes include the use of mild reaction conditions that limit substrate degradation and high selectivity that avoids the production of undesirable compounds and facilitates further purification protocols [14].
Dietary fat is an essential component for digestion, absorption, and transport of fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals, such as carotenoids and lycopenes. Dietary fat contributes approximately 34% of the energy in the human diet. Because fat is a main source of energy (9 kcal/g), humans are able to obtain adequate energy with a reasonable daily composition of fat-containing food item products.
\nFatty acids are classified as saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). The essential fatty acids (EFAs) refer to those polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that must be provided in our food because these EFAs cannot be synthesized in our body, and they are necessary for a good health. The main two families of EFAs are omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6). ω-3 and ω-6 structures are based on the position of the double bond from the methyl (omega) terminal of the aliphatic carbon chain [1, 15]. The parent fatty acid of the ω-6 series is linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and the parent fatty acid of the ω-3 series is linolenic acid (18:3n-3.). ω-3 includes alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (Figure 1).
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Human body can synthesized omega-3 and omega-6 from linoleic acid and linolenic acid, respectively, through a series of desaturation (addition of a double bond) and elongation (addition of two carbon atoms) reactions [16]. Unlike linolenic and linoleic acid, oleic acid (18:1n-9) is consumed in substantial amounts in the Western diet and is not an essential fatty acid. There is a little eicosatrienoic acid (ETA, 20:3n-9) in cell membranes, however, probably because of the overwhelming competition from dietary linoleic acid for the relevant desaturase and elongase enzymes. The pathways for desaturation and elongation of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids are given in Figure 2.
Desaturation and elongation pathway of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids.
The ω-3 fatty acids provide a wide range of benefits from general improvements in health to protect against inflammation and disease. Several studies have indicated that the consumption of ω-3 fatty acids provides benefits in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases [1, 2]. DHA and EPA have been used in a number of small clinical trials to understand their efficacy and shown to possess immunomodulatory properties depending on their localization in different cell types. DHA is selectively incorporated into retinal cell membranes and postsynaptic neuronal cell membranes, suggesting that it plays important roles in vision and nervous system function [17–19]. DHA content in the brain may be particularly important, since animal studies have shown that depletion of DHA in the brain can be resulted in learning deficits. It is not clear how DHA affects brain function, but changes in DHA content of neuronal cell membranes could alter the function of ion channels or membrane-associated receptors, as well as the availability of neurotransmitters [20, 21]. Increasing ω-3 fatty acid intake enhances the DHA content of cell membranes, resulting in higher proportions of DHA in the body (Figure 3).
Beneficial effects of omega-3 oil for human body.
The ω-3 fatty acids are reported to associate with the brain development; also, it is important for the vision and the functions of the reproductive system. This may be due to the fact that DHA is a component of brain nerve synapses, in the eye’s retina, in the testes, and in sperms and plays a vital role in the development and functions of these organs and systems [20]. The nervous system contains approximately 35% PUFAs as its lipid content; most of which are long-chain (LC) PUFAs. In addition, higher prenatal intake of DHA has been shown to be associated with improved visual, cognitive, and motor development in offspring. Children given ω-3 PUFA-supplemented formula demonstrated enhanced visual and mental capabilities [19], while in human adults, clinical studies have suggested a low intake or inadequate. The ω-3 fatty acids possess antithrombotic properties, which in combination with their anti-inflammatory effect is likely to positively aid cardiovascular disease treatment. DHA and EPA also appear to possess anticancer and antiapoptotic effects. Additionally, these PUFAs suppress gene expression of lipogenic genes in the liver and trigger adipose fatty acid oxidation, suggesting a potential role against obesity [15, 22].
Phenolic compound is chemically defined as a substance that contains an aromatic ring containing one or more hydroxyl substitute including functional derivatives [23]. In general, phenolic compounds are present in a wide variety of food plants as esters or glycosides conjugated with other compounds, such as flavonoids, alcohols, hydroxyl fatty acids, sterols and glucosides. Phenolic compounds found in foods may be categorized accordingly to three groups, simple phenols and phenolic acids, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and flavonoids. The simple phenols include the monophenols, such as p-cresol found in berry fruits (e.g., raspberry, blackberry) and diphenols, such as hydroquinone found commonly in vanilla [5, 24].
\nPhenolic compounds play a major role in the protection against oxidation processes. The antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds can act as free radical scavengers, hydrogen donators, metal chelators and singlet oxygen quenchers [25, 26].
\nPhenolic compounds are natural antioxidants that are present in food or in the body, to delay or stop the oxidation of that substance. The main advantages of these natural antioxidant are (1) they are readily acceptable by the consumers; (2) they are considered to be safe; (3) no safety tests are required by legislation; and (4) this natural antioxidant is identical to the food which people have taken over a hundred years or have been mixing with food. Phenolic compounds are associated with nutritional and organoleptic qualities of foods from plant origin [24, 26]. Phenolic compounds at low concentration protect foods from autoxidation, but at high concentration, they can cause undesirable discoloration as a result of their interaction with the carbohydrate or protein components.
\nAmong naturally found phenolic compounds, phenolic acids are of high interest due to their potential biological properties [27, 28]. Many phenolic acids are known to be potent antioxidants through their radical scavenging activity, and due to their chemical structure, the reactivity of phenolic acids increases as the number of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups increases [29]. The consumption of fruits, vegetables, and soft drinks such as tea and coffee, which contain phenolic compounds, has been linked to lower risk of some diseases, such as cancer and CVD [30, 31]. However, the use of phenolic acids as natural antioxidants in foods and nutraceutical supplements has the limitation of low solubility in oil-based media. Nevertheless, lipase-catalyzed reactions of lipids with phenolic acids could produce structured lipids with phenolic moieties, which would have health benefits and improved solubility characteristics [32–35].
Phenolic lipids (PL) are types of fats and oils modified to improved nutritional or physical properties by incorporating phenol compound on the glycerol backbone. Phenolic lipids play an important role as antioxidant and biological active compounds, but their contents in the nature are minor, and the procedures for separation and purification are not easy, very expensive and take a long time, which makes their applications in the food or cosmetic industry very inconvenient. Consequently, the synthesis of PL has attracted more attention in recent years because it is a good way to improve the hydrophobic nature of phenolic compounds, which could be achieved by chemical or enzymatic synthesis.
\nChemical synthesis is a traditional method that is used for PL preparation. Synthesis of PL through chemical synthesis could be done by using Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction or Fisher acid catalysis esterification. These processes are generally carried out at relatively high temperatures and pressures under anhydrous conditions, using rather unspecific alkali metal or alkali catalysts. Some related works have been provided in this topic, one of them is the work of Qianchun et al. [36] about the chemical synthesis of phytosterol esters of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which could be used in different formulations of functional foods. Direct esterification of phytosterols with PUFA was catalyzed by sodium bisulfate to produce sterol esters of PUFA without organic solvent. The modeling of sodium bisulfate with superfluous fatty acids as solvents to synthesize phytosterol esters of PUFA was successfully performed with degree of esterification up to 96% and less oxidative products in the reaction process [36].
\nThe chemical esterification of flavonoids with some fatty acids was provided by [37] and its product exhibited lipophilic, antiradical and antioxidant properties. In works reported by Zhong and Shahidi [38, 39] on epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the predominant catechin in tea was structurally modified by esterification with fatty acids, including stearic acid (SA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The esterification of EGCG with these fatty acids using acylating agents, namely, the acyl chlorides, resulted in yields of 65.9, 42.7 and 30.7 for SA, EPA and DHA, respectively [39]. This esterification leads to produce various compounds that have anti-inflammatory effect and also shows higher inhibition effect against hydroxyl and peroxyl radical-induced DNA scission [38]. Phenolic lipid (PL) chemical synthesis meets some partial needs; this pattern possesses a low degree of regioselectivity and is generally accompanied by drastic reaction conditions, many intermediary stages and purification steps to remove by-products and catalyst residues. The main drawbacks to chemical transesterification are (1) non-selectivity leading to random distribution of FAs, (2) isomerization of sensitive PUFAs by the alkali catalyst, (3) production of fatty acid soaps and unwanted by-products and (4) requiring substantial post-treatment and downstream processes, especially when food applications are concerned.
The application of enzymes is widely in different fields such as pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industry. Enzymatic synthesis of PL from fats and oils is receiving a lot of attention as a method for their modification because of the advantages of milder reaction conditions, minimization of side reactions and by-product formation, a selective specificity, a wider variety of pure synthetic substrates, fewer purification steps and a more environmentally friendly process [40]. Even if enzymes may be more expensive than chemical reagents, the enzyme-catalyzed acylation is a well-mastered technique for synthesis of selectively modification of PL at present. A high degree of conversion to the desired products could be achieved under the optimal reaction conditions. The enzymatic processes can be used in the production of fats and oils containing beneficial fatty acids and phenolic compounds. Some reviews have given a comprehensive understanding and shown a whole outline on the enzymatic synthesis of PL [41–46].
\nIn particular, enzymes appear to be very effective for the synthesis of molecules involving the grafting of a lipophilic moiety or a hydrophilic one. This review will be described and discussed in some of the recent works in the field of enzyme-assisted acylation of fatty acids with phenolic compounds in order to modify the hydrophilic/lipophilic properties of the initial molecules to obtain new products with multifunctional properties combining, for example, antimicrobial, antioxidant and emulsifying properties. The enzymatic synthesis of phenolic lipids has been reported previously in Refs. [10, 45, 47–49]. A lot of enzymes can be used in the synthesis of PL and selectivity is the most important characteristics of enzymes used in phenolic lipid synthesis. Lipase is the most enzymes used in this type of process because of high selectivity, lower overall reaction time and fewer side reactions when compared with chemical methods [50]. An example of a synthesis reaction catalyzed by the lipase is shown in Figure 4. This overwhelming interest is based largely on consumers’ desire to maintain overall well-being with minimal effort and an industries’ ability to respond to this need. Furthermore, with the consumption of manufactured foods continually on the rise, there is a distinct advantage to providing more healthful choices for consumers. The concept of a natural phenolic lipid composed of a long-chain aliphatic and phenolic moiety readily fits this mold, particularly since the inclusion of unsaturated lipids into these compounds could result in additional nutritional benefits. Lipases constitute the most important group of biocatalysts for biotechnological applications.
Enzymatic synthesis reaction capsiates (fatty vanillyl alcohol acid ester) catalyzed by lipase Novozym 435® [
Lipase enzymes are defined as glycerol ester hydrolyses that can hydrolyze tri-, di-, and monoacylglycerols [52, 53]. Lipases are soluble in water as a result of their protein nature, but it could act on lipids, which are water insoluble, at the interface between oil and water [53, 54] and catalyze esterification and transesterification in addition to the hydrolytic activity on TAG [55–57]. Lipases are originated from a wide variety of sources including animals, plants and microorganisms. Animal lipases include pregastric esterase, pancreatic lipase, and lingual lipases [53]. Plants such as wheat germ and castor beans also contain lipases [58, 59]. Finally, microbial sources including yeast (
Lipase-catalyzed reactions have been gained a lot of interest over the last years; the major reason for this is that lipase can promote either ester formation or ester hydrolysis. Moreover, lipase can control the acylation and deacylation to produce specific fatty acids and triacylglycerols (i.e., phenolic lipids). Lipase-catalyzed reactions can be classified into three groups which are hydrolysis, esterification, and transesterification [65].
\nHydrolysis of lipids by lipases refers to the splitting of fat into its constituent acids and alcohols in the presence of water. Lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis can be used for the preparation of fatty acids from oils, especially for the selective hydrolysis and concentrations of PUFAs from edible oils [10]. Furthermore, lipase catalyzed hydrolysis reactions only in the presence of amount of water. This is due to the fact that water molecules participate in the breaking of covalent bond in the substrate as well as subsequent incorporation of their elements into these bonds to form reaction products [66].
\nDifferent products are determined during the extent of hydrolysis reaction as shown in Figure 5. Mixtures of monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols and free fatty acids are produced; the more complete the hydrolysis, the higher the concentration of free fatty acids in the final reaction medium. In the end of lipase- hydrolysis reactions glycerol esters-enriched in w-3 fatty acids were produced from fish oil. Reactions are ideal for removal of fatty acids from unstable oils, including conjugated or highly unsaturated fatty acids, which effectively reduce unwanted oxidation reactions [67]. Lipase catalyzed hydrolysis reactions produce glycerol esters enriched in ω-3 fatty acids from fish oil [68, 69]. Because natural fish oils do not contain more than about one-third of their fatty acids from the ω-3 family, hydrolysis reactions are particularly helpful for the purpose of concentration.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of triacylglycerol molecule. Reverse reaction corresponds to synthesis by esterification. R1, R2 and R3 are different acyl groups.
Esterification is the reverse reaction of hydrolysis and is used to synthesize selected products under appropriate reaction conditions [70]. The products of an esterification reaction are usually an ester and water. The water content of esterification reaction system strongly effects on lipase activity. Low water content shifts the equilibrium of the reaction to favor the synthesis of lipids. So that additional techniques were used to drive synthesis reaction including removal of water that formed during the process by evaporation under reduced pressure [71] or by adding molecular sieves to adsorb the water. Direct enzymatic esterification of some primary alcohols and selected carboxylic acids was catalyzed by the
Transesterification is a process of acyl exchange between two molecules. This process normally takes place between an ester and alcohol (alcoholysis), an ester and an acid (acidolysis), or an ester with another ester (interesterification), and no water is involved in the reaction. Acidolysis is one of the most frequently used reactions to incorporate novel fatty acids into TAG in several researches [13, 73, 74]. Interesterification involving hydrolysis and esterification, firstly hydrolysis of the TAG molecule, then followed by re-synthesis of the liberated fatty acids onto the glycerol molecule. Interesterification is another main strategy to incorporate PUFAs into TAGs. The literature reported extensive research work on the interesterification reaction [75, 76]. Lipase-catalyzed alcoholysis, acidolysis, and interesterification reactions are described clearly in Figure 6.
Lipase-catalyzed transesterification reactions. R1, R2, and R3 are different acyl groups.
It is beneficial to have knowledge about lipase selectivity/specificity to guide research to the best choice of lipase for particular fatty acid or for synthesis of PL containing ester of a specific fatty acid. Specificity generally refers to the ability of enzyme to differentiate between several substrates. Lipases can be divided according to their specificity into three groups: (i) nonspecific lipases, (ii) acyl-group specific lipases, and (iii) positional specific lipases. Nonspecific lipase can catalyze the release of FA from any position on the glycerol molecule. Acyl-group specific lipases catalyze the release of a particular type of FA from the TAG molecules, while positional lipases attack sn-1,3 positions on the TAG molecule. The use of positional specific lipases has led to the production of useful TAG mixtures whose composition could not be produced by simple chemical transesterification. In recent years, positional specific lipases have been intensively used in research purposes and food industry sectors [77–79].
Enzymes in organic solvents have manifested good selectivity and stability; however, catalytic activities in this environment are generally lower than in aqueous solutions. This could be partly explained by the fact that in low water environments, enzymes are less flexible. On the other hand, the activities of enzymes also depend on the type of organic solvent, since some are known to inactivate or denature biocatalysts. Meanwhile, the advantages of using organic solvent media are increased solubility of hydrophobic compounds that permits for greater interactions between substrates and enzymes as well as advantageous, partitioning of substrates and products; specifically, this is because partitioning of products away from the enzyme can decrease the possibility of inhibition due to excess product around the biocatalyst [51, 72].
\nWhen enzymes are placed in OSM, they exhibit novel characteristics such as altered chemo- and stereoselectivity, enhanced stability, increased rigidity, insolubility, and high thermal stability [80]. It has also been reported that the thermal stability of lipases can be improved in organic solvent systems since the lack of water prevents the unfolding of the lipase at high temperatures [81]. The activity of lipase in OSM depends on the nature and concentration of the substrate and source of the enzyme. Moreover, the organic solvent used can dramatically affect the activity of the lipase. Lipases are more active in n-hexane, n-heptane, and isooctane as compared to other solvents, such as toluene, ethyl acetate, and acetonitrile [82, 83]. It has been reported that the hydrophobicity of the solvent can affect the degree of acyl migration during transesterification using a 1,3-specific lipase [84]. Since the choice of organic solvents based on minimization of acyl migration may conflict with maximization of transesterification, acyl migration is usually minimized by reducing reaction times [85]. With increasing concern for the environment, synthesis of PL in solvent-free systems [86–88] and ionic liquids systems [89] has been extensively studied.
\nThe enzymatic synthesis of vanillyl-PUFA esters from fish oil and vanillyl alcohol in acetone solvent medium was studied by [10]. Lipase-catalyzed esterification of vanillyl alcohol with different fatty acids was carried out by [51] to the synthesis of capsiate analogs. Equimolar concentration of vanillyl alcohol and fatty acid was solubilized in
Enzymatic catalysis in solvent-free medium (SFM) has attracted considerable interest in the recent years [90]. It used as an efficient approach to the synthesis of natural products, pharmaceuticals and food ingredients. Under nonaqueous conditions, the industrial utility of enzymes can be improved, recovery of product and enzyme is eased, and the ability to catalyze reactions that are not favorable in aqueous solutions [91]. However, it would be technically beneficial if the enzymatic reactions were performed in mixtures of substrates in the absence of solvents. Lipase-catalyzed PL has been extensively studied in systems using organic solvents; however, if such a process is intended to be used in the food industry, it is preferred to develop solvent-free systems. The downside of organic solvents is that they are expensive, toxic and flammable and their use involves higher investment costs to meet safety requirements [80]. On the other hand, solvent-free systems, which are a simple mixture of reactants and the biocatalyst, present the advantages of using nearly nonaqueous organic solvents while offering greater safety, reduction in solvent extraction costs, increased reactant concentrations and consequently higher volumetric productivity defined as kg product per unit of reactor volume [53, 80].
\nPhenolic lipids have been received increasing attention in the food area, since they are a good way for providing nutraceutical FA to consumers. Hong et al. [47] studied the esterification of vanillyl alcohol with conjugated linoleic acid under vacuum in solvent-free system. Further studies on the enzymatic synthesis of structured phenolic lipids in SFM have also been conducted by [34, 44, 92]. In these studies, phenolic acids were esterified with fatty acids resulted in the formation of more lipophilic constituents that can be used as a nutraceutical product. In addition, feruloylated mono- and diacylglycerols were synthesized in SFM using
Lipase-catalyzed synthesis in SFM has a number of advantages as compared to that in OSM, including the use of a smaller reaction volume, maximization of substrate concentration and with no additional solvent recovery. In addition, downstream processing is easier as fewer purification steps are required providing significant cost savings, as well as toxic organic solvents are completely avoided (clean conversions), and an increase in the volumetric productivity can be achieved [80]. However, there are some problems with the use of SFM, mainly, the high viscosity of the medium as well as the production of high amounts of glycerol, free FAs as by-products. These by-products affect the reaction equilibrium and limit the mass transfer rate [93]. Thus, the development of a bioprocess for the lipase-catalyzed synthesis in SFM is of major interest but with great challenge.
Grafting of phenolic compound substrates with lipids is the major difficulty to overcome in such lipase-catalyzed reactions. Several parameters must be considered in order to achieve the reaction in satisfactory kinetics and yields and to overcome the fact that the two substrates greatly differ in terms of polarity and solvent affinity.
\nThe interesting strategy is to carry out the synthesis reaction without using solvent. However, when it is not possible, the choice of an adequate solvent is important. The type of organic solvent employed can dramatically affect the reaction kinetics and catalytic efficiency of lipases [94]. Two factors must be considered when solvent is selected; solvent affects the enzyme activity and solvent effect on the equilibrium position of the desired reaction. Polarity of the solvents is an important characteristic which determine the effect of solvents on enzymatic catalysis reactions. Log
Various authors have tried to find original strategies to improve enzyme activity in organic solvent [71, 93, 94]. The effect of solvent concentration on the conversion yield of phenolic lipids synthesized from flaxseed oil and phenolic acids was demonstrated by [41]. Solvent concentration of 7% was the best concentration with 61.1% of conversion yield.
Another important parameter in the synthesis reactions of phenolic lipids (PLs) is concerning with the enzyme itself and especially its conditioning. Various techniques for lipase conditioning have greatly improved during the last 10 years in the field of enzyme immobilization, chemical modification, or molecular engineering [97, 98]. Lipases are used after immobilization on a support. Different carrier materials are employed, and the resulting immobilized enzyme usually exhibits an improved thermostability compared to its free form. Moreover, the use of immobilized enzymes allows an easy removal and recovery of the biocatalyst once the reaction is over [99]. Lipase from
Water content refers to the total amount of water present in the reaction system. Controlling of water activity is very important in lipid modification processes. Water content in the reaction system is a determining factor in whether the reaction equilibrium will progress toward hydrolysis or ester synthesis [101]. While ester synthesis depends on low water content, too low water activity prevents all reaction from occurring. The monolayer of water on the surface of enzyme is required to maintain the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which is essential to enzymatic activity [102]. This layer acts as a buffer between the enzyme surface and the bulk reaction medium. However, too much water can cause hydrolysis of the TAG [14]. The activity of lipases at different water activities is dependent on the source of the enzyme and the type of solvent and immobilization support used [103]. Lipases from molds have shown to be more tolerant to low water activity than bacterial lipases. The optimal water content for most interesterification reactions by different lipases has been reported to be in the range of 0.04 to 11% (w/v) [104].
\nHowever, the amount of water in the system should be minimized in order to decrease the by-products. Lipases tend to retain the greatest degree of original activity, when immobilized on hydrophobic supports. Therefore, when the immobilized lipase contacts with oil in water emulsion, the oil phase tends to associate with and permeate the support, which can be assumed that an ordered hydrophobic network of lipid molecules will surround the support. Any water that reaches the enzyme for participation in the reaction must diffuse from the bulk emulsion. Thus, to avoid diffusional limitations, the oil phase must be well saturated with water [105].
\nZhao et al. [106] investigated the effect of different reaction parameters on the enzymatic acidolysis of lard with capric acid catalyzed by Lipozyme TL-IM. They achieved the highest incorporation of capric acid (35.56 mol%) without added water. The amount of incorporation was almost constant up to 10% added water but decreased significantly above this amount. The current research work shows that Lipozyme TL-IM-catalyzed interesterification can easily be moved to the industrial sector for commercial exploitation. Both stirred tank reactors [107] and PBR [108, 109] can be used for the production of plastic fats, and the control of water activity in the system presents no particular difficulty, as is often the case in other lipase-application systems, in which the lipase activity was not affected by the reduction of water content in the system [107, 110].
In order to promote the synthesis of phenolic lipids by shifting the reaction toward synthesis rather than hydrolysis, a reduction of water content in the reaction mixture can be accomplished through the addition of molecular sieve pellets as dehydrating agents. Li et al. [111] reported that the addition of molecular sieves increased the rate and conversion yield; this is due to the effect of the molecular sieves to sequester the water layer from the enzyme molecule which is essential for the water-enzyme interaction. Mellou et al. [112] found that the conversion yield of rutin during esterification reaction with oleic acid catalyzed by immobilized
Chemical structures of the phenolic compounds have an effect on the conversion yield of the end products. Different studies presented the effect of chemical structure of phenolic compounds which are hydroxylated or methoxylated derivatives of cinnamic, phenyl acetic and benzoic acids on the conversion yield [34, 35, 42, 44]. The presence of a hydroxyl group in the sn-2 position has a negative inductive effect. Thus, TAG is hydrolyzed at a faster rate as compared to DAGs, which are hydrolyzed faster than MAGs. Substrate conformation can also affect the reaction rate, since the hydrophobic tunnel in the lipase accepts aliphatic chains and aromatic rings easier than branched structures. Moreover, oxidation of substrates, such as PUFAs, could cause inhibition and decrease in lipase activity due to the production of hydroperoxides and their consequent breakdown to free radicals.
\nSubstrate concentration has an effect on the rate of enzyme hydrolysis and transesterification. So, the selection of a suitable substrate molar ratio in terms of reaction efficiency (incorporation level of acyl donors per unit time) and productivity (product quantity per unit time) in a reaction system is very important. The choice of the proper substrate molar ratio is also related to the downstream processing expenses and associated difficulties of separating FFAs or acyl donors by evaporation and/or distillation. Previous studies have shown that high substrate molar ratio would require a shorter reaction time, move the reaction equilibrium to the product formation, and improve the acyl incorporation [114, 115]. Yang et al. [114] reported the positive effect of substrate molar ratio on the interesterification reaction between EPA and DHA ethyl esters and tripalmitin. They indicated that the optimization results suggested a molar ratio of 6 along with an enzyme load of 20% (Lipozyme TL-IM) and a 17.9 h reaction time would provide the highest incorporation. However, due to the downstream purification expenses, they decided to select the optimal conditions to be a molar ratio of 5 along with a 20% enzyme load and 20 h reaction time. Lee et al. [115] investigated the synthesis of 1,3-dioleoyl-2-palmitoyl glycerol-rich HMFS from tripalmitin-rich fraction and ethyl oleate by lipase-catalyzed interesterification. Similarly, these authors reported an increase of OPO content (25.7%) with an increase of substrate molar ratio up to a ratio of 1:6 of tripalmitin-rich fraction to ethyl oleate.
\nThe study of Sabally et al. [32] investigated the enzymatic transesterification of selected PAs with TAGs, including trilinolein and trilinolenin in organic solvent media (OSM), and reported that the affinity of Novozym 435 was found to be greater for DHCA than that for ferulic acid; these authors suggested that the presence of both the methoxyl substituent and the double bond on the side of the aromatic ring of the ferulic acid could explain its lower affinity for the transesterification reactions with TAG.
\nKarboune [42] study the effect of PA structure on the bioconversion yield (BY) of phenolic lipids (PLs) obtained by acidolysis of FSO with selected PAs, including hydroxylated and/or methoxylated derivatives of cinnamic, phenyl acetic and benzoic acids in OSM, using Novozym 435 as biocatalyst. The overall findings showed that the BY of PL was dependent on the structural characteristics of PAs. The highest BY was obtained with cinnamic acid (74%). In addition, Karboune et al. [42] concluded that the presence of p-OH groups on the benzene cycle of cinnamic acid derivatives may have an inhibitory effect on the lipase activity, since the BY decreased to 45 and 11%, respectively, when
Temperature changes effect on different parameters including enzyme stability, affinity, and preponderance of the competing reactions [71]. Temperature normally affects lipase activity, and high temperatures usually increase the initial transesterification rate. However, high reaction temperatures deactivate the enzyme due to its protein nature [35]. The optimal temperature used in transesterification reactions is mainly based on considering properties of feedstock, such as melting behavior at different temperatures as well as the reaction system that is with or without solvent. In a solvent-free system, the temperature is maintained high enough to keep the substrates in liquid state [40].
\nThe optimal temperature for the most immobilized lipases ranges from 30–60°C, while it tends to be lower for free lipases. Heat stability of lipase also depends on whether a substrate is present. This is because substrates remove excess water from the immediate vicinity of the enzyme, hence limiting its overall conformational mobility. Ishihara et al. [116] studied the effect of temperature on vanillyl alcohol acylation with nonanoic acid to give vanillyl nonanoate in
Normally, as the enzyme concentration increases, the reaction equilibrium will be shifted quickly toward the synthesis [117]. However, for economic reasons, it is important to reduce the enzyme loading and the reaction time. In addition, the presence of high enzyme concentration in the reaction medium may increase the probability of its collision with the substrate subsequently enhancing the reaction rate [118]; however, after reaching certain enzyme concentration, the conversion yield was constant. Carrin et al. [117] reported that during the Lipozyme TL-IM-catalyzed acidolysis of sunflower oil with palmitic acid and stearic acid mixture, the extent of palmitic and stearic acids incorporation was enhanced by increasing the amount of enzyme in the reaction; however, when the enzyme concentration was greater than 8% by weight of substrates, there was no significant increase in the esterification yield. The effects of lipase concentration on the synthesis of capsiate analog were depicted in the work of [47].
In a heterogeneous enzymatic system, it is important to ensure that the rate of substrate diffusion will not limit the rate of the synthesis reaction. The increase in agitation speed may decrease the boundary liquid layer surrounding the porous support, leading to lower diffusion limitations. Lue et al. [102] reported an increase of the enzymatic activity from 108.6 to 156.5 nmol/g/min, when the agitation speed of the system was increased from 0 to 200 rpm. The increase in the enzymatic activity indicated that external diffusion limitations of substrates did occur within the range of agitation applied. Kumari et al. [118] reported that carrying the reaction at the optimum agitation speed can limit the external mass transfer limitations, in the case of immobilized enzymes, where the reactants need to diffuse from the bulk oil to the external surface of the enzyme particles and from there, subsequently to the interior pores of the catalyst. In addition [44] investigated the effect of agitation speed on the conversion yield of phenolic lipids synthesized from flaxseed oil and DHCA; the results have shown that the conversion yield increased significantly from 39 to 62.5% when the agitation speed was increased from 50 to 150 rpm, before it was decreased to 44.8% at agitation speed of 250 rpm. The low conversion yield could be attributed to insufficient agitation rate, a condition in which a hydrophilic layer of glycerol may be formed around the enzyme, limiting hence the mass transfer rate of the oil to the surface of the lipase.
The effect of carbon chain length of fatty alcohols on the reaction rate was examined by [119]; the esterification of C4–C18 straight-chain fatty alcohol with dihydrocaffeic acid (DHCA), as a model of phenolic acid, was systematically evaluated. The results indicated that the conversion of DHCA was significantly affected by the number of carbon chain of fatty alcohols. Conversion yield of 95% was achieved within 3 days when hexanol was used as an acyl acceptor, while only 56 and 44% conversions were achieved when 1-butanol and octadecanol were employed, respectively. The conversions of ferulic and caffeic acids under the same conditions were much lower than was that of DHCA. In another by [120], various alkyl cinnamates were formed in high to moderate yield by lipase-catalyzed esterification of cinnamic acid and its analogs with fatty alcohols in vacuo at moderate temperatures in the absence of drying agents and solvents.
\nSeveral carboxylic acids of different chain lengths from acetic, propionic, butyric, caproic, and caprylic acids were tested via an enzymatic esterification reaction to produce hexyl ester in
The structural analyses of phenolic lipids have been carried out using a wide range of various techniques. These mainly include thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Thin-layer chromatography has been used for initial qualitative analyses of substrates by employing a wide range of organic solvent mixtures. Products from the esterification reactions are characterized and analyzed by TLC using silica gel G-25 plates [10, 47]. The elution solvents used depend on the nature of synthesized compounds. In the study of [10], the elution solvent used was chloroform/methanol mixture (80:20, v/v) and pure chloroform; the plates were visualized under UV light (254 nm), meanwhile, in the work of Hong et al. [47], the elution solvent was n-hexane/diethyl ether/formic acid (160:40:5.5, v/v/v), and the plate was visualized with 0.2% (w/v) 2,7 dichlorofluorescein in methanol solution under UV light.
\nHigh-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) has often been used over other instrumentations and has shown scientifically to be the overall preferred method of choice for quantification and separation of phenolic lipids following synthesis reactions. Phenolic lipids were separated on C18 reverse-phase column using a gradient elution system with UV detection at 280 nm [10]. Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) analysis has been conducted for determining the fatty acid composition of the synthesized phenolic lipids. REF has reported on the GC analysis of phenolic lipid esters through the use of a CP-Sil CB-MS column linked to an FID detector.
\nRecent research on phenolic lipids has also made using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) that is considered being one of the most powerful techniques used for the characterization of biomolecules due to its high sensitivity and specificity. Generally, its application is oriented toward the specific detection and potential identification of chemicals in the presence of other chemicals (in a complex mixture). LC-MS has been used for the structural characterization of lipids and phenolic lipids [10, 116].
\nMany lipid systems have been studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in order to determine several aspects including the degree and the form of unsaturation of the acyl groups as well as their length [121]. The infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from 14,000 to 50 cm−1 and is divided into three areas: the far infrared from 400 to 50 cm−1, the mid infrared region from 4,000 to 400 cm−1, and the near infrared from 14,000 to 4,000 cm−1 [122].
Phenolic lipids, compounds which have been known for a century, are more recently being extensively studied not only from the biological but also from the chemical point of view. Phenolic lipids used as novel antioxidants that synthesized enzymatically. These natural antioxidants increased the antioxidant capacity and the oxidative stability of the edible oils [123]. These products can be used as nutraceuticals for their nutritional value and antioxidant capacity as well as natural ingredients for their physicochemical characteristics [39]. Enzymatic esterification of omega-3 PUFAs with vanillyl alcohol leads to protect these compounds from oxidation, and the PUFA-phenolic derivatives prepared confer the combined health beneficial properties of PUFA and the phenolic molecules [10]. Studies of Zhong and Shahidi [38, 39] indicated that antioxidant activity of esters produced from the esterification of EGCG with PUFA (EPA and DHA) was superior to that of parent compound in retarded of the oxidation of bulk oil and emulsion. The results suggest that these lipophilic derivatives of EGCG could be considered for use in food preservation and health promotion [38].
\nRecently, most of the observed activities of phenolic lipids were rather nonspecific and resulted from their amphiphilic and phenolic nature. Further investigation on various aspects of biology may open new opportunities to exploit their properties, as, for example, chemopreventive and antitumor agents, and to develop pharmaceuticals based on phenolic lipid compounds.
One of the major but somewhat overlooked social problem confronting Nigeria is gender-based slavery, which translates into aggression and violent behaviour. The ancient forms of slavery were abolished several decades back, but have been supplanted by ‘modern-day slavery’. The resurgence manifests in various dimensions, such as peonage (i.e., debt bondage), forced child labour, early and forced marriage, (child) sex trafficking, sex slavery, and illegal detention of young girls in ‘baby factories’ (unlawful maternity and orphanages where children are sold and their mothers serve as ‘economic-slaves, sex-slaves, procreation-slaves, and money-ritual-slaves’).
Eteng
The new or emerging slavery wave has taken completely different dimensions from the ancient forms, despite the abolition and existing punitive measures put in place to grapple with this phenomenon. These modernised forms of slavery flourish on both national and transnational scales and are often driven by globalisation trends. Like other organised economic crimes, such as kidnapping and hostage-taking, Nwadiaro and Nkwocha [4] explained that the problem has been attributed to the rapid urbanisation that was necessitated by the industrialisation of the urban centres. This is because the development of urban centres has destroyed the traditional sense of community that is associated with rural villages and thus undermining the informal mechanism of social control and giving room for various kinds of crime [5].
Although some types of modern-day slavery share certain attributes with trans-Atlantic servitudes, their current patterns and trends have been significantly worrisome in recent times because of the involvement of different classes of people and extreme aggression and violence attached to the criminal enterprise. For instance, Bales [2] stated that human trafficking, like any other forms of contemporary slavery, engenders conditions of modern slavery and severe human rights violations, where victims are exploited for economic gains and sexual gratification, and they remain unable to free themselves from the abusive and exploitative slavery conditions. This usually involves the recruiters, document forgers, brokers, brothel owners, employment agencies, and, in some cases, government officials [3].
Generally, the women population remains the most vulnerable victims, while men are the major perpetrators. But this should not vitiate the fact that men can also be both offenders and victims. Establishing a clear case of gender differentials in the determination of victims and offenders of modern slavery, Bulman [6] explained that women and girls make up more than seven in 10 of the world’s modern slavery victims, while 90% of victims of forced labour in the commercial sex industry are females. ILO reported that, while 71% of trafficking victims the world over are women and girls, 29% are men and boys [7, 8]. This constitutes serious human rights violations and structural violence and aggression targeted against women and girls, and is rather more pronounced in patriarchal cultures. As Eteng and Njemanze [1, 9, 10] observed, patriarchy encourages aggression and violence against women, and thus, such crime as slavery is not unexpected in a society where patriarchy is entrenched. The reason is not farfetched: The system makes women, more than any other population in society, structurally powerlessness, culturally susceptible to harm and abuse, socially excluded, and economically incapacitated.
Indeed, young women and children are the most vulnerable victims of baby factories, human trafficking, peonage, forced marriage, and so on. The children are forced to beg for alms on the streets, hawk, or sell articles of trade in motor parks and on highways, while young boys and girls, on the other hand, are trafficked for domestic servitude, pornographic promotion, exploitative labour, forced prostitution, and such other crimes and criminality [1]. Generally, victims suffer abuse and neglect, harm, mistreatment, exploitation, and extortion, as they try to offset family-accrued debts that put them in bondage or to improve the low socioeconomic conditions that caused their exposure to victimisation. Against this backdrop, this chapter sets out to uniquely explore modern-day slavery as an aggression and violent behaviour in the context of Nigeria, with emphasis on the ever-changing forms, predictors, and risk factors of this social problem. Doing this is a scholarly effort to contribute to the relatively a few existing bodies of knowledge on the phenomenon to understand and explain what works for effective policy direction and interventions.
Complemented with the principles of the political economy perspective, the feminist theory appears suitable to assist in understanding and explaining the gender and crime of modern-day slavery in Nigeria. As attested by extant and current studies [see 1, 5, 10–15], a critical question that often appears in gender literature has been: ‘And what about the women’? Contextually, this question seeks to interrogate the motivation for the exposure of women to the aggression and violent behaviour of baby factories, peonage, early forced marriage, and other slavery conditions. The women’s vulnerability to these crimes is intrinsically found in patriarchy, which describes a power relationship inherent in the structures and social relations within which the subordination and exploitation of women occurs and it is used to explain the institutionalisation of male power and domination over women (Walby, 1980, pp. 173–201 as cited in [11], p. 243). Particularly, Nigeria has been described as a society where the practice of patriarchy is deep-rooted with an unbalanced political economy that deprives children and women of certain rights and privileges but favours their male counterparts [1, 10].
An important radical expression of women empowerment since the inception of the feminist movement worldwide is persistent human rights advocacy as it affects women under patriarchal hegemony. This advocacy has been consistently pursued by several women groups through the mass media, legal battles, demonstrations, social criticisms, and intellectual discourses, as typified by recent happenings in Nigeria and the world over (see [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]). Yet, women are increasingly exposed to aggression and violence that are somewhat unnoticed or sometimes noticed but ignored, because such acts find justification(s) in the culture and traditions of the people. This is where feminism coincides with political economy to further explain the enslavement and exploitation of women. Both theories emphasised contradictions arising from the social, political, and economic arrangements of society. Nigeria has been described as a class-determined and class-structured society that is in perpetual conflict [10]. The contradiction is mostly favourable to men, while children and women are at disadvantage. The reason is not that men are more diligent and resourceful when compared to women, but ‘communal wealth’ is fundamentally determined by the culture and tradition of our society which are strongly patriarchy-oriented.
The expectations of feminism interact with political economy underpinnings to critically analyse gender as a determinant of modern-day slavery in Nigeria. The two theories explain how the sociocultural system provides a framework for dominance and determines class struggle and power relations that detect who (mainly women) to use as slaves under any pretext. Patriarchy breeds both relative and marginal poverty, inequalities, alienation, and social exclusion, with women and children bearing the brunt of this structural violence and aggression [1]. From the political economy perspective, for instance, people of lower-class status experience sociopolitical deprivations, frustration, inequalities, aggression, and violence.
Men are also affected by these challenges, but women are the most vulnerable population; this is so because their plight correlates with patriarchal practices—this also supports the feminist theory. Carlen [16], and Heidensohn [17] explained that male-dominated patriarchal societies encourage exploitation, manipulation, aggression, and violence against women, making it easier and more successful for them to be used in committing the crime. Others agreed that, for a better understanding of the pattern of crime, including slavery and other forms of servitude, the analysis should be inseparably linked to political economy, particularly unemployment, inequality, and patriarchy, which are the characteristic of most capitalist societies [5, 10, 18].
Like political economy variables, the feminist theory addresses the issue of gendered modern-day slavery against the background of gender inequity and gender bias in society. Explanations have been provided by some feminists as to why this is the case. While different brands of feminism attempt to provide a partial and provisional answer to the woman question, they nevertheless intersect to explain ways in which women have been oppressed and suppressed in society (see also [5, 10, 11, 19]). As underscored by the political economy perspective, two main feminist theories are relevant to this research: Marxist and radical feminists.
Like political economy theorists, Marxist feminists strongly believe that the relegation of women is connected to capitalist exploitation of their inherent domestic role. They also recognise the presence of a ‘dominant ideology’ (patriarchy) that places women as primary caregivers in the family and community and which is used to rationalise the low status and wage assigned to women, as well as their deprivation of socioeconomic freedom [11, 20]. The advocates of Marxist feminism argued that the situation of ‘relative powerlessness would have been otherwise were women’s production and gender roles in the family, at the workplace, and in the society not subordinated to those of men’ ([1], p. 96).
Radical feminists see the underlying causes of women’s inequality, gender bias, and inequity as deeply rooted in society. The inequity and gender bias against women, including aggression, violence, and human rights violations, could be traced to the patriarchal system of power relations in highly patriarchal societies, such as Nigeria. Furthermore, they draw attention to the neglect of reproduction and derived subordinate sex role of women in the household, which could be traced to the patriarchal system of power relationships in any given society [20]. Taking advantage of women’s vulnerability and relative powerlessness, perpetrators of modern-day enslavement who are mainly men lure their female victims into the sex trade, baby factories, debt bondage, child labour, and early and forced marriage.
Radical feminists explain that, because of its patriarchal nature, the family could be the main staging point for perpetuating crimes against women. When it comes to decision-making, families could take overpowering decisions, virtually forcing their female children into the sex trade as a way of making quick money to lift the family from poverty. For sex trafficking, persons who are usually induced to perform such acts are most times under-aged, below the age of 18 years. In addition to being subjected to work as economic slaves and to perform other forms of labour such as live-in domestic workers and factory workers, most of the times the female victims of trafficking are forced to work in the sex trade. Consequently, female victims of trafficking suffer double exploitation, both as economic slaves and as sex slaves (United Nations Office on Crime and Drugs, UNODC, [21]).
Still on this, a forced marriage occurs when an individual is coerced, threatened, or tricked to marry without his or her informed consent (The [22]), and this could happen to any gender, male or female, young or old, and is oftentimes involves pressure, abuse, aggression, and violence. It is pertinent to note here that a marriage that is performed under duress and without free and informed consent or free will of both parties could be regarded as a forced marriage. Eteng and Njemanze [9] agreed that a forced marriage could be seen as one in which one or both of the parties involved are married without his or her consent or against his or her will. Forced marriages mainly occur early in life in the form of betrothal and by abduction. A marriage that is forced could be considered as an act of aggression, violence, and violation of the human rights of those affected and is also seen as a form of slavery, as it were.
Modern-day slavery in Nigeria manifests in various forms, but only those ones that seem peculiar and recurring with dire consequences are explained, and they are ‘baby factories’, peonage (debt bondage), and early and forced marriage.
The term ‘baby factory’ is often used by Nigerian journalists to describe criminal activities involving restriction of a person’s movement against such person’s will, forced impregnations, sale of babies, and illegal adoptions [23]. Policy interventions and scholarly efforts aimed at understanding and explaining the problem are inadequate. Even data on the crime of baby factories are hardly found in the academic literature; rather, the incident is mainly reported in the media, especially magazines and newspapers. Therefore, undertaking this research is to further contribute to the few existing scholarly works on the subject for practical outcomes in policy response. An understanding of the meaning and workings of the baby factory as modern-day slavery would provide a policy guide and interventions aimed at curbing the trend. This, then, calls for the definition of a baby factory as an illegal clinic, maternity, or orphanage where young girls and women with unwanted pregnancies are kept for reasons ranging from money-making, illicit procreation, and coerced sexual exploitation to murder for ritual and child-selling. The business is unlawful, with huge benefits for owners and their accomplices, while victims are threatened and forced to accept enslavement, aggression, and violence as normal [1].
Studies (see United Nations Organisation for Education, Science, and Culture, UNESCO, [1, 23, 24, 25, 26]) consistently show that the first cases of the baby factory in Nigeria were officially reported in 2006 by UNESCO and was then classified as child trafficking prevalent in the southeast part of the country. Later identified incidents occurred across Southern Nigeria, particularly Lagos State, and the phenomenon followed similar trajectories. For instance, pregnant teenagers or adult women with unwanted pregnancies approach doctors, clinics, nurses, or orphanages that subsequently take care of these girls and women during their pregnancies. When babies are born, they are sold to childless couples or couples who are desperate to have a child. The natural mothers of the babies then signed papers, repudiating their ownership or claims on the babies, and thereafter receive monetary compensations [1, 23, 24, 25].
In 2011, The Telegraph [27] reported that police officers, on a tipoff, raided Cross Foundation premises in Aba, Abia State of Nigeria, where pregnant girls between the ages of 15 and 17 were confined to ‘make babies’ (give birth to children for sale) for the proprietor, who sell them to clients. The 32 pregnant young girls and women who were rescued by the police confessed to the crime, stating that they have accepted to sell their awaiting newborn babies, as they were convinced by the owner of this Foundation. These babies would then be sold to buyers for any amount ranging from N300, 000.00 (about $667) Naira to N1, 000000.00 (about $2222) ([27]), depending on the sex of the baby (a boy child is more expensive than a girl child in the southeastern states of Nigeria).
Eteng and her associate [1] summarised the studies of [26, 28, 29, 30] on baby factories and reached the conclusion that the crime is on the increase with horrific outcomes. From these sources, the situation often involves teenage girls and young women brought by traffickers to clinics and homes referred to as ‘baby factory’ with the promise of jobs, safe abortions, and even money after delivery. The victims are then confined and forced to give birth, with some of them trafficked while being pregnant, and others impregnated at the baby factory by men hired to do so. As further summarised by Eteng et al. [1], owners of baby factories often claim that babies are put up for adoption by childless couples, whereas, in reality, child labour, sexual exploitation, and even ritual are the reasons for their establishment. Even human traffickers obtain their victims from baby factories, operating under the cover of ‘maternity homes’, ‘hospitals’, or ‘orphanages’; the act is both a profitable illegitimate business and a new form of human trafficking in Nigeria [23].
To state the obvious, statistics on baby factories in Nigeria are mainly found in newspapers and magazines [1], so this chapter is a contribution to the dearth of scholarly literature on the phenomenon with the aim of providing a policy guide. For these authors, ‘the problem seems to have peaked between 2008 and 2013’ ([1], p. 4). In May 2008, according to [23], a case of a baby factory was reported to the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) in Enugu State and the formation swung into action that led to the rescue of 25 teenage girls housed in a baby factory. While 32 victims were freed from captivity in a baby factory located in Aba in June 2011 by NPF, 17 pregnant girls were rescued in Lagos State in October of the same year. A maternity home that belongs to Madam One Thousand in the Umuaka community of Imo State was raided by the police in May 2013. The outcome resulted in the rescue of 26 teenage girls, 17 pregnant teenagers, and 11 babies. This was followed by the June 2013 police operation that led to the rescue of 16 pregnant teenagers in a baby factory situated in Aba [1, 30].
The ILO Convention No. 182 includes debt bondage as a form of slavery that results in aggression and violence. A person is subjected to peonage or debt bondage when such a person is compelled through force or abuse to work against their will to pay off debts. The situation is particularly debilitating if the value of the work is not actually directed towards the payment of the debt. So many children are pushed into child labour or marriage to settle parental debt burden. Some young girls may be affianced to elderly men, old enough to be their father or grandfather, due to the inability of their parents to pay certain debts. The implication is that girls from affected families become a collateral and mortgage with which parents settle their debts. This is done without considering the psychosocial effects of such actions or inactions on the child (see also [31]).
The practice of peonage is prevalent in India and Nigeria, and is sometimes used to settle conflicts. In this case, a girl child could be given out in marriage to a particular person in compensation for an offence that her parents, family, or community committed against the person. The consent of the girl does not count. A Nigerian example was specifically depicted by Achebe [32] in his classical book titled ‘Things Fall Apart’. In this work, Achebe reported that a woman (the wife of Ogbuefi Udo) from Umuofia was killed by the people of Mbaino. The people of Umuofia met and agreed to send emissaries to Mbaino to ask whether they wanted war or peace. And, to achieve peace, the people of Mbaino gave a young lad and virgin girl to Umuofia. The virgin girl was then given to Ogbuefi Udo to replace his murdered wife. By this action, the young girl was forced to marry the old man—Ogbuefi Udo without her understanding and approval. This is also tenable in real-life situations in Nigeria.
Although early forced marriage affects both boys and girls, the majority of victims are girls. According to United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), it is estimated that 11% of women worldwide were married before the age of 15 years. Boys are also affected by this practice, but the majority of those who suffer slavery that manifests in the form of child marriages are girls [33]. A multi-country study by women living under Muslim laws in 2013, as cited in ref. [9], revealed that the practice of marrying out girls at a young age is rampant in the developing countries of the world. These are specific countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It was revealed that marriages of girls between the ages of 16 and 18 are not uncommon in some areas of Eastern Europe. Marriages at or shortly after puberty are also prevalent in the Middle East, North Africa, and some other parts of Asia. Data collected by UNICEF in 2005 showed that, in South East Asia, women between the ages of 18 and 24, representing 48%, were married out before attaining the age of 18; 42% in Africa; and 29% in Latin America and the Caribbean [9].
Worldwide, it is estimated that 15 million girls, with some as young as 5 years old, are forced into marriage every year; over 700 women alive today were married as children; one in every three girls in the developing world married before 18 and one in nine marry before the age of 15 [34]. Early forced marriage, which is synonymous with child forced marriage, is regarded as a form of slavery in some quarters. This could be the case if the child has not genuinely given his or her free and informed consent to enter into the marriage relationship. Other reasons are if the child is subjected to control and a sense of ownership in the marriage (maybe through abuse, threats, violence, and humiliation), or if the child is subjected to non-consensual sexual affairs and cannot leave or end the marriage that could lead to lifetime slavery. Early forced marriage could also be in the form of betrothal. In this case, the parents of the under-aged girl enter into a marriage contract with a future husband for their daughter. At times, this involves cohabitation between the girl and the man. The girl may be ignorant of the relationship and will have to be informed after a while. This practice used to be associated with the Igbo in the southeastern part of Nigeria, but nowadays, the practice has significantly reduced.
Marriage by abduction, also known as bride capture, is another form of early forced marriage found mainly in Central Asia and parts of Africa. Adom Television [35] reported that this is a practice where a man abducts the girl he wishes to marry. The victim is often raped to lose her virginity, and this makes it easy for them would be groomed to negotiate a bridewealth (price) with the elders of the community. The girl is forced to accept as she is now seen as impure, having lost her virginity, and may face ostracism if she refuses to marry the man. This practice is also common in some parts of Taraba State in Nigeria, although it has gone through some modifications in recent times. At present, the groom may approach the girl’s parents and express his interest in marrying their daughter. The man may entice the girl’s parents with gifts or other incentives. Once the parents have consented, the girl’s opinion becomes irrelevant. They will then arrange and send their daughter on an errand and inform the groom to waylay and ‘steal’ her. The following day, the man will visit the parents of the girl to inform them that their daughter is now with him. At that point, the other marriage rites begin.
In conflict areas, girls and women are sometimes forced to marry men on either side of the conflict. Girls are captured as war victims, raped, and forced into marriage. It was reported recently in Nigeria that some women and young girls captured by the Boko Haram insurgents were raped and forced into marriage. Many of them were carrying unwanted pregnancies when the Nigerian soldiers rescued them from Punch Newspaper [36]. Young girls have been forced into marriage as part of the settlement of disputes between families. In this instance, a girl is given out in marriage to serve as punishment for a crime committed by her male relatives. This is practised in Pakistan and even in Nigeria, as could be seen from the earlier presented narrative of Onwe [31]. ILO [7] reported that the mental torture, abuse, brutalisation, exploitation, and dehumanisation that they experience usually lead to lowered self-esteem. The social stigma attached to this is usually difficult for the victims and their families to bear. This is why some victims are usually unwilling to testify in court in pending cases. In some developing countries, such as Nigeria, India, and Pakistan, modern-day slavery has taken the forms of debt peonage, early and forced marriage, forced child labour, or involuntary servitude.
Having explored some of the forms of modern-day slavery peculiar to Nigeria, it has become very clear that women are more vulnerable and bear the brunt of it all. They are exploited and used both as economic and sex slaves. These have continued despite all forms of laws that have been put in place by the United Nations and the Nigerian government to protect women against aggression, violence, and human rights abuses. Modern servitudes require inter-State action and collaborative efforts of security operatives from the States/communities victims are trafficked and the destination State/communities to effectively tackle this crime.
However, it is not just enough for NGOs and isolated governments to rescue victims and rehabilitate them. More drastic measures should be taken to crumble this business of modern-day slavery, particularly the baby factory. To this end, efforts should be made to increase awareness and rally the world to fight against this scourge. Just as the world saw the evils of the trans-Atlantic slave trade and abolished it, proper legislations should be made so that countries whose citizens are involved in the business of modern slavery should be made to face global sanctions through the United Nations. Furthermore, since women are the worst victims of early and forced marriage, peonage (debt bondage), and baby factory, concerted efforts should be made by the State security forces to enforce the extant laws and already existing human rights provisions to protect women in the various States in Nigeria where this aggression and violent behaviour is still in practice.
All levels of government in Nigeria (federal, state, and local), nongovernmental organisations, religious institutions, and local authorities and institutions should be more involved in the creation of awareness at the grassroots level on the harmful effects of modern-day slavery in all its ramifications. For wide coverage and practical outcomes, the sensitisation has to be done in local parlance and languages using jingles, radio, television, and the print media. Rescued victims should also be encouraged to expose the perpetrators as part of an effort to fight the menace.
The female population is largely the victim, while most perpetrators are males. The trend in slavery enterprise is typically organised and largely motivated by women’s vulnerabilities and powerlessness, with dehumanising and destructive consequences. Arising from this is the conclusion that certain cultural practices and socioeconomic forces intertwine with poverty, lack of qualitative education, and other exclusions to expose women and girls to servitudes. The problem requires robust intersectoral approaches—that is, coordinated intervention, programmes, and collaborative efforts between governments and local authorities and institutions—to (re)solve.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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and fun way in rehabilitation. Its first known use in rehabilitation published by Max North named as “Virtual Environments and Psychological Disorders” (1994). Virtual reality uses special programmed computers, visual devices and artificial environments for the clients’ rehabilitation. Throughout technological improvements, virtual reality devices changed from therapeutic gloves to augmented reality environments. Virtual reality was being used in different rehabilitation professions such as occupational therapy, physical therapy, psychology and so on. In spite of common virtual reality approach of different professions, each profession aims different outcomes in rehabilitation. Virtual reality in occupational therapy generally focuses on hand and upper extremity functioning, cognitive rehabilitation, mental disorders, etc. Positive effects of virtual reality were mentioned in different studies, which are higher motivation than non‐simulated environments, active participation of the participants, supporting motor learning, fun environment and risk‐free environment. Additionally, virtual reality was told to be used as assessment. This chapter will focus on usage of virtual reality in occupational therapy, history and recent developments, types of virtual reality technologic equipment, pros and cons, usage for pediatric, adult and geriatric people and recent research and articles.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Orkun Tahir Aran, Sedef Şahin, Berkan Torpil, Tarık Demirok and\nHülya Kayıhan",authors:[{id:"172938",title:"Prof.",name:"Hulya",middleName:null,surname:"Kayihan",slug:"hulya-kayihan",fullName:"Hulya Kayihan"},{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"196848",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Orkun Tahir",middleName:null,surname:"Aran",slug:"orkun-tahir-aran",fullName:"Orkun Tahir Aran"},{id:"197159",title:"Mr.",name:"Tarık",middleName:null,surname:"Demirok",slug:"tarik-demirok",fullName:"Tarık Demirok"},{id:"197312",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Berkan",middleName:null,surname:"Torpil",slug:"berkan-torpil",fullName:"Berkan Torpil"}]},{id:"61806",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78312",title:"Executive Functions and Neurology in Children and Adolescents",slug:"executive-functions-and-neurology-in-children-and-adolescents",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological issues of creating a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Focusing on school periods, this section outlines the development of the basic components of EF—inhibition, working memory, and attention. Cognitive and neurophysiological evaluations show that despite the emergence of EF in the first few years of life, it continues to grow significantly in childhood and adolescence. The components vary slightly according to their developmental sequence. The chapter links findings to long-standing developmental issues (i.e. developmental sequences and processes) and suggests the necessary research to establish a developmental framework covering early childhood throughout adolescence.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek",authors:[{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]},{id:"56049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69101",title:"Measurement of Participation: The Role Checklist Version 3: Satisfaction and Performance",slug:"measurement-of-participation-the-role-checklist-version-3-satisfaction-and-performance",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Participation in society is an area of interest to both clinicians and population researchers. Measurement of participation is therefore important, yet differences in definition, in terms of both content and scope, have made general agreement on one instrument tool elusive. What is recognized is the need for a theoretically based tool that captures both the insider and the outsider perspective. The outsider perspective, inclusive of the generally held views of a society, supports the utility for aggregating population data, whereas the insider perspective provides the internally held views of an individual needed for client-centered treatment planning. The Role Checklist Version 3 modifies one of the most commonly used assessment tools in occupational therapy practice, has good preliminary psychometric properties, and is theoretically consistent with both the ICF and the Model of Human Occupation. The Model of Human Occupation is the most widely used theoretical model in occupational therapy. This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical development, empirical testing, and implications for use of this participation measure by occupational therapists along with implications for population researchers.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Patricia J. Scott, Kelsey McKinney, Jeff Perron, Emily Ruff and Jessica\nSmiley",authors:[{id:"195495",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia J",middleName:null,surname:"Scott",slug:"patricia-j-scott",fullName:"Patricia J Scott"},{id:"208801",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelsey G.",middleName:null,surname:"McKinney",slug:"kelsey-g.-mckinney",fullName:"Kelsey G. McKinney"},{id:"208802",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Perron",slug:"jeffrey-m.-perron",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Perron"},{id:"208803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emily G.",middleName:null,surname:"Ruff",slug:"emily-g.-ruff",fullName:"Emily G. Ruff"},{id:"208804",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica L.",middleName:null,surname:"Smiley",slug:"jessica-l.-smiley",fullName:"Jessica L. Smiley"}]},{id:"55024",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68463",title:"Occupational Therapy in Oncology and Palliative Care",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-oncology-and-palliative-care",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cancer is a chronic disease that may occur in both children and adults. Occupational therapy focuses on the activity limitations and participation problems in their life. Oncology rehabilitation involves in helping an individual with cancer to regain maximum physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and vocational functioning with the limits up to disease and its treatments in an interdisciplinary team concept. These treatment options are associated with the risk of some side effects, including fatigue, pain, cognitive problems, decrease in bone density and muscle endurance, weight loss, and stress- or anxiety-related psychosocial problems. Occupational therapy approaches are a holistic view in a client center and use training in activities of daily living, assistive technology, education of energy conservation techniques, and management of treatment-related problems, such as pain, fatigue, and nausea. In palliative and hospice care, occupational therapists support clients with cancer by minimizing the secondary symptoms related to cancer and its treatments. At the end of life, occupational therapy offers to identify the roles and activities that are meaningful and purposeful to the client with cancer and try to determine the barriers that limit their performance. Clients with cancer who have childhood cancer or adult cancer can face problems about body structure and functions, activity, and participation, which may limit their participation to their daily life.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Sedef Şahin, Semin Akel and Meral Zarif",authors:[{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"183078",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu Semin",middleName:null,surname:"Akel",slug:"burcu-semin-akel",fullName:"Burcu Semin Akel"},{id:"198859",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Zarif",slug:"meral-zarif",fullName:"Meral Zarif"}]},{id:"70122",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89360",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55080",title:"Life Skills in Occupational Therapy",slug:"life-skills-in-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:6076,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Occupational therapy is a health profession that uses the purposeful activities to achieve multiple and complex rehabilitation aims. The main goals of the occupational therapy are to support the reintegration of individuals in daily living skills as well as to increase their independence and autonomy. Interventions of occupational therapists have primarily focused on self-care, productivity, and leisure time activities. Since the life skills includes a wide range of abilities that enable a person to perform personal care and more complicated tasks such as traveling, shopping, community participation etc., occupational therapists provide life skills training programs to meet the needs of the clients. This chapter aims to contribute to the current understanding and practices of life skills from an occupational therapy perspective. The chapter starts with a brief discussion of the importance of life skills in occupational therapy. After this introduction, the first part takes a look at the definition of life skills and identifies core components of life skills. The second part describes assessment and interventions of life skills. The third one gives an overview about school life skills programs for children and adolescents. 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Offenders turn back to the community after the penalty was executed by isolating from society and some occupations. An occupational imbalance is seen in the individuals, during this penalty period and afterward, because of limited occupational participation. As an occupational being, this affects their physical, mental and psychological well-being. Imprisonment is an important practice in criminal law to punish criminals. This may be necessary for the protection of society from criminals, but successful integration into a community after exiting the prison is the most important factor in preventing recidivism. Occupational therapy focuses on health and well-being by using meaningful and purposeful occupations. Occupation involves any activity that people perform or participate in, such as giving care to themselves or others, working, learning, playing games, and interacting with others. From this perspective, the role of occupational therapists in forensic settings is to determine the abilities of these individuals to congregate their deprived freedoms and use them to train them for an independent and autonomous life; to provide a professional orientation, career counseling, and self-esteem; to gain some habits for physical, spiritual and moral life and to reinforce.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Esma Ozkan, Sümeyye Belhan, Mahmut Yaran and Meral Zarif",authors:null},{id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]},{id:"62210",title:"Occupational Therapy’s Role in the Treatment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders",slug:"occupational-therapy-s-role-in-the-treatment-of-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders",totalDownloads:2756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapists (OT) offer a wide range of therapies for individuals with ASD on the basis of specific deficits and difficulties. This chapter explores the role that OT plays, and the expertise, in relation to the interdisciplinary team. In addition, it discusses and presents empirical support for several therapeutic approaches commonly used by OTs working with individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Bryan M. Gee, Amy Nwora and Theodore W. Peterson",authors:null},{id:"55049",title:"Community Participation in People with Disabilities",slug:"community-participation-in-people-with-disabilities",totalDownloads:2436,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Despite the fact that participation is an important building and a valuable target, the conceptualization, identification and measurement methods vary widely. This chapter tried to gain an insider’s perspective from the obstacles that summarize what meaning participation means, how to characterize it, and what prevents and supports participation. Participation is seen as a right and a responsibility attributed to and attributed to both the person and the community. Participation does not take place in a vacuum; the environment dynamically influences participation. The effects of this conceptual framework are discussed for change at the level of evaluation, research and systems to support the participation of the people with disability.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek and Gonca Bumin",authors:[{id:"32431",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonca",middleName:null,surname:"Bumin",slug:"gonca-bumin",fullName:"Gonca Bumin"},{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"198",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"