Comparison of fructose conversion between the outer heating and microwave heating[15]
\r\n\tThorough research and analyses of most upfront neuroimaging techniques and various in vivo applications of specific mapping of normal function and under diseases are the purpose of this book. This book would hopefully capture the interests of colleagues interested in neuroimaging principles and applications, research and developments, as well as disease diagnosis and treatment, and could help convey the methodological and developmental perspectives of brain function in the medical application and research field.
\r\n\t
As many noticeable studies are introduced in this book, microwave heating technique has gained high expectation for utilizing various chemical processes including material synthesis, organic synthesis and conversion of energy resource with high reaction and energy efficiency.For organic synthesis, Gedye et al.[1] and Giguere et al.[2] prove effectiveness of microwave heating to accelerate organic reactions.Comparison of the energy efficiency between a conventional oil bath synthesisand a microwave-assisted synthesis has indicated that a significant energy savings of up to85-fold can be expected using microwaves as an energy sourceon a laboratory scale[3]. It was also shown that microwave heating on organic chemical reaction had muchhigher yields within short reaction times for some products[4].These high efficiency wouldbe kept for a pilot scale plant and the plant must begreener chemical process because of pre-workup reduction and associated energy savings.
To develop an industrial process for a new chemical reaction, one has to grasp a correct kinetics of the reaction as a fundamental data to design a reactor and set an operating condition.Kinetic data can be measured using either batch reactor, semi batch reactor and flow reactor.However, the important points to evaluate kinetics are to keep operating condition constant and to know reaction time correctly.Particularly, it is quite difficult for a batch and a semi-batch reactor to be achieved to a desired temperature rapidly and/or cooled down to enough low temperature spontaneously.
Furthermore, chemical reaction is affected with mass transfer occurring at phase boundary.Ionic liquid, which is widely investigated as reaction media for biomass conversion, is high viscous liquid depending on a solute concentration, amount of additive and temperature and a reaction in it is sometimes controlled by flow dynamics in a reactor.To know the effect of mass transfer on reaction kinetics, in-situ observation often provides a meaningful hint.
Advantage of microwave irradiation is capable of rapid heating via absorption of a heated target, mainly dielectric substance like water, carbon, some kinds of metal oxides, and so on.Now we consider microwave irradiation for high pressure vessel containing water.That is, to keep liquid phase of water over 100 ˚C, a pressure vessel has to be used to resist higher pressure than atmospheric one.In the high pressure vessel for microwave irradiation, rapid cool down is typically impossible due to lower heat transfer of a material (ceramics and plastics are used in a commercial set up) for the high pressure vessel.To cool down rapidly using air blow, which is a simple way for cooling, a metal material is favorable owing to its high heat conductivity (heat conductivity of stainless steel is around 20).But a metal material reflects microwave and it is not heated up by microwave irradiation.On the other hand, a microwave-transparent material has low heat conductivity (heat conductivity of ceramics is single digit and that of plastics is one digit smaller than ceramics) and rapid cooling by air blow can not be expected.In addition, high pressure vessel for microwave irradiation is composed of visible light-proof materials (which does not allow visible light pass through), for example, alumina, Teflon, and so on, and in-situ observation of reaction behavior in the vessel is basically impossible.To overcome these disadvantages, we developed a novel high-pressure reactor for microwave irradiation, which is capable of rapid heating, rapid cooling and in-situ observation.The key points of the reaction vessel are three as follows: (1) a commercial Pyrex glass cup and polycarbonate (PC) tube, of which transparency for visible light are quite high, are employed to compose the vessel as inner and outer tube, respectively, (2) heat insulating space between the inner glass and outer PC tube allow a reaction fluid in the glass cup to be heated up to 200 ˚C (PC is engineering plastics, however its heat tolerance is low and PC can normally be used up to 100 ˚C), and (3) the heat insulating space can be used for cooling unit after the reaction by introducing cooling water.The detail of the microwave setup and a typical procedure are describe below.
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the microwave apparatus.Figures 2 and 3 show cover shot of the setup and photograph of high pressure vessel (2 ~ 6 in Figure 1), respectively.The setup consists of a multimode microwave generator (1) μ-Reactor, SMW-087,2.45 GHz, maximum power 700 W, Shikoku Keisoku, Takamtsu, Japan)with a K-type thermocouple (2), a stirring system (5 and 15), a control box (16:, a high pressure reactor(consists of 3, 4, 6 and 7), a pressure gauge (8), an inert gas(Ar or N2) cylinder (13), a cooling water tank (18) and a vacuum pump (14). Thereactor was composed of an inner thick-wall Pyrex glass tube(4: HPG-10, volume 10 ml, maximum supporting pressure 10 MPa,TaiatsuTechno. Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), an outer PC tube (3) and two PEEK (Teflon or PC is OK depending on operating temperature) screw caps (6 and 7) with special seal joint (consists of stainless steel connectors, Teflon O-ring, and Viton O-ring) used to fix glasstube and PC tube. The thermocouple (2) is insertedinto the glass reactor (4) through a stainless steel sleeve and fixedwith the inner wall of microwave oven to avoid microwave leakagefrom the oven (for this reason, an aluminum plate is also placed on a hole opened at the top of the microwave oven) and sparks produced from the thermocouple. Sparks from the thermocouple have never observed during all the experiments.The leakage of microwave was monitored by a microwave surveymeter (Holiday Industries Inc., Model HI-1501) for safety andfound to be less than 1 mW/cm2 at distance of 5 cm far away fromthe microwave oven.The temperature inside the reactor is monitored and controlledby the control box (16). The temperature and power of microwavewere monitored and recorded using a computer (21).
Microwave heating experimental setup
Cover shot of microwave heating experimental setup
Photograph of high pressure vessel
A typical workup procedure for an experimentis as follows:Ansample solutionwhich must contain dielectric substance (water, polar solvents, ionic liquids,carbon, some kinds of metal oxides, etc) and sometimes a given amount of a catalyst are loaded into the glass tube (4) with a stirrer bar (5).Theglass tube (4) is mounted into a PC tube (3) that is closed with PEEKscrew caps (6 and 7: Teflon and PC caps are sometimes used depending on reaction temperature).This assembly is placed into the microwave oven (1) asshown in Figure 1.An inert gas (such as Ar and N2)is used for purging air inside the reactorat a pressure of about 1.2 MPa.Then a vacuum pump (14)evacuates air from the space between the inner glass tube (4) and the outerPC tube (3) to minimize conductive heat losses.Introduction of coolingwater into this vacuum space provided a method for rapidlycooling of the reactor.When microwave irradiation isstarted, the reaction mixture could be heated up to 200 ˚C within60 s depending on the kind and amount of materials and substrates.Figure 4 shows a temperature and power of microwave profile at the experiments of fructose conversion in water in the presence of TiO2 at 200 ˚C for 2 min 30 s.In this experiment, the reaction fluid was rapidly heated up to 200 ˚C for 30 s.After a desired reaction time passed,microwave irradiation was turned off, stop valve (V1) located at the line between the PC cap (6)and the vacuum pump (14) is closed, thevacuum pump (14) is stopped.After that,stop valve (V2) connected the line between the PC cap (6) and the cooling water tank (18)is opened to admitintroduction ofcooling water from tank (18) into the PC tube.By thecooling process, thereaction solution could rapidly be cooled down to below 80 ˚C within60 s.As shown in Figure 4, at the fructose conversion experiment in water, the solution in the reaction vessel was rapidly cooled down to 80 ˚C within 30 s.After cooling, stop valve (V4) at the opposite site of the inert gas cylinderis opened and the inert gas inside the glasstube (4) is discharged. The reactor is disassembled and the reaction solution is collected by washing the glass tube (4) with anamount of an appropriate solvent. During a reaction, reaction behavior can be observed from a observation window (17) and we sometimes record the images of some experiments with a digital video camera. One example is shown in the section of ionic liquid system concerning cellulose hydrolysis in an ionic liquid.
Temperature and power profile during a reaction
Special feature of microwave for improving reaction was noticed in organic synthesis for the first time.There have been many papers on microwave-assisted organic synthesis[1,\n\t\t\t\t\t5-\n\t\t\t\t\t9] and only a limited number of studies have been reported about biomass conversion into a chemical block[10–13].Here, we introduce four experimental results of biomass conversion in hydrothermal condition and ionic liquid systems.At first, fructose conversions into 5-hydroxylmethyl furfural (HMF), which is an important chemical block, in the presence of catalysts at hydrothermal condition[14] or in water mixture[15] are introduced.Second, we described partial oxidation of glycerol into formic acid with hydrogen peroxide at hydrothermal condition[16].Both the hydrothermal reactions are described in the next section.The third topic is glucose transformation into HMF in an ionic liquid.We compared kinetics and product distribution of these reactions by microwave heating with those by a heating bath (outer heating such as a fluidized sand bath, a molten salt bath and an oil bath, which are capable of rapid heating as same heating rate as microwave heating).Finally, we demonstrated usefulness of in-situ observation of cellulose hydrolysis in high pressure ionic liquid-water mixture for considering importance of mass transfer (or phase separation) on the hydrolysis.
For the experiments using the outer heating, procedures for loading and recovering the samples were basically the same as those used inthe microwave heating experiments, as explained in the previous section.Reactions were conductedwith stainless steel 316 tube bomb reactors (inner volume:6 mL).A given amount of solution (sample and solvent), catalyst (anatase TiO2 for the fructose conversion at hydrothermal condition, Dowex 50wx8-100 ion-exchange resin for that in water-acetone mixture, CrCl3 for glucose conversion in ionic liquid system), and/or additive(hydrogen peroxide for glycerol partial oxidation) wereloaded into the reactor.Then, purging air insidethe reactor was done by an inert gas (Ar or N2) and the gas was fed in the reactor at 1.2 MPa of pressure.After the loading, the reactor was submerged into a heating bath andheated up to targeted temperature.The heating rate of the outer heating was as the same as the microwave heating (within 90 s for either heating bathes employed in this study).Here, sands fluidized in the fluidizing sand bath are fused alumina particles and the salt in the molten salt bath is 50 wt% KNO3-50wt% NaNO3 salt mixture.Silicone oil was used for an oil bath used in the study on glucose conversion in an ionic liquid.After the reaction time was passed, the reactor was taken out of the bath and quenchedin a water bath that was at room temperature.The cooling rate in the water bath of the stainless steel reactor was also the same as that by the cooling system in the microwave setup.Before opening the reactor, the gas in the reactor was released.Even for the partial oxidation experiments, gas analysis was not conducted.The liquid samples in thereactor were collected with rinsing of the reactor with water.The solid in the recovered solution, namely anataseTiO2 or Dowex 50wx8-100 for the fructose reaction, was separated from the liquidsample by filtration before analysis.No solid was obtained at the partial oxidation of glycerol and the HMF formation from glucose
Firstly, the effect of microwave heating on the fructose conversion in hydrothermal condition[15] was mentioned.The experimental results are listed in Table 1 and parity plot of these values are plotted in Figure 5.The major products obtained by both the outer heating and the microwave heating, were glucose, HMF, furfural and organic acids (lactic acid, hydroxyacetone, formic acid, acetic acid and levulinic acid).The product yields for the experiments by microwave heating were totally higher than those by the outer heating.Especially, the most dominating product, HMF, was obtained much more for the microwave heating than for the outer heating.As shown in Table 1, for 3 min reaction time, the fructose conversion and HMF yields for the outer heating bath were 35 mol% and 12 mol%, respectively, while the corresponding values for the microwave heating were 73 mol% and 27 mol%, respectively.For 5 min of the reaction, the fructose conversion (65 mo% by the outer heating and 84 mol% by the microwave heating) and the HMF yield (27 mo% by the outer heating and 34 mol% by the microwave heating) were also enhanced.Both fructose conversions and HMF yields were enhanced with microwave heating compared with the outer heating, while the HMF selectivities obtained by the outer heating (34 % for 3 min and 41 % for 5 min) was almost the same as those by the microwave heating (38 % for 3 min and 40 % for 5 min).The parity plots of the reactions in the outer heating and the microwave heating clearly show the differences.Figure 5 apparently indicates that the microwave heating enhanced the total conversion of fructose but the reaction of fructose into HMF was not strongly affected by the heating method.It was well known that HMF was formed via dehydration from fructose and further reacted with water to form levulinic acid.At an early stage of the fructose reaction (namely shorter reaction time), HMF formation was dominantly occurred but the produced HMF was degraded into the other products at a latter stage of the reaction.As indicated in Table 1 and Figure 5, the HMF selectivity at the microwave heating for 3 min was a little higher than that at the outer heating.This probably indicated that the reaction pathway of HMF formation was slightly promoted by the microwave heating.
Time, min | Fructose conversion,mol % | HMFyield, mol % | HMF selectivity, % | |
Outer heating | 3 | 35.3 | 12.1 | 34.3 |
5 | 65.3 | 26.9 | 41.2 | |
Microwave heating | 3 | 73.1 | 27.9 | 38.2 |
5 | 84.1 | 33.5 | 39.8 |
Comparison of fructose conversion between the outer heating and microwave heating[15]
Parity plotof the fructose conversion at hydrothermal condition: comparison of fructose conversion, HMF yield and HMF selectivity between the outer heating and the microwave heating
The dehydration of D-fructose (2 wt%) in an acetone–water mixture (70 : 30, w/w) with an ion-exchange resin as catalyst by convectiveheating (sand bath) and microwave irradiation heating was also studied at 150 ˚C with keeping liquid phase by giving over the vapor pressure (Table 2 and Figure 6).Figure 6 is also parity plot as well as Figure 5.That is, when a plot in the graph is higher than X=Y line, the phenomenon is favored to be occurred by the microwave heating.As shown in Figure 6, microwave irradiation was significantly more efficient not only for fructose conversion but also for 5-HMF yields.In addition, the selectivity of HMF formation by the microwave heating was slightly higher that by the outer heating.
Reaction time, min | Fructose conversion, mol% | HMF Yield, mol% | HMF Selectivity, % | |
Outer heating | 5 | 7.8 | 5.7 | 73.1 |
10 | 22.1 | 13.9 | 62.9 | |
Microwave heating | 5 | 64.5 | 54.0 | 83.7 |
10 | 91.7 | 70.3 | 76.7 |
Comparison of fructose conversion between the outer heating and microwave heating[16]
Parity plotof the fructose conversion in acetone-water mixture: comparison of fructose conversion, HMF yield and HMF selectivity between the outer heating and the microwave heating
Figure 7 shows the experimental results of partial oxidation of glycerol in hydrothermal condition[16].The reaction condition was 0.5 of ER, 200 ˚C of reaction temperature, 10 min of reaction time.Here, ER is equivalent ratio of oxygen and is defined as below:
1 mole of glycerol (C3H8O3) was completely oxidized by 7/2 moles of O2 into 3 moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O.1 mole of hydrogen peroxide is decomposed into 1 mole of H2O and 1/2 moles of O2 and so the ratio of glycerol to hydrogen peroxide in the batch type reactor (high pressure glass reactor for the microwave heating and stainless steel reactor for the outer heating) was 1:3.5.Here we focused on formic acid formation from glycerol because formic acid was expected as a sustainable hydrogen storage resource because it can easily decompose into hydrogen when needed[16].
As shown in Figure 7, glycerol conversion and formic acid yield obtained by the microwave heating was a little higher than those by the outer heating. For the selectivity of formic acid formation, the microwave heating also enhanced.
Parity plotof the glycerol partial oxidation: comparison of heating method for glycerol partial oxidation (200 ˚C, 10 min, ER = (oxygen atom in the reactor)/(oxygen molecular atom for complete oxidation) = 0.5)
In ionic liquid, 1-methyl-3-butyl imidazolium chloride,[Bmim][Cl], glucose conversion into HMF in the presence of CrCl3 was carried out with outer heating (oil bath heating) and microwave heating at identical conditions for twotemperatures, shown in Table 3. To compare the differences between the outer heating and the microwave heating, the experimental data are plotted in Figure8 as parity plot.It was apparently seen that both glucose conversion and the reaction pathway to HMF formations were promoted some degrees by microwave irradiation.
Reaction temperature, ˚C | Reaction time, min | Glucose conversion,mol% | HMF yield, mol% | HMF selectivity, % | |
Outer heating | 120 | 5 | 63 | 45 | 71.4 |
140 | 0.5 | 68 | 48 | 70.6 | |
Microwave heating | 120 | 5 | 89 | 67 | 75.3 |
140 | 0.5 | 96 | 71 | 74.0 |
Comparison of glucose conversion between the outer heating and microwave heating[18]
Parity plotof the glucose conversion: comparison of glucose conversion, HMF yield and HMF selectivity between the outer heating and the microwave heating
As introduced the above sections, the enhancement of reaction rate and some degrees of change of reaction pathway were seen for glucose, glycerol and fructose conversion in water and ionic liquid system.Microwave effect has been considered as thermal and/or specific effect.
Lidstroem et al. reviewed microwave-assisted organic syntheis[18].In their review, they mentioned that some organic reactions were speeded up by microwave heating and the enhancement of the chemical reactions was mainly resulted in the difference of temperature between conductive heating (heat transferred from outer heating source) and inner heating (heat.is directly supplied by microwave heating).Conventionally, a typical organic synthesis is conducted with glassware and heat transfer from outer heater to a reaction fluid in the glass is slow.On the other hand, microwave heating is capable of rapid heating because of direct energy supply to the reaction fluid.Also, microwave is sometimes absorbed heterogeneously in a reaction vessel and hot spot (regionally higher temperature place exist in the reaction system) is probably encountered.The difference of temperature profile and/or the existence of the hot spot would affect chemical reactions and the researcher considered that microwave has some specific effect on some reactions.At the experimental studies described in this chapter, the heating profiles and the final temperature for both the reactions by the outer heating and the microwave heating were tried to be identical and thus the effect of the achieved temperature and the heating rate on the reaction could be excluded from the reason of the difference of the biomass conversions.For the viewpoint of hot spot, it is difficult to know whether hot spot exit or not, however the explanation of the reason why the reaction behavior was changed by the microwave heating is difficult.At all of the biomass conversion introduced in this chapter, selectivity of the product was also enhanced and it means that microwave selectively enhanced a specific reaction pathway.This promotion of specific reaction can not be explained from the thermal effect.
It has been known that some difficult-to-rationalize effects (which are referred as specific or nonthermal effects) were seen in some organic reactions[6].In general, specific effect of microwave has been proposed to be the result of a direct interaction of dipoles in an electric field with a specific functional group in the reaction medium.It has been argued that there is a decrease in activation energy1[9] or an increase in the pre-exponential factor in the Arrhenius law due to enhanced orientation effects of polar species in an electromagnetic field that lower steric hindrances[5,20].Some researchers have proposed that the effective collision among reactant molecules under microwave irradiation is enhanced and result in the pre-exponential factor in the Arrhenius law increases[5].Furthermore, a similar effect should be observed for chemical reaction between reactants containing polar groups, where the rotation of polar species increases and the molecules effectively leads to activation (from ground state to transition state) under the microwave irradiation, thus enhance the reactivity by lowering the activation energy[5].Bren et al.[21] proposed a novel physical mechanism for microwave catalysis based on rotationally excited reactive species and verify its validity through a computer simulation of a realistic chemical reaction.They thought that the rotation rate of polar molecules are enhanced under the microwave irradiation, this gives a higher rotational temperature than the translational temperature.The activation free energy is reduced when the rotational temperature is higher than the translational temperature, which constitutes a catalytic effect.These specific effects of microwave heating on organic reactions including thermal effect like hot spot and molecule-level phenomenon and it is difficult to be clarified experimentally.To reveal the effect of “specific effect” of microwave irradiationmolecular level studies such as quantum chemical calculations is strongly required.
Finally, in this section, we describe usefulness of the microwave setup developed by us for in-situ observation.Here, cellulose hydrolysis in ionic liquid ([Bmim][Cl]) is picked up.Figure 9 shows effect of loading amount of reaction fluid (5 wt% cellulose ionic liquid solution) in the high pressure glass reactor (4 in Figure 1) on cellulose hydrolysis.When cellulose hydrolysis progresses stoichiometrically, 3.1×10-4 mole (which is equal to glucose unit in 0.05g of cellulose) of water is required in the cease of 1 g of the amount of the solution.The water content in the solution in[Bmim][Cl] that was used in this study was 0.8 wt% (4.4×10-4 mole) and it was enough amount for cellulose hydrolysis.Reaction temperature was 120 ˚C and reaction time was 20 min.To keep water liquid phase, 1.2 MPa of inert gas was loaded before heating up to 120 ˚C.Catalyst was Amberlyst-15 and its amount was equal to the loaded amount of cellulose (thus when 1 g of the solution was loaded in the reactor, 0.05 g of Amberlyst-15 was loaded).As shown in this figure, with increasing the amount of the solution, glucose yield gradually decreased.More than 3g of the solution in the reactor, glucose yield changed unsteadily with increasing the amount of the solution.Figure 10 shows in-situ observation of cellulose hydrolysis when 3 g of the solution was loaded.As shown in Figure 10, ionic liquid ([Bmim][Cl]), cellulose, and water were miscible at first (Figure 10-1). With progressing hydrolysis of cellulose, phase separation was observed (Figure 10-2).Further progression of the reaction, water-rich phase (upper phase in the reactor) was completely separated from ionic liquid-rich phase (lower phase) and cellulose layer was also observed between the upper and lower phase (Figure 10-3).
Effect of loading amount of cellulose solution on glucose yield from cellulose hydrolysis in[Bmim][Cl] in the presence of Amberlyst-15
In-situ observation of cellulose hydrolysis in ionic liquid and water mixture.
Viscosity of ionic liquid is high, particularly when ionic liquid contains cellulose and the viscosity of the ionic liquid solution is much higher than pure ionic liquid.During the hydrolysis, the viscosity of the reaction fluid gradually decreases with increasing product (mainly glucose) yield.When stirring in the reactor was insufficiency, viscosity and density of the solution was disproportionate.In addition, the solid catalyst was used and it was aggregated when the viscosity (and density) was heterogeneously distributed.The phase boundary formed with unreacted cellulose prohibited mass transfer and the disproportion of the solution was accelerated.Surely, although there are several reasons for explaining the reaction behavior shown in Figure 9, the effect of mass transfer (also phase behavior) has to be the main factor for reducing glucose yield.
In this chapter, we only introduce one example for effectiveness of in-situ observation but in-situ observation definitely provides a useful hint for considering kinetics of many reactions.Our microwave system employs both microwave- and visible light-transparent material for high pressure reactor and whole the reactor can be observed during the reaction.
A novel high pressure reactor was introduced in this chapter.The apparatus allows kinetic study because of rapid heating and rapid cooling.Also in-situ observation inside a reactor during reaction is possible.
Here, dehydration of fructose into hydroxymethylfurfral (it is a chemical block made from lignocellulose material for biomass refinery), glycerol into formic acid, and glucose into HMF werementioned.All of the reactions were affected by microwave irradiation.Through the experimental results, we tried to discuss the effect of microwave irradiation.
The usefulness of in-situ observation for cellulose hydrolysis in[Bmim][Cl] was shown.During the reaction, phase was changed from homogeneous into heterogeneous and it was considered that the phase change mainly resulted in inhibition of cellulose hydrolysis.
Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites feeding on vertebrates’ blood through piercing the hosts’ skin to suck the blood. To-date, approximately 3500 species of the Culicidae have been described. The family Culicidae is a large and abundant group which occurs throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world and well beyond the Arctic Circle [1]. There are two subfamilies of Culicidae, that is, the Anophelinae (3 genera) and the Culicinae (110 genera). The subfamily Culicidae, Aedes is the largest tribe of mosquitoes with 1256 species classified into 10 genera: Aedes sensu (931), Armigeres (58), Eretmapodites (48), Haemagogus (28), Heizmannia (38), Opifex (2), Psorophora (49), Udaya (3), Verrallina (95), and Zeugnomyia (4) [2].
\nThe public health concern of Aedes mosquitoes particularly Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus in the transmission of arboviruses such as dengue virus, chikungunya virus, ZIKV virus, and yellow fever virus is kept on increasing globally. Over half of the world’s population is at risk of dengue and chikungunya infections [3]. The Caribbean, South America, and Europe are no longer spared from chikungunya infection, a disease which was previously limited to Africa and Asia [3]. According to the World Health Organization, about 2.5 billion people globally live in dengue endemic regions [4]. Dengue is the most worldwide important mosquito-transmitted viral infection [4]. Over 100 countries in Africa, North and South America, Southeast Asia, Europe, and the Pacific are reported to have had severe dengue outbreaks [5]. The annual occurrence of dengue fever infections ranges from 50 to 100 million with which around 500,000 facing severe morbidity causing to over 20,000 mortalities, pediatrics beings the most cases [5]. The chikungunya virus infections (CHIKV) have been documented in over 60 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas [6]. The estimated number of chikungunya cases in Americas in 2016 was 693,000, and Zika virus (ZIKV) disease was 500,000 [6, 7]. Yellow fever cases in Africa were 130,000 with an estimated 31,000 annual disability adjusted life years and 500 deaths [8, 9].
\nAbout 80% of the world’s population is at risk for at least of exposure to one vector-borne disease; these diseases account for about 17% of the estimated global burden of communicable diseases and cause over 700,000 deaths annually, affecting disproportionately poorer populations [6, 9]. They hamper economic development through direct medical costs and indirect costs such as the loss of productivity and tourism. The social, demographic, and environmental factors strongly influence transmission patterns of vector-borne pathogens. Vector control is an important component for decision science in the prevention and control of vector-borne disease approaches. Consequently, the global distribution and ecology of these vectors and the geographical determinants of their ranges are essential in order to be effective. Therefore, it is important to work out where these mosquito species are found around the globe to identify the areas at risk. It is also important to predict where these species could become established if they were introduced, in order to identify areas that could become at risk in the future.
\nAe. aegypti and Ae. albopictus are worldwide distributed between 35° N and 35° S, latitudes that roughly correspond to a 10°C winter isotherm which appears to be the limiting temperatures that the species can tolerate while overwintering [5]. The species are highly adapted to urban environments, breeding in stagnant water found in manufactured containers, garbage heaps, and tyres. However, the distribution of Ae. albopictus has been highly biased to temperate climates [10] though the vector is now widely distributed throughout the Americas (excluding Canada), Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific [11].
\nThe geographic distribution of Ae. aegypti based on the order of higher levels of occurrence for each continent reveals that in the Americas, the Brazil ranks the highest (Table 1). In Africa, occurrence of the vectors have been recorded in Senegal, Cameroon, Kenya, Tanzania, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Madagascar, Gabon, and Sierra Leone (Table 1). In Asia/Oceania, occurrence of Ae. aegypti has been reported and documented (Table 1) [3, 12].
\n\n | Country | \nOccurrences | \n\n | Country | \nOccurrences | \n\n | Country | \nOccurrences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ae. aegypti | \n||||||||
Americas | \nBrazil | \n5044 | \nEurope/Africa | \nSenegal | \n112 | \nAsia/Oceania | \nTaiwan | \n9490 | \n
USA | \n436 | \nCameroon | \n55 | \nIndonesia | \n603 | \n|||
Mexico | \n411 | \nKenya | \n52 | \nThailand | \n495 | \n|||
Cuba | \n177 | \nUnited Republic of Tanzania | \n44 | \nIndia | \n423 | \n|||
Argentina | \n170 | \nCôte d’Ivoire | \n40 | \nAustralia | \n282 | \n|||
Trinidad and Tobago | \n152 | \nNigeria | \n35 | \nViet Nam | \n223 | \n|||
Venezuela | \n130 | \nMadagascar | \n28 | \nMalaysia | \n112 | \n|||
Colombia | \n128 | \nGabon | \n27 | \nSingapore | \n44 | \n|||
Puerto Rico | \n120 | \nMayotte | \n20 | \nPhilippines | \n36 | \n|||
Peru | \n89 | \nSierra Leone | \n20 | \nCambodia | \n29 | \n|||
Ae. albopictus | \n||||||||
Americas | \nBrazil | \n3441 | \nEurope/Africa | \nItaly | \n203 | \nAsia/Oceania | \nTaiwan | \n15,339 | \n
USA | \n1594 | \nMadagascar | \n58 | \nMalaysia | \n186 | \n|||
Mexico | \n50 | \nCameroon | \n42 | \nIndonesia | \n161 | \n|||
Cayman Islands | \n15 | \nFrance | \n37 | \nIndia | \n150 | \n|||
Haiti | \n13 | \nGabon | \n27 | \nJapan | \n97 | \n|||
Guatemala | \n12 | \nAlbania | \n22 | \nThailand | \n82 | \n|||
Venezuela | \n7 | \nMayotte | \n21 | \nSingapore | \n44 | \n|||
Colombia | \n3 | \nGreece | \n18 | \nLao People’s Democratic Republic | \n26 | \n|||
Cuba | \n3 | \nIsrael | \n17 | \nPhilippines | \n22 | \n|||
Puerto Rico | \n3 | \nLebanon | \n15 | \nViet Nam | \n18 | \n
The Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus distribution globally.
Note: This table was contributed by Kramer a leading author of the paper published in E-life journal (
Ae. aegypti is an arthropod closely associated with humans and their habitats. They are mostly anthropophilic [13] with high preference to the urban environment [14]. They get blood meals from human, and human creates conducive environment for their population growth through up haphazardly disposal of water-holding containers/obsoletes around our homes. The mosquito lays her eggs on the sides of containers with water, and eggs hatch into larvae after a rain or flooding. A larva changes into a pupa in about a week and into a mosquito in 2 days. The Aedes main habitat is aquatic, and they can thrive better from tree cavities to toilets. People also furnish shelter as Ae. aegypti preferentially rests in darker cool areas, such as closets leading to their ability to bite indoors.
\nAe. aegypti has adaptations to the environment that makes them highly resilient, or with the ability to rapidly bounce back to initial numbers after disturbances resulting from natural phenomena (e.g., droughts) or human interventions (e.g., control measures). One such adaptation is the ability of the eggs to withstand desiccation (drying) and to survive without water for several months on the inner walls of containers. For example, if we were to eliminate all larvae, pupae, and adult Ae. aegypti at once from a site, its population could recover 2 weeks later as a result of egg hatching following rainfall or the addition of water to containers harboring eggs.
\nIt is likely that Ae. aegypti is continually responding or adapting to environmental change. For example, it was recently found that Ae. aegypti is able to undergo immature development in broken or open septic tanks resulting in the production of hundreds or thousands of Ae. aegypti adults per day. In general, it is expected that control interventions will change the spatial and temporal dispersal of Ae. aegypti and perhaps the pattern of habitat utilization.
\nAedes albopictus (Stegomyia albopicta), from the mosquito (Culicidae) family, also known as (Asian) tiger mosquito or forest mosquito, is a mosquito native to the tropical and subtropical areas of Southeast Asia; however, in the past few decades, this species has spread to many countries through the transport of goods and international travel [15]. The eggs of Ae. albopictus are desiccation resistant, which enhance survival in inhospitable environments [16]. Ae. albopictus is among the aggressive outdoor species of mosquito, and they are day biter that has a very broad host range and attacks humans, livestock, amphibians, reptiles, and birds [17]. Their biting rate level can be as high as 30 to 48 bites per hour [18]. Ae. albopictus survives at a large range of temperatures [19].
\nAe. albopictus is a treehole mosquito, and so its breeding places in nature are small, restricted, shaded bodies of water surrounded by vegetation. It inhabits densely vegetated rural areas. However, its ecological flexibility allows it to colonize many types of man-made sites and urban regions. It may reproduce in cemetery flowerpots, birdbaths, soda cans and abandoned containers, and water recipients. Tyres are particularly useful for mosquito reproduction as they are often stored outdoors and effectively collect and retain rainwater for a long time. The addition of decaying leaves from the neighboring trees produces chemical conditions similar to tree holes, which provides an excellent substrate for breeding. Ae. albopictus can also establish and survive throughout nonurbanized areas lacking any artificial containers, raising additional public health concerns for rural areas [17].
\nAedes mosquito species, Ae. aegypti, and Ae. albopictus are major public health concern due to their role in transmission of diseases [3]. Ae. aegypti mosquito is widespread in (sub-)tropical regions and is largely responsible for vector-borne arboviral infections, yellow fever virus (YFV), ZIKV, dengue virus (DENV), West Nile virus (WNV), CHIKV and transmission, and outbreaks in various regions [3, 7]. The Ae. aegypti is known to have high vectorial capacity due to its anthropophilic behavior, well domesticated, and adapted to survive in different geographical regions including Africa, Americas, Asia, and Europe [1, 3].
\nThe Aedes spp. mosquitoes are known to have a complex life cycle involving aquatic and terrestrial life [2]. Mosquitoes acquire the infection after a blood-meal form the host in order for the eggs to develop. The vector needs water to lay their eggs in the preferred breeding container, including tyres, water storage containers, disposed tyres, coconut shells, and flowerpots [20]. Aedes spp. prefers to lay their eggs on the inner wet walls of containers with water, hence the name “container breeder”. The development of the eggs occurs between 2 and 7 days in the aquatic phase (Figure 1) where the larvae hatch from the eggs. The larva survival depends on the microorganisms found in the aquatic environment. Larvae go through developmental stages (stage 1–4) in which they molt or shed their skin; these larval stages are called the first to fourth instars [20]. When a larva is a fully grown fourth instar, it undergoes metamorphosis into a new form called a pupa in approximately 4 days, the “cocoon” stage for the mosquito. This developmental stage of the mosquitoes also occurs in the aquatic environment. After 1–2 days, the fully developed adult mosquito forms and breaks through the skin of the pupa and a fully grown adult emerges. The adult mosquito is able to fly and has a terrestrial habitat inhabiting inside and outside households [20].
\nAedes mosquito life cycle in aquatic and terrestrial phases.
Interestingly, Aedes has developed a survival mechanism during the dry seasons; the eggs can enter a dormancy (quiescence) for up to 8 months at the end of embryogenesis [21]. If the habitat is dry, the eggs remain dormant but after rainfall, the eggs hatch and development continues [20]. In addition to being desiccation resistant, Aedes spp. is well adapted to produce, eggs can withstand months of dormancy, so-called “extended quiescence” in the unfavorable abiotic environment [21]. The male Aedes spp. mosquitoes feed on flowers’ nectar or plant juices, unlike the female that needs a blood meal [22]. The vector becomes infected when they feed on infected humans, and transmission may occur when the vector bites the host, which is believed to be promoted by mosquito salivary protein.
\nHistorically, Ae. aegypti is believed to have originated from zoophilic subspecies Ae. Aegypti formosus inhabiting forests in sub-Saharan Africa [12]. This subspecies is found in the forests, breed in the tree holes and feeding on other mammals. The evolution of the ancestral Ae. aegypti resulted in the domesticated Ae. aegypti subspecies with a strong preference for biting humans and breed in man-made containers [20]. This evolved as the dominant vector of several diseases including yellow fever and DENV, ZIKV infections worldwide. The domestication of the vector was associated with the human migrations, trade, transportation, and urbanization [20, 23]. The domestic Ae. aegypti thrive in (sub-)tropical and temperate regions and can inhabit either terrestrial or aquatic depending on the stages of the growth. Ae. aegypti is primarily a container breeding vector and is known to predominate in urban areas where there is the vast composition of favorable man-made breeding container environment [20]. The breeding sites range from natural to artificial including vegetation, discarded tyres, discarded containers, bottle tops, water storage containers (especially in places with erratic tap water supply), flowerpots and vases, metal drums, and coconut shells [9, 24]. Other breeding sites include the open or unsealed septic tanks, water wells, and water meters. The ecological factors determine the crucial characteristics of different stages of the life and eventually its success. The Ae. aegypti larvae feed on nutritious materials available in the aqueous phase in the breeding containers including the plant particles, animal debris, and phytoplankton such as microalgae found in the water-filled containers [25]. The ecological characteristics are important in the life cycle of the adult vector including the longevity, fecundity body mass, and vectorial competence [26]. For instance, some algae species, Cladophora sp., Chlorella ellipsoidea, and Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, were shown to exhibit larvicidal properties that affect the development of the immature stages [25]. Evidence suggests that the developmental stage from first instar larval stage to adult mosquito is faster when the organic matters are abundant in the breeding container, in addition, the survival rate of the immature stage is enhanced [27]. In contrast, low concentration or exhaustion of the nutrients is required to trigger pupation presumably in response to the increasing level of ecdysteroid hormone [3, 28, 29]. Temperature is important for the survival larva density and competence of the Ae. aegypti. In areas where the temperature is warmer, the development of the aquatic stage temperature was associated with shorter development time from hatch to the emergence of the adult mosquito [4]. Similarly, longer light exposure was also shown to shorten the development time [30]. The evidence explains the widespread distribution and pattern of Ae. aegypti in (sub-)tropical regions. Furthermore, evidence suggests increasing Ae. aegypti abundance in urban areas leading to outbreaks [31]. It is evident that developing countries are becoming more urbanized; however, poor city planning and sanitation have increased mosquito breeding sites [7]. The “ecological plasticity” exhibited by the vector is arguably among the reasons for reason that explain it its worldwide widespread and success as a human vector.
\nThe emergence of insecticide resistance to multiple classes of insecticides has been widely reported in Ae. aegypti in different regions [24, 32, 33, 34]. WHO defines resistance as the ability of mosquitoes to survive exposure to a standard dose of insecticide; this ability may be the result of physiological or behavioral adaptation [35]. The emergence and spread of resistance to the main insecticides could compromise the effectiveness of the preventive measures, operational implementation of control programs, and outbreak management.
\nThere are three major categories of insecticide resistance that have been described, namely, physiological resistance (target-site resistance and metabolic resistance) and behavioral avoidance. First, physiological resistance may develop due to the target-site resistance. Target site mutations are known to cause amino acid substitutions, which could affect the influx of insecticides into the target site. This may compromise the action of the insecticide rendering the vector tolerant or fully resistant to the insecticide. Another form of physiological resistance is due to metabolic resistance due to detoxification of insecticides by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases which allow the resistant vector to metabolize insecticides [36]. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and carboxylesterases (ESTs) are also described in this process. Over expression of P450s was associated with insecticide resistance in diverse vector species including Ae. aegypti [37]. The resistant vectors accumulate high levels of efficient enzymes that detoxify the toxins. The second mechanism of resistance is known as behavioral adaptation or avoidance of the vector, this is well characterized in Anopheles mosquitoes. Therefore, monitoring insecticide resistance is crucial in the implementation of vector control strategies.
\nIn Tanzania, like many other African settings, there is limited information on the Ae. aegypti resistance, most of the resistance data were collected mainly in the Americas and Asia. Our recent study in Dar es Salaam [24] demonstrated that the majority of Ae. aegypti strains were resistant to pyrethroid class of insecticide; mortality ranging from 83 to 92% in Dar es Salaam City. Data on molecular markers of resistance are scarce; however, studies elsewhere have correlated the occurrence of the knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations and resistance to pyrethroid and DDT [29, 34, 37, 38].
\nThe mechanism of action of the pyrethroid compounds is through their toxic effect and subsequent disruption of the VGS channels in the insect nervous system [32]. The evidence suggests that Ae. aegypti resistance to pyrethroids is conferred by the kdr mutations in the VGS channel [29, 39]. Nonsynonymous mutations in kdr gene are associated with insecticide resistance to DDT and pyrethroids on codon V1016I and F1534C in domains II and III of the VSG channel in Aedes spp. [40]. Other studies demonstrated the role of kdr gene mutation I1011M/V and F1269C in association with Ae. aegypti resistance [33, 34, 41]. In African settings, the occurrence of F1534C in concurrence with the V1016I mutation was also observed in Ghanaian Ae. aegypti population [42]. The more recent study demonstrated the significant role of kdr mutation V410L alone or in combination with the F1534C in reducing the sensitivity of Ae. aegypti to both type I (e.g., permethrin) and type II (e.g., deltamethrin) pyrethroids [32].
\nIn addition to the kdr mutations, metabolic resistance is also know to lead to a physiological resistance due to the increase in the synthesis of detoxifying enzymes or in their specificity to metabolize the insecticide, both resulting in an enhancement of the insect detoxifying capacity of the vector [43, 44]. The P450 monooxygenases were shown to play a significant role in modulating resistance as revealed by high-throughput assays, by comparing the overall profile at genomic and transcriptome levels between resistant and susceptible populations [37]. A study that characterized several P450s, four CYP’s, 9 J32, 9 J24, 9 J26, and 9 J28, conferring insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti [37]. The CYPs were shown to be capable of metabolizing deltamethrin and permethrin; two common pyrethroid-based insecticides are widely used in vector interventions. Furthermore, there is evidence on the role of glutathione transferase (GST) enzymes in conferring resistance to several classes of insecticides [45]. In Ae. aegypti, the GST occurs as a cluster of genes in chromosome 2 and is shown to play a significant role in the metabolism of DDT [46]. Over expression of the GST enzyme is associated with DDT and pyrethroid resistant in Ae. aegypti populations. We, therefore, characterized additional members of this class in Ae. aegypti and provide evidence for a role of two additional GSTs in conferring resistance to insecticides.
\nThus is defined as the ability of a vector to detect and escape from an insecticide-treated area and avoid the toxin. This type of resistance has been shown in different classes of insecticides, including organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids [47]. It has been shown that vectors are capable of avoiding feeding if they come across certain insecticides or escape the area sprayed with the insecticides. There are currently limited studies exploring this mechanism of resistance in Ae. aegypti. This paucity of information could hamper control programs since insecticide resistance could spread and render the insecticides ineffective. Therefore, more studies to assess the current susceptibility status of insecticides used for vector control are needed to describe the status to support control strategies.
\nAe. aegypti mosquito is a major vector of dengue virus represented by four closely related serotypes called dengue 1, 2, 3, and 4 cause different illness including dengue fever, dengue shock syndrome, and dengue haemorrhagic fever. Dengue virus (DENV) belonging to the family Flaviviridae and genus Flavivirus [48].
\nTransmission of dengue fever (DF) occurs when a female Aedes spp. mosquito obtains its blood meal from an infected person during the period of viraemia. Mosquito-borne viruses multiply in both invertebrate and vertebrate cells where they cause cytopathic effects and cell destruction. Vector mosquitoes become infected when they feed on blood of a viremic vertebrate host in which there are sufficient circulating viral particles to provide an infectious dose to the mosquito.
\nA mosquito with salivary gland infection may transmit infectious virions during salivation as it probes the tissues of another vertebrate host. Transovarial transmission of virions occurs from the female mosquito to her progeny, and females of the next generation can transmit the virus orally without having been infected through blood feeding. There is also a venereal transmission of some arboviruses from male to female mosquito as observed and reported by Amarasinghe and others [49] (Figure 2).
\nArboviral transmission cycle vectored by Aedes mosquitoes.
Transmission of dengue virus occurs in 3 cycle, namely, enzootic cycle, epizootic cycle, and epidemic cycle. The enzootic cycle involves monkey-Aedes-monkey cycle, and this cycle is primitive and has been reported in South Asia and Africa [50]. The second is epizootic cycle, which involves the transmission of dengue virus from nonhuman primates to the next human in epidemic cycles by Aedes mosquito. Lastly, the epidemic cycle where the transmission cycle is through human Ae. aegypti contact, human cycle with periodic, or cyclical epidemic (Figure 2).
\nIn this life cycle (human-to-Ae. aegypti mosquito-to-human cycle), the main dengue virus transmission is through mosquito that usually acquires the virus after feeding on the blood of an infected person. Replication of the virus occurs in the epithelial lining of the mosquito’s midgut and then the virus move to haemocoele to infect the salivary glands. The virus can be transmitted though saliva during probing or blood feeding. The extrinsic incubation period may take 8–12 days, and this mosquito remains infected in all her life [50].
\nInfected humans are the major carriers of the virus where mosquito can acquire the virus through biting. The incubation time varies from virus to virus, but generally, arboviruses exhibit between 2–15 days from inoculation to development of clinical symptoms. During this period, Aedes mosquito can acquire the virus after feeding this person.
\nThe reemergence of dengue disease in other places may be associated with the transovarial (via the eggs) transmission of dengue virus by Ae. aegypti. Dengue fever cannot spread directly from one person to another. Usually, Ae. aegypti prefers to feed mammalian hosts and will like to feed on humans, and even in the presence of other hosts (anthropophilic behavior), this behavior together with multiple feeding habit and highly domesticated behavior can make it an efficient vector.
\nUsually, dengue transmission occurs in rainy seasons with appropriate temperature and humidity for surviving of adult and larva mosquito. On the other hand, in arid areas, the rainfall is scant, and therefore, during the dry season, the man-made containers become the main breeding sites for the Aedes mosquito. Therefore, this can increase disease transmission.
\nIn the ambient temperature, the life cycle of Aedes is shortening; also, there is production of small size mosquitoes, which may lead to the reduction of extrinsic incubation period. This small size mosquito may take more blood meal for egg production, which may lead to the increase in the number of infected mosquito and speedup the disease epidemic in the next dry season [50, 51, 52].
\nSeveral entomological factors have been associated with the initiation and maintenance of the epidemic including behavior, density, and vectorial capacity of mosquito vector population and introduction of the virus into a community.
\nThis can be done by professionals by giving the public awareness, which can help to empower people to take control of mosquito breedings around their surroundings and adult control. The public can be provided with the tools needed to reduce mosquito annoyance. This is when the community, families, and individuals involved in planning and implementation of local vector control activities in order to ensure that the program meets priorities and the needs of the people in the community.
\nFrequent larval breeding sites should be searched and treated as frequent as possible by trained field technicians and trained community members. Mosquito elimination in larval stages before emerging to adults will reduce the adult mosquito population. Reduction of mosquito breeding sites such as jars, barrels, pots, vases, bottles, tins, water coolers, and tyres can be done by environmental management, removing of solid waste and managing artificial man-made habitats. All domestic water storage containers should be cleaned and covered daily.
\nThis should aim to control Ae. aegypti population. The use of insecticides such as lambda cyhalothrin- or deltamethrin-treated material by hanging them on windows and used as water jar covers may reduce Ae. aegypti population [53]. The use of insecticide space spraying, coils, and vaporizers in the community may reduce the mosquito population.
\nApplication of repellents such as DEET, DIMP, and of like is of paramount importance in reducing or controlling human to vector contact. The application should be done during active hours of the day.
\nSurveillance is important detect mosquito species in a certain area and changes in populations. By having valuable data, we are capable of more successfully time larvicide applications and more correctly target the adulticide activities. The WHO recommends of regular household surveys of Aedes spp. collecting evidence on the ecological and epidemiological indices to guide prevention and control strategies. This involves determining the habitat productivity, preference of the breeding sites, containers for the presence of egg, larvae and pupae as well as the collection of adult mosquitoes for further identification. Larval surveys involve identifying the presence of immature mosquitoes in breeding sites such as discarded tyres, containers, and water storage vases in the defined targeted area. Through this assessment, it is possible to identify most containers that are positive for Aedes spp. and parameters such Container Index (CI) and Breteau Index (BI) [6]. On the other hand, pupal survey is performed in houses and other breeding sites to identify the productivity in the breeding habitat [7]. In addition, surveys to determine the prevalence and circulating serotypes of DENV, ZIKV, CHIKV, and YFV as a part of regular surveillance are required to inform strategies to prevent transmission and provide early warning signal of outbreaks of clinical infections.
\nAe. aegypti remains a serious public health threat due to its importance in arboviral transmission, DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV transmission. Globally, the incidence of DENV infections is on the rise, and recently, reemergence of CHIKV and ZIKV has been observed. Vaccine, prophylaxis, and therapeutics for most arboviral infections are still in development pipeline; hence, integrated vector management remains the cornerstone to stop outbreak transmission and sustainable control. Therefore, understanding of the ecology is important for outbreak prediction and effective planning of strategies to control transmission of arboviral infections.
\nStudies on the ecology of Ae. aegypti are important to better understand the preference of the vector in terms of the oviposition and colonization of mosquitoes [8]. The ecological factors play a role on influencing the population dynamics of larvae and pupae. The evidence is clear that both abiotic and biotic factors are important determinants of adulthood characteristics of life cycle such as longevity, fecundity, and body size [8, 9]. The factors are important to explain the vectorial capacity of Ae. aegypti on disease transmission. Furthermore, there is compelling evidence that Ae. aegypti is most productive in containers, which varies among regions, geographical settings, and seasonality [10]. In addition, it undoubtedly clears that water storage containers and discarded containers influence the vector density and risk of arboviral transmission particularly in poorly planned cities in (sub-)tropical regions [11]. Unless appropriate actions are taken, increasing urbanization, poor environmental management will continue to influence the stability of the Ae. aegypti populations. In addition, the vector density is influenced significantly by environment factors and urbanization [9, 11, 13]. Ae. aegypti feed exclusively on human and is increasingly a threat particularly in unplanned (peri-)urban areas. The recent data highlight the increasing Aedes spp. abundance and urbanization that could potentially escalate the risk of arboviral outbreaks [31]. Furthermore, the environment contributes to the breeding and ecological colonization of the vector. The presence of organic nutrients and microorganisms such as cyanobacteria seems to have influence on the productivity and development of Ae. aegypti [11, 15]. The presence of microalgae in the larval habitats, therefore, represents high adequacy of nutrients for immature stages of Ae. aegypti [11, 15]. Microalgae are associated with the presence and abundance of the vectors being the source of food for the larvae in breeding habitats. The evidence suggests that better understanding of these factors may be a useful indicator for mosquito population control. Measures to control microalgae to deprive nutrients to the vector could be explored for additional measures of the vector control. Importantly, approaches targeting immature stages of Ae. aegypti are highly recommended for effective and sustainable vector control. Ae. aegypti vector lays eggs in containers, buckets, care tyres and water storage vases; thus, the appropriate intervention such as proper disposal and management of containers and discarded tyres for source reduction could prove effective in reducing the vector population and mitigate the risk of arboviral transmission. Therefore, implementation of strategies to address the challenge of reemergence and expansion of arboviral infections will require a strong multisector commitment and integration for effective surveillance and control at regional, national, and program levels.
\nThere is widespread resistance to the commonly widely used insecticide, pyrethroids and organophosphates in Aedes spp. control. Insecticide resistance is likely to impact disease outbreak and transmission measures and cost of the interventions [16, 17]. This is currently a major concern in South America where organophosphates, pyrethroids, and DDT have been widely used in vector control. However, there is also evidence on decreased susceptibility to pyrethroids in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia [10, 13]. The origin and evolution of Aedes spp. resistance to insecticides remain unclear; however, it is assumed that the use of the insecticide in other vector interventions such as malaria control and agricultural may have exerted selective pressure on the Aedes spp. The mechanism of Ae. aegypti resistance to insecticides seems to be mediated by the nonsynonymous mutations kdr gene [18, 19]. Other studies suggest the role of enhanced enzymatic biodegradation or sequestration [20, 21]. Studies suggest the potential role of the metabolic enzymes including cytochrome P450s and GSTs in conferring resistance to pyrethroids and organophosphates in Aedes spp. Evidence on the possible behavioral resistance or avoidance is patchy, and more investigation is needed to understand how it may affect the current interventions. Despite the worsening Ae. aegypti resistance to pyrethroids and organophosphates, studies on susceptibility profile of Bti are reassuring that Aedes spp. retains considerable susceptibility to the biolarvicides [17]. Therefore, Bti remains a suitable alternative for prevention and control tool in regions where resistance to pyrethroids is widespread. To mitigate the risk of resistance and its public health consequences, it is crucial to strengthen monitoring and surveillance at all levels. Susceptibility testing of the commonly used insecticides and biolarvicides using the standardized WHO bioassay protocol should be integrated as part of the surveillance program and profiling of molecular markers of resistance may be considered as appropriate.
\nAedes aegypti is the most important vector in outbreak and transmission of arboviral infections. The environmental factors favor mosquitoes and risk of disease transmission. The diseases are expanding particularly in (sub-)urban settings with frequent water shortage, high human population, poor planning, and poor waste disposal systems. Primary prevention and control measures are to reduce the vector exposure, but current vector control tools are unsustainable and there is increasing threat due to insecticide resistance. Integration of Aedes spp. vector control with other ongoing program and coordination of insecticide resistance monitoring and management is crucial to increase the impact of interventions. Future interventions will require deployment of effective vaccines against arboviral infections combined with integrated vector management.
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