IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3298",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Down Syndrome",title:"Down Syndrome",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Down syndrome, the most cutting-edge book in the field congenital disorders. 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It is hoped that such individuals will view this book as a resource that can be consulted during all stages of their research and clinical investigations.\nKey features of this book are:\nCommon diseases in Down syndrome\nMolecular Genetics \nNeurological Disorders\nPrenatal Diagnosis and Genetic Counselling \nWhilst aimed primarily at research workers on Down syndrome, we hope that the appeal of this book will extend beyond the narrow confines of academic interest and be of interest to a wider audience, especially parents, relatives and health-care providers who work with infants and children with Down syndrome.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1036-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7110-2",doi:"10.5772/46009",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"down-syndrome",numberOfPages:272,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"99ef7199bce28e844249e7591894caab",bookSignature:"Subrata Kumar Dey",publishedDate:"March 6th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3298.jpg",numberOfDownloads:37599,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:63,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 17th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 8th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 12th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 10th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31178/images/system/31178.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Subrata Kumar Dey, Ph.D, Vice Chancellor, Swami Vivekananda University, West Bengal, India has been associated with teaching and research for more than four decades and had visited different countries as invited speaker for delivering lectures. 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1. Introduction
There is an increasing demand in data-acquisition systems for neurophysiology to record simultaneously from many channels over long time periods [1]. These experiments accumulate large amounts of data, which would be processed by spike sorting systems [2] for analyzing the activities of neurons. Atypical spike sorting system usually involves complicated spike detection and classification operations for separating spikes from background noise and clustering the detected spikes. Large amount of spike-trains would impose heavy computation load for a software spike sorting system, resulting in long processing time.
One approach to reduce the computation time is to implement a spike sorting system by hardware. A number of spike sorting systems based on field programmable gate array (FPGA) [3] have been proposed. In [4], a spike classification architecture using probabilistic neural networks [5] is proposed. Although high speed-up over its software counterpart is observed, the system does not provide spike detection. In addition, the architecture requires the user to input the number of clusters. Therefore, it does not support a fully unsupervised hardware classification. Similarly, the architecture proposed in [6] also focuses on the classification. The generalized Hebbian algorithm (GHA) [7] is implemented by FPGA in this work for feature extraction. The features produced by the architecture are then clustered by the k-means algorithm. The architecture does not include the hardware implementation of the k-means algorithm. In addition, the number of clusters still needs to be prespecified in the k-means algorithm. The architecture in [8] is able to carry out the feature extraction and clustering in hardware. In the architecture, the feature extraction and clustering are based on GHA and fuzzy c-means [9] algorithm, respectively. Therefore, similar to the architecture in [6], fully unsupervised classification is difficult for the architecture in [8] because the number of clusters still needs to be known beforehand.
An alternative FPGA-based hardware architecture [10] is to adopt OSORT algorithm [11] for spike-sorting. The OSORT algorithm is able to perform clustering without the prior knowledge of the number of clusters. Unsupervised classification therefore can be carried out. The architecture also includes a spike detection circuit based on the nonlinear energy operators (NEOs) [12], which is an energy-based detection algorithm. Similar to other energy-based algorithms [13, 14], the NEO algorithm is simple and effective. However, although the energy-based algorithms can operate in conjunction with a number of automatic threshold algorithms [12–14], proper selection of threshold values for these algorithms may still be difficult when noise becomes large. Therefore, their performance may deteriorate rapidly as noise energy increases.
The template-based spike detection algorithm may be suited for the detection of spikes from the source sequences with high noise level. A matched filter [15, 16] is a typical technique based on templates. To detect the presence of the templates, the filter correlates known templates with the input spike trains. This operation can also be viewed as a likelihood ratio detection (LRT) [17]. A drawback of the matched filter is that the templates are required. Although the adaptive generation of templates is possible [18], only a single template is produced for spike trains. However, because spike trains in general are formed from two or more neurons, a single template may not be sufficient for the detection of all the spikes generated by the neurons. The template-based algorithm presented by [19] has been found to be effective for the detection of noisy spikes. It adopts the OSORT algorithm for automatic template generation. Normalized correlation operations then carry out the spike detection using the templates produced by the OSORT algorithm. Nevertheless, in the algorithm, both the template generation and correlation computation have high computational complexities. The software implementation of the algorithm may not be suitable for fast analysis of spike trains.
The objective of this chapter is to present a novel FPGA-based hardware architecture for efficient spike detection and clustering. The architecture supports both the normalized correlation operations for spike detection and the OSORT operations for spike clustering. Moreover, the clustering results produced by the OSORT algorithm are used as the templates for spike detection. The architecture is the hardware implementation of the algorithm in [19]. It then has the advantages of accurate spike detection, fully unsupervised spike clustering, and fast computation.
We have implemented a spike sorting system on a network-on-chip (NOC) platform for the evaluation of the proposed architecture. The platform is based on FPGA. It consists of a soft-core processor [20] and the proposed architecture. The proposed spike sorting architecture is used as a hardware accelerator of the soft-core processor for spike sorting. The simulator developed in [21] is adopted to generate extracellular recordings. In this paper, comparisons with the existing software and hardware implementations are made. Experimental results show that the proposed architecture attains a high speed-up over its software counterpart for spike sorting. It also has a lower area cost over existing hardware architectures. Experimental results reveal that the proposed architecture is an effective alternative for real-time spike sorting with accurate detection and clustering.
2. The algorithm
Before presenting the hardware architectures for spike sorting, we first review the spike detection and clustering algorithms adopted by this work. Detailed discussions of these algorithms can be found in [19].
2.1. Normalized correlation
Consider a spike train X, where the mth sample of X is denoted by x[m]. Moreover, the mth segment of the spike train X is denoted by xm = [x[m], x[m − 1], …, x[m − N + 1]]T, where N is the length of the segment. Suppose the spike train is processed by a matched filter with template t = [t[0], …, t[N − 1]]T. Let x¯m and t¯ be the normalized version of xm and t, respectively. That is,
x¯m=xmxm,t¯=tt.E1
The normalized output at m, denoted by, y¯m, is computed from
y¯m=∑k=0N-1x¯m-kt¯k=x¯mTt¯E2
This is the inner product of segment x¯m and template t¯, which indicates the normalized correlation between these two vectors. The segment xm is detected as a spike when y¯m is larger than a prespecified threshold η. Let dx¯mt¯be the squared distance between x¯mand t¯. It can be shown that
dx¯mt¯=2-2x¯mTt¯.E3
Because dx¯mt¯≥0,
x¯mTt¯≤1.E4
Our normalized correlation operations are based on x¯m and t¯. When x¯mTt¯≥η, then xmis detected as a spike. From Eq. (4), it follows that
η≤1E5
The normalized correlation operations shown in Eq. (2) may have high computational complexities. Although the template t¯ can be computed beforehand, the computation of x¯m still needs to be carried out online, involving the calculation of ||xm|| and x¯m=xmxm . Note that N multiplications, N−1 additions, and one squared root operation are required for the computation of ||xm||. Moreover, N divisions are needed for x¯m. Finally, the inner product of x¯mTt¯ requires N multiplications and N−1 additions. In total, the basic implementation of the normalized correlation operations requires 2N multiplications, (2N−2) additions, N divisions, and 1 squared root operation. When the fast computation is an important concern, the hardware implementation may then be desirable.
2.2. OSORT algorithm
The OSORT algorithm is an unsupervised template-based clustering algorithm for spike sorting. It does not require feature extraction, and the number of clusters c is automatically determined by the algorithm. Define Ci,i=1,…,c, as the clusters of spikes generated by the OSORT algorithm, where ti, i = 1, …, c, is the average value of the spikes belonging to Ci.
Given a current detected spike s for clustering, in the OSORT algorithm, the squared distances di = d(s, ti) for i = 1, …, c are first computed. The minimum distance di* is then identified, where i*=argminidi. We will assign s to Ci* when di* is less than a prespecified threshold τ1. In this case, because Ci* has a new member, its mean value ti* will also be updated. Otherwise, a new cluster is created, where s is its only member. After the updating of ti*, the cluster merging process will be activated. The process involves the computation of the distance between ti* and tj, i* ≠ j. Two clusters Ci*and Cj*will be merged when dti*tj*<τ2, wherej*=argminj,j≠i*dti*tj.Figure 1 summarizes the operations of the OSORT algorithm.
Figure 1.
The flowchart of OSORT operations.
2.3. Normalized correlation and OSORT algorithm for spike sorting
By combining the normalized correlation with the OSORT algorithm, an effective spike sorting system for both spike detection and classification can be realized. The system is a feedback system capable of automatic template generation for spike detection and unsupervised clustering for the classification. The block diagram of the system is revealed in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
The block diagram of the spike detection/sorting system based on GLRT test, normalized correlator, and OSORT algorithms.
Initially, the clusters and templates produced by the OSORT are not available. As a result, it may be difficult to carry out the normalized correlation for spike detection. One way to solve this problem is to use only the block energy for the detection of spikes. The detected spikes are then clustered by the OSORT algorithm for the generation of initial templates.
After the templates become available, the spike detection is then based on the normalized correlation x¯mTt¯. The input block is detected as a spike when any of the c normalized correlation exceeds the threshold η. Because of the normalized correlation operations, the threshold value is bounded as shown in Eq. (5). Note that the templates for spike detection will be updated regularly so that the variations of input signals can be tracked to improve the spike detection performance.
The hardware architecture for implementing the spike sorting system is depicted in Figure 3. The architecture contains two modules and one controller. The first module of the architecture, termed normalized correlator module, is responsible for the spike detection. It is capable of performing both the GLRT and normalized correlation operations. The second module, termed OSORT module, carries out the unsupervised OSORT spike sorting. The global controller coordinates the operations of these two modules. The architecture and detailed operations of the normalized correlator module and OSORT module are presented in the following two sections.
Figure 3.
The hardware architecture of the proposed spike sorting system.
3. Architecture of the normalized correlator module
The block diagram of the normalized correlator module is revealed in Figure 4. The module supports the filtering, block energy computation, correlation computation, detection, and buffering. The filtering operation is the preprocessing step for the spike detection. It reduces the DC offset and noises. The objective of the block energy computation is to find ||xm||2, which is then followed by correlation computation for calculating x¯mTt¯. The detection results are then produced by the comparison operations. The detected spikes are stored in the switch buffer, which can be accessed by the OSORT module for subsequent clustering operations. Without loss of generality, the length of spike is set to be N = 64 for our discussion.
Figure 4.
The block diagram of the normalized correlator module.
3.1. Filter unit and block energy computation unit
The filter unit is a hardware implementation of a band-pass Butterworth filter. The filter unit contains multipliers, shift registers, and adders. The architecture is a simple realization of the direct form I of IIR filters. To implement the block energy computation unit, we first note that a basic approach may involve N multiplications for the energy computation, resulting in high-area costs. The proposed approach is based on the fact that
|xm|2=|xm-1|2+x2m-x2m-N.E6
Consequently, the calculation of ||xm||2 needs only two multiplications. This is because ||xm − 1||2 (i.e., the block energy of the previous block) is already available. Figure 5 shows the resulting design, which contains two multiplier, a single N-stage shift register, and two adders. The goal of the shift register is to store the previous samples (i.e., x[k], k = m − 1,…, m − N) of x[m]. The shift register therefore is able to offer the sample x[m − N] for the calculation of x2[m − N]. In addition, the shift register can be employed for the correlation computation.
Figure 5.
Architecture of block energy computation unit.
3.2. Correlator unit
The goal of the unit is to carry out the normalized correlation x¯mTt¯. Note that the normalized template t¯ can be obtained offline from the OSORT circuit. Therefore, it is only necessary to find x¯m online. One simple approach to compute x¯m is to divide each sample of xm by ||xm||. Because the block xm contains N samples, N dividers are required. In the proposed architecture, a novel postnormalization approach is employed, where the inner product xmTt¯ is computed first. Because xmTt¯ is a scalar, we can then use only one divider to compute x¯mTt¯ by dividing xmTt¯ by ||xm||.
Figure 6 shows the architecture of the correlator unit for the case of two templates. The circuit consists of 2N multipliers, one squared root circuit, two accumulators, and one divider. Moreover, there are two registers for storing the normalized templates t¯1 and t¯2. Recall that the shift register in the block energy computation unit contains the samples of xm. Based on xm and t¯i,i=1,2,the computation of each xmTt¯i,i=1,2, is carried out in parallel. Moreover, the multiplication results are accumulated in a pipelined fashion. The accumulation results are then scaled by a factor of 1/||xm||. Because the block energy computation unit provides ||xm||2, only a squared root circuit and an inverse circuit are needed for the calculation of 1/||xm||, as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Architecture of correlator unit.
3.3. Threshold unit
Although the operations of the unit can be easily accomplished by a simple comparison circuit, the detection accuracy may be further improved by taking the detection results of the neighboring blocks into consideration. Because the neighboring blocks are overlapping, they may be similar. As a result, the normalized correlation values of the neighboring blocks may also be similar. Therefore, it is likely that an occurrence of a single spike may result in the issues of multiple hits.
To solve this problem, when the normalized correlation value of a block is above the threshold, a hit is not immediately declared. The architecture will then examine the normalized correlation values of the previous blocks. A hit would actually be issued only if k out of K preceding blocks have normalized correlation values above a threshold. In this way, the false alarm rate (FAR) can be effectively lowered. Figure 7 shows the corresponding architecture, which contains a K-stage shift register storing the comparison results of the K previous blocks. Each stage of the shift register contains only a single-bit information, where 1 indicates that the corresponding block has normalized correlation value above the threshold η, and 0 otherwise. Therefore, if the sum of all the K stages is larger or equal to k, then at least k preceding blocks have normalized correlation value above the threshold. In this case, the architecture issues a hit.
Figure 7.
Architecture of threshold unit.
3.4. Switch buffer
The goal of switch buffer is to store the detected spikes for subsequent clustering operations. As shown in Figure 8, there are two buffers (denoted as Buffer x and Buffer y) in the circuit. When one of the buffers stores the detected spikes, the other provides the detected spikes to the OSORT module for clustering operations. The switch controller in the circuit is responsible for the determination of the buffer to store the detected spikes. The flowchart of the operations of the switch controller is shown in Figure 9. From the flowchart, it can be observed that the controller assigns the detected spikes to a buffer in accordance with the availability of that buffer. A buffer is available when it has empty cells for storing new detected spikes, and is not currently providing spikes to the OSORT module.
Figure 8.
Architecture of switch buffer.
Figure 9.
Flowchart of switch controller.
4. The architecture of OSORT module
The OSORT module contains buffers, distance computation unit, mean updating unit, comparator, and controller, as shown in Figure 10. The centroid and the size of each cluster are stored in the buffers. The distance computation unit and mean updating unit are responsible for squared distance computation and the updating of centroid of the clusters, respectively. The control unit coordinates different components of the OSORT module for carrying out the unsupervised clustering operations.
Figure 10.
Architecture of OSORT module.
4.1. Buffers
There are three buffers in the OSORT module, which are denoted by Buffer 1, Buffer 2, and Buffer 3, respectively. Buffer 1 holds an input spike detected by the correlators. Buffers 2 and 3 contain the mean value and size of each cluster, respectively. Buffer 1 is a simple N-stage shift register, fetching or delivering one sample of the input spike at a time. As shown in Figure 11, Buffer 2 contains QN-stage shift registers. Each shift register holds the mean value of a cluster. Therefore, Q is the upper-bound of the number of clusters. Buffer 2 updates or provides mean values of clusters one at a time. Because the mean value ti of a cluster Ci is the average value of the spikes mapping to that cluster, the mean value also contains N samples. Accessing the mean value of the cluster is also carried out one sample at a time. Buffer 3 records the size of each cluster. There are Q entries in the buffer. The ith entry contains the number of spikes in the cluster Ci.
Figure 11.
Architecture of Buffer 2.
4.2. Distance computation unit and mean updating unit
Because buffers in the memory unit can be accessed one sample at a time, the circuits in the distance computation unit and mean updating unit provide only sample-wise computations. This is beneficial for reducing the area costs. There are two cases when the distance computation unit needs to be activated. In the first case, a new spike is arrived. To find the cluster for the new spike, the squared distance computation is required. In the second case, it is desired to merge two clusters. The squared distance calculation is needed for finding the closest clusters. The distance computation unit takes the samples fetched from Buffer 1 and Buffer 2 as inputs. The unit finds the squared distance between the spikes stored in Buffer 1 and the mean value of a cluster selected in Buffer 2. Upon the completion of the squared distance computation, the comparison of the new squared distance with the current minimum distance stored in a register of the unit is carried out. If the new squared distance is smaller than the current minimum distance, then it becomes the new current minimum distance. The same squared distance computation and comparison operations will be repeated for until all the mean values in Buffer 2 are searched. This scheme is useful for finding the best matching mean value stored in Buffer 2 to the spike stored in Buffer 1.
The mean updating unit is activated after a new spike is assigned to a cluster, or after two clusters are merged. In these cases, the mean of the updated cluster needs to be computed. Note that the clusters to be updated are determined by the distance computation unit. The mean updating unit is only responsible for the computation of the new mean of the updated clusters. The circuit takes waveforms stored in Buffer 1 and Buffer 2, and the cluster size stored in Buffer 3 as inputs. The updated mean is the weighted sum of the waveforms obtained from Buffer 1 and Buffer 2, as shown in Figure 12. The weights are determined from the cluster sizes from Buffer 3. The updated results are then stored back to Buffer 2 and Buffer 3.
Figure 12.
Architecture of mean updating unit.
4.3. Control unit
The control unit activates components of the memory unit and cluster computation unit for the unsupervised clustering. The states of the control unit are summarized in Table 1. In addition to the tasks carried out by each state, the activated circuit components associated with each state are also included in the table. Figure 13 shows the flowchart of the OSORT algorithm in terms of the states defined in Table 1.
States
Activated components
Operations
State 1
Buffer 1 Distance computation unit
Fetch a new spike to Buffer 1
State 2
Buffers 1, 2
Find the best matching cluster to the spike in Buffer 1
State 3
Buffers 1, 2, 3
Creating a new cluster
State 4
Buffers 1, 2, 3 Mean updating unit
Update the mean and size of a cluster
State 5
Buffers 2, 3
Remove a cluster
Table 1.
States of the control unit in OSORT module.
Figure 13.
The flowchart of the controller in the OSORT module.
The flowchart in Figure 13 is consistent with that shown in Figure 1. Although the combinations of the states shown in Table 1 are able to implement the OSORT algorithm, additional modifications may still be desirable to facilitate the hardware implementation. One modification implemented in the controller is to handle the cases when the current number of clusters reaches the upper limit Q, and the creation of new cluster is still desired. In this case, the least recently updated cluster will be replaced by the new cluster. To carry out this modification, an additional field is added to each entry of Buffer 3. The entry indicates the number of updates in the past for the corresponding cluster. This modification can be viewed as an additional function supported in State 3 in Table 1 for the creation of a new cluster.
5. Global controller and NOC
As depicted in Figure 3, the global controller in the proposed spike sorting system coordinates the operations of the normalized correlator module and OSORT module. The major goal of the global controller is to fetch detected spikes from the normalized correlator module and deliver them to the OSORT module. When a buffer in the switch buffer of the normalized correlator module becomes full, the global controller starts to fetch the detected spikes one at a time from the buffer to the OSORT module.
The fetching operations are repeated until all the spikes stored in the buffer are fetched. At this time, the buffer becomes available again for storing the new detected spikes, as shown in Figure 14. The proposed hardware spike sorting system is configured as a user component in a NOC system, which is designed by the QSYS platform. In addition to the proposed system, we see from Figure 15 that the NOC contains the NIOS II processor, a DMA controller, an on-chip RAM, and a hardware timer.
Figure 14.
The flowchart of the global controller.
Figure 15.
The proposed NOC system for spike sorting.
The raw spike trains are stored in the on-chip RAM. The DMA controller is responsible for delivering the spike trains to the proposed hardware system without the intervention of the NIOS II processor. The DMA controller is able to halt the delivery of spike trains automatically when both buffers in the switch buffer of the normalized correlator module are unavailable and/or full. The hardware timer is used to measure the computation speed of the proposed system. The NIOS II processor integrates different components in the NOC. It activates the DMA controllers for the delivery of spike trains. After that, the processor collects the spike sorting results from the OSORT modules of the proposed spike sorting system. The processor is also able to read the information provided by the hardware timer for the measurement of the computation speed of the proposed circuit.
6. Experimental results
This section presents some experimental results of the proposed architecture. The extracellular recordings for the experiments are based on the simulator developed in [21], where the ground truth about spiking activity can be accessed. Each spike has length 2.67 ms. The sampling rate for the spike recording is 24,000 samples/s. Therefore, there are 64 samples (i.e., N = 64) in each spike.
The performance of the proposed architecture for spike detection is first evaluated. The performance evaluation is based on the true positive rate (TPR) and false alarm rate (FAR). The TPR of a detection algorithm is defined as the number of true spikes detected by the algorithm divided by the total number of true spikes. The FAR of a detection algorithm is the number of silent segments, which are falsely detected as spikes by the algorithm, divided by the total number of the segments detected by the algorithm. The TPR and FAR of various detection algorithms are included in Table 2. In the experiments, the spike trains are from two neurons. Therefore, there are two templates (i.e., c = 2) for the proposed normalized correlator.
Because the normalized correlation is effective for detecting real spikes and ignoring silent segments, we can observe from Table 2 that the proposed architecture has superior performance over the other algorithms. We use the example shown in Figure 16 to further demonstrate this fact. In the example, a noisy spike train with SNR = −3 dB is used for the spike detection. Figure 16 reveals the normalized correlation values y¯im, i = 1, 2, for the spike train. From Figure 16, we see that, because of large noise corruption, it is difficult to locate spikes even by direct eye inspection. However, based on the normalized correlation values provided by the proposed architecture, the location of true spikes can still be effectively identified.
TPR and FAR values of various spike detection algorithms.
Figure 16.
An example of the proposed normalized correlator for noisy spike detection with SNR = −3 dB for c = 2 templates.
Next we evaluate the area complexities. Because adders, multipliers, dividers, comparators, and registers are the basic building blocks of the proposed architecture, the area complexities are separated into five types: the number of adders, multipliers, dividers, comparators, and registers. Tables 3 and 4 show the area complexities of the normalized correlator and OSORT modules, respectively. It can be observed from Table 3 that, in the normalized correlator module, the correlator unit and switch buffer have larger area complexities. The number of adders, multipliers, and registers grows with the block dimension N and the number of templates c in the correlator unit. Let L be the capacity (i.e., the maximum number of spikes) of each buffer in the switch buffer. The number of registers in the switch buffer therefore is dependent on L and N, as shown in Table 3. The area complexities of the other types are of O(1). Therefore, the proposed circuit has low consumption of dividers and comparators. From Table 4, we observe that only the area complexities of the buffers in the OSORT module grow with N. The other parts of the OSORT module have fixed area complexities.
Filter unit
Block energy computation
Correlator
Thresholding unit
Switch buffer
Subtotal
Adders
O(1)
O(1)
O(cN)
O(1)
0
O(cN)
Multipliers
O(1)
O(1)
O(cN)
O(1)
0
O(cN)
Dividers
0
0
1
0
0
1
Comparators
0
0
0
O(1)
0
O(1)
Registers
O(1)
O(N)
O(cN)
O(1)
O(LN)
O(cN + LN)
Table 3.
Area complexities of the normalized correlator module.
Buffer
Distance computation unit
Mean updating unit
Subtotal
Adders
0
O(1)
O(1)
O(1)
Multipliers
0
O(1)
O(1)
O(1)
Dividers
0
0
O(1)
O(1)
Comparators
0
O(1)
0
O(1)
Registers
O(cN)
O(1)
O(1)
O(cN)
Table 4.
Area complexities of the OSORT module.
The proposed architecture has been implemented by FPGA for performance measurement. The target FPGA device for the hardware implementation is Altera STRATIX IV EP4SGX230. The design platform for the experiments is the Altera QUARTUS II with QSYS. Table 5 shows the hardware utilization of the proposed architecture. There are four different FPGA hardware resources considered: adaptive look-up tables (ALUTs), dedicated logic registers, block memory bits, and DSP blocks. The DSP blocks are dedicated to the implementations of adders, multipliers, dividers, and comparators. The ALUTs, dedicated logic registers, and block memory bits can be used for the implementation of registers, as well as adders, multipliers, dividers, and comparators. It can be observed from Table 5 that the consumption of DSP blocks of normalized correlator is higher than that of the OSORT module. This is because the normalized correlator requires more number of arithmetic operators. There are 182,400 ALUTs, 182,400 dedicated logic registers, 1288 DSP blocks, and 14,625,792 block memory bits in the target FPGA device. It can be observed from Table 5 that only limited hardware resources are consumed by the proposed circuit.
ALUTs
Dedicated logic registers
Block memory bits
DSP blocks
Normalized correlator module
13,966
29,733
0
532
OSORT module
22,604
22,562
320
88
Total
39,355/182,400 (21.57%)
52,517/182,400 (28.79%)
320/14,625,792 (<0.1%)
642/1288 (49.84%)
Table 5.
The utilization of FPGA resources of the proposed circuit. The switch buffer capacity for the measurement is L = 40.
In addition to consuming low hardware resources, the proposed architecture is able to provide high throughput. Table 6 reveals the throughput of the proposed architecture for various clock rates and switch buffer size L. The throughput is defined as the number of spike samples which can be processed by the proposed architecture per second. The unit of the throughput in the table therefore is mega samples per second (Msamples/sec). It can be observed from Table 6 that the throughput grows with L and/or clock rate. In particular, when L = 32 and clock rate is 100 MHz, the throughput is 25.04 Msamples/sec. The throughput of its software counterpart running on Intel I7-930 processor at clock rate 2.8 GHz and 16 GB RAM is only 0.69 Msamples/sec. The throughput of the proposed architecture therefore is 36 times higher than that of its software counterpart.
Clock rate
L = 20
L = 40
L = 80
50 MHz
9.22 Msamples/sec
10.25 Msamples/sec
13.31 Msamples/sec
75 MHz
13.00 Msamples/sec
15.34 Msamples/sec
20.00 Msamples/sec
100 MHz
17.80 Msamples/sec
20.25 Msamples/sec
25.04 Msamples/sec
Table 6.
The throughput of the proposed circuit for various clock rates and switch buffer capacities L.
7. Concluding remarks
The proposed architecture has been found to be effective for real-time spike sorting. It features high accuracy, low hardware resource consumption, and high throughput. The combination of the normalized correlation and OSORT algorithm is beneficial for accurate spike detection with high TPR and low FAR even for low SNR values. The postnormalization approach adopted by the normalized correlator circuit is also able to reduce the area costs for the normalization operations. In addition, the switch buffer in the correlation circuit can effectively coordinate the operations of spike detection and classification for achieving high throughput. Experimental results reveal that the proposed architecture achieves TPR = 82.71% and FAR = 1.06% for SNR = −3 dB. The ALUT consumption is only 21.57% for the FPGA device STRUTIX IV EP4SGX230. The throughput is 25.04 Msamples/sec for the clock rate 100 MHz. All these facts demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed architecture.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Ministry of Science andTechnology, Taiwan, under grant MOST 105-2221-E-003-011-MY2.
\n',keywords:"spike sorting, spike detection, spike clustering, field programmable gate array, brain machine interface",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52952.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52952.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52952",totalDownloads:2360,totalViews:168,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:50,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"October 3rd 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 31st 2017",dateFinished:"November 11th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter presents a novel hardware architecture for correlation-based spike detection and unsupervised clustering. The architecture is able to utilize the information extracted from the results of spike clustering for efficient spike detection. The architecture supports the fast computation for the normalized correlation and OSORT operations. The normalized correlation is used for template matching for accurate spike detection. The OSORT algorithm is adopted for unsupervised classification of the detected spikes. The mean of spikes of each cluster produced by the OSORT algorithm is used as the templates for subsequent detection. The architecture adopts postnormalization technique for reducing the area costs. Modified OSORT operations are also proposed for facilitating unsupervised clustering by hardware. The proposed architecture is implemented by field programmable gate array (FPGA) for performance evaluation. In addition to attaining high detection and classification accuracy for spike sorting, experimental results reveal that the proposed architecture is an efficient design providing low area cost and high throughput for real-time offline spike sorting applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52952",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52952",book:{id:"5597",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array"},signatures:"Chien-Min Ou and Wen-Jyi Hwang",authors:[{id:"108614",title:"Prof.",name:"Wen-Jyi",middleName:null,surname:"Hwang",fullName:"Wen-Jyi Hwang",slug:"wen-jyi-hwang",email:"whwang@csie.ntnu.edu.tw",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108614/images/5859_n.jpg",institution:{name:"National Taiwan Normal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"195159",title:"Prof.",name:"Chien-Min",middleName:null,surname:"Ou",fullName:"Chien-Min Ou",slug:"chien-min-ou",email:"cmou@uch.edu.tw",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The algorithm",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Normalized correlation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. OSORT algorithm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Normalized correlation and OSORT algorithm for spike sorting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Architecture of the normalized correlator module",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Filter unit and block energy computation unit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Correlator unit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Threshold unit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4. Switch buffer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. The architecture of OSORT module",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1. Buffers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2. Distance computation unit and mean updating unit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3. Control unit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Global controller and NOC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Experimental results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Einevoll, G. T.; Franke, F.; Hagen, E.; Pouzat, C.; Harris, K. D. Towards reliable spike-train recordings from thousands of neurons with multielectrodes, Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2012, 22, 11–17.'},{id:"B2",body:'Gibson, S.; Judy, J. W.; Markovic, D. Spike sorting: the first step in decoding the brain, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 2012, 29, 124–143.'},{id:"B3",body:'Hauck, S.; Dehon, A. Reconfigurable Computing: The Theory and Practice of FPGA-Based Computing, Morgan Kaufmann: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2008.'},{id:"B4",body:'Zhu, X.; Yuan, L.; Wang, D.; Chen, Y. FPGA implementation of a probabilistic neural network for spike sorting. 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A wavelet-based method for action potential detection from extracellular neural signal recording with low signal-to-noise ratio, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 2003, 50, 999–1011.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Chien-Min Ou",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Electronics Engineering, Chien-Hsin University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The complex nature of the soil pore space and the water held therein makes it difficult to delineate the soil-water interface and moisture advancements in the soil, which is further influenced by soil matrix geometry. Soil moisture is the amount of moisture present in soil pores, which is a must for all important ecological processes and plays a critical and significant role in all the physiological processes. Throughout the globe, water scarcity is an emerging problem that must be worked out for sustaining agricultural growth [1, 2, 3]. Different RCTs are recommended for having improved water productivities across the globe [4, 5, 6]. The scientists at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center generate groundwater and soil moisture drought indicators each week. They are based on terrestrial water storage observations derived from GRACE-FO satellite data and integrated with other observations, using a sophisticated numerical model of land surface water and energy processes. The drought indicators describe current wet or dry conditions, expressed as a percentile showing the probability of occurrence for that particular location and time of year, with lower values (warm colors) meaning dryer than normal, and higher values (blues) meaning wetter than normal (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
GRACE based global shallow groundwater drought indicators (https://nasagrace.unl.edu/).
\n
Global analysis based on intermediate population growth rate revealed that water scarcity is a global issue and therefore needs to be addressed for mitigating its adverse effects onto the overall land and water productivities of agricultural crops (Figure 2).
\n
Figure 2.
Water availability Per capita (m3) in chief paddy-growing Asian countries viz-a-viz upcoming years (1950–2050) a Estimate based on the population growth trends Source: Modified from [1]).
\n
Further, in India, the net irrigated area increased from the 1960s and is further projected to increase by 2030 (Figure 3), which further increased the installed tube wells and further declined the underground water table of the country, which might be beyond the reach of the poor farmers.
\n
Figure 3.
Net irrigated area in India (Source: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008).
\n
Soil water potential must be understood, and its applications must be applied in field conditions. For measuring the soil water potential, the instrument highlighted as tensiometer is used for irrigating the crops, namely, rice, without affecting the overall land as well as water productivity [7]. Tensiometer measured the soil suction, and when soil dries, then the inner water in the tensiometer via porous cup moves out in the soil. Hence, as a result, the potential reading in tensiometer increased, and at predefined levels of potential, irrigation is applied to crops [1, 7]. After irrigation, water moved back into the tensiometer from the irrigated soil, and water level of inner tube moved back to normal, namely, green level. Soil water potential (as controls moisture movements) is the ultimate technique, under unsaturated conditions when only micropores are water filled, while macropores are air filled for improving the declined water-use efficiency without affecting the grain yields more particularly in global water-stressed regions [7, 8]. However, both macro- and micropores are water filled, and conducting it under saturated soil condition seldom exists in nature. Gravity and soil water potential are the main driving forces under saturated and unsaturated conditions, responsible for soil moisture movement. Micropores of fine-textured clayey soils are capable of holding water for a longer period of time even at higher value of suction, while macropores of sandy soil drain out the water quickly at a smaller suction. Therefore, generally frequent irrigations resulting in lower water productivity are reported in the sandy soils as compared to the clayey fine-textured soil. In nature, soil moisture has different quantities and forms of energy by virtue of which it moves from one to another point in soil. The potential concept to the soil water in relation to its movement was first given by Buckingham [9] in his classical paper on the capillary potential, while Gardner [10] showed the dependency of water potential on the water content, and Richards [11] prepared a tensiometer for measuring it. Hence, the concept of soil moisture movement is not new but is still difficult to understand by the new budding students and agricultural scientists dealing with agricultural water management. Moreover, quite often research papers published in reputed journals discussed the water balance components without discussing much on their estimation/calculative part, which further confuses the students. Therefore, estimation of the different soil moisture components is a must so as to perform new water management experiments with clear objectives of having higher water productivity under texturally divergent soils. These RCTs are site and situation specific, and a single RCT is not effective equally in all places for improving the water-use efficiency [12]. Therefore, considering above discussions, this chapter focused on the estimation of components of soil moisture potentials and balance components for the proper understanding of the concept by the end users, namely, agricultural students and even budding scientists, for conduction of more region-specific water management experiments under texturally divergent soils for ultimately improving water productivity without affecting the grain yields in water-stressed regions of the globe.
\n
\n
\n
2. Soil moisture potential (ψW)
\n
Soil moisture potential in the common language is the potential of moisture to do work by its position in soil. ψW is the difference between the activity of the water molecule in pure distilled water and soil solution at normal atmospheric temperature and pressure which might be greater or lesser. In the definition of International Soil Science Society [13], ψW may be defined as “the amount of work that must be done per unit quantity of pure water in order to transport reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a pool of pure water at a specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the soil water (at the point under consideration).” Hence, a reference state is a must.
\n
ψW could also be delineated by knowing in a solution of nonelectrolytes, the chemical potential of water which further depends upon mean free energy per molecule and water molecule concentration. The chemical potential of pure water reduces with the addition of salts, which could be expressed as
where aw is the activity of the water molecules, which measured how easy the water content may be utilized. Further, the water vapor pressure of the solution expressed as a fraction of the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature (or the equilibrium humidity expressed as a fraction) is numerically equal to the activity of the water (aw) in the solution. Eq. (2) is more useful as water always has ions.
where ψW is the water potential, μW is the solution’s water chemical potential, μW* is the pure state’s water chemical potential, R is the universal gas constant (82 bars cm-2), T is the absolute temperature, and e/eo is the relative vapor pressure, respectively.
\n
ψW could be expressed depending upon the units used for the expression of quantity of water.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Expressed units
\n
Units of ψW
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Mass
\n
erg g−1\n
\n
\n
\n
Volume
\n
Dynes cm2\n
\n
\n
\n
Weight
\n
cm, m, mm
\n
\n\n
\n
Among all the units, weight units are more convenient to use.
\n
However, when all pores are water filled, conducting it under saturated conditions, then the actual and potential vapor pressure is the same, and thus e/eo comes out to be 1 (log 1 = 0). Thus, under saturated soil conditions, ψW comes out to be zero, which is the highest potential of the water, and under unsaturated conditions, it is always expressed as –ve value. Under natural soil environment, soil moisture movement is mainly controlled by the hydraulic potential (ψh), which is the total moisture potential. There is a brief explanation regarding all the components of the soil moisture potential one by one.
\n
\n
2.1 Hydraulic potential
\n
ψh is the total moisture potential, that is, ψt, which is the sum of other potentials by virtue of its pressure (ψp), attractive forces (ψm), and gravity (ψg) [14]. The ψh/ψt provides direction of the movement of soil moisture; however, if ψh is the same throughout the soil profile (under pounded conditions or under prolonged rainfall), then the water will not move at all in the soils as energy state is the same throughout and moisture only moves under the deviation in the moisture levels/energy levels. Normally under the unsaturated soils, the water moves from the lesser to higher negative potential. Moisture potential of soil delineation is quite important, as it directs us irrigation timings [9, 14]. Further, hydraulic conductivity of a particular soil having a particular textural class is very important, which is further important for nutrient movements within the plants. The slope of the curve between flux (discharge area−1 time−1) and hydraulic gradient decides the hydraulic conductivity itself varied with texturally divergent soils (Figure 4). This figure explains why movement of water differs in texturally divergent soils and we could manage our cultivation and management practices so as to increase the water-use efficiency.
\n
Figure 4.
Relationship between flux and hydraulic gradient in three texturally divergent soils.
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Matric potential (ψm)
\n
Different adsorption forces prevailing in the soil matrix are responsible for the ψm—the force of attraction of free water with soil particles [14]. The greater the adsorption forces, the more is the matric potential, and thus the water is less free. In other words, water is tightly attached to the soil particles. However, ψm is dependent on many factors, out of which soil texture is important, for example, sandy coarse-textured soils drained out moisture quickly at a smaller suction than clayey fine-textured soils because clayey soils have greater matric adsorption forces which hold the water tightly and not allowed the water to drain out quickly. In other words, clayey soil has more –ve values of ψm than that of sandy soils, depicting the higher capacity of former soil water holding capacity of clayey soils. Similarly, the soils with higher organic matter (OM) content have higher water content and thus greater –ve value. It is very important to understand that the greater is –ve ψm value, the higher is the water content as water always moves from the higher potential to lower potential or from lesser –ve to more –ve as more negative values of ψm depict the lower water content. ψm has been considered as capillary potential. If we consider weight as the unit for expressing the unit quantity of water, then ψm with respect to a particular height in the soil is the distance in the vertical direction between that selected height and level of water in a manometer. Generally, the ψm resulted from the two processes, namely, capillary “wedges” and “films,” which cannot be changed without upsetting the others. K under saturated conditions varied in texturally divergent soils, due to attractive forces in soil separates and soil moisture (Figure 5). As shown in the picture, saturated hydraulic conductivity of sandy soil is more than of the clayey soil; however, the unsaturated conductivity of sandy soil decreases more steeply with increased suction and decreased from the clayey soils.
\n
Figure 5.
Association between saturated hydraulic conductivity and ψm in two soils.
\n
Ψm reported to be zero under saturated conditions; hence a –ve sign is always there under the unsaturated conditions which is the most prevalent situation in natural field conditions. Matric potential is always zero at the water level, positive below the water table, and negative above the water table. For measuring the suction or ψm in soils, we used tensiometer in soils (Figure 6) and set a particular reading for irrigating the fields.
\n
Figure 6.
Soil spec in action measuring soil matric potential [20].
\n
However, tensiometer could measure the suction <0.85 bar (most prevalent in natural conditions), and pressure plate apparatus and tension plate assembly are used for measuring suctions >0.85 [7]. The graphical behavior of tension of soil moisture with absolute water content is developed through a soil moisture characteristic curve, which delineates the moisture levels that the soils could hold and thus helps in scheduling the irrigation to crops accordingly.
\n
Under this scenario, the available soil moisture of Indo-Gangetic Plains is described by ψm [15]. Locally fabricated, low-cost tensiometers [16] that could delineate soil matric potential are generally preferred by the farmers for scheduling irrigation more particularly to rice [17, 18]. According to Kukal et al. [19], increasing suction values to 2000 and 2400 ± 200 mm reduced the land productivity of the rice than earlier recommendation (2-day interval), which mean drying of soils to certain extent saves significant irrigation water without significantly affecting grain yields. Further, an average of 5-year study delineated (Table 1) a saving of up to 30% of irrigation water without adversely affecting the land productivity [21].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Year
\n
% water saving
\n
Yield differences
\n
\n\n\n
\n
2006
\n
29.6–30.7
\n
+0.5–1.5%
\n
\n
\n
2007
\n
25–27.2
\n
At par
\n
\n
\n
2008
\n
18–27.8
\n
At par
\n
\n
\n
2009
\n
16.6–20.8
\n
+0.5–1.0%
\n
\n
\n
2010
\n
11.1–21.4
\n
At par
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Soil matric potential based irrigation water saving viz.-a-viz. yield differences.
For measuring ψm, tensiometers are installed at 15–20 cm depth, because significant rhizosphere’s portion of the rice crops retained to upper 15 cm [15], and therefore, tensiometers are placed at this depth, so that farmers could get the exact idea regarding the exact time to irrigate.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Pressure potential
\n
ψp is a vital constituent of soil moisture potential but under the saturated conditions which seldom exist in nature [22]. Generally, saturated conditions come only when rains up to a considerable duration or continuous irrigation. When saturated flow becomes high enough to be turbulent and lesser enough for not to generate any flux for a prolonged time is there to meet the constant drainage and evaporation and flow in these conditions is basically governed by the force of gravity but these conditions seldom exist in a field or under natural conditions as here all the soil pores are water filled and conducting it [8, 22]. Under this condition, the discharge is governed by Darcy’s law, which further has some limitations as shown in Figure 7.
\n
Figure 7.
Deviation in Darcy law.
\n
Negative pressure potential of unsaturated soil becomes positive in the saturated conditions and is delineated as submergence or pressure potential which is generally measured with a piezometer. A piezometer is a hallow tube open from both ends, passing from the reference point. If we consider weight as the unit of expression of the quantity of water, then certainly ψp is delineated by vertical space from the considered point and piezometer level of water, connected to that point in question. Pressure potential is always positive and zero below the water level and at and above the water level, respectively. ψp and ψm are mutually exclusive to each other as if ψp is positive, then ψm is zero, while if ψm is negative, then ψp is zero.
\n
\n
\n
2.4 Gravitational potential
\n
ψg constitutes an important soil moisture potential component which is not affected by the soil properties [14]. On considering weight as the unit of quantity of water, ψg comes out to be the vertical distance of elevation from a point under consideration to the point in question and is thus considered as the elevation distance from a point under consideration to the level of reference [14]. To raise an object against the gravitational force of attraction, some work must be done which is stored in the form of energy with respect to its gravity. Gravitational potential is zero at, positive above, and negative below the reference level. It does not depend upon soil properties; this is the reason why ψg is not considered while calculating the water potential. However, ψg played an important role and is considered while calculating the total water potential as
\n
\n\nψt\n=\nψw\n+\nψg\n\nE4
\n
Further, ψg is independent on the conditions of soil, water, weather, chemical, and pressure, while elevation levels are affecting it. Hence, height is the only criteria affecting the gravitational water in one and all [14].
\n
\n
\n
2.5 Osmotic potential (ψs)
\n
ψs is an important potential which is there in soil because of the salts in soil water and also due to the presence of the semipermeable layer, which only allowed water entry but not of the salts through it [14]. In soil-water interface, there are mainly two important semipermeable membranes, namely, air-water interface and cell wall in the roots. Air-water interface behaves near to the perfect semipermeable membrane, while cell wall of roots is not a perfect semipermeable membrane as it allows passage of salts as well as water through it. However, while studying liquid water flow in soils, ψs is an unimportant potential due to lack of semipermeable membrane in it, while in plants it is of much importance as plant ease to absorb water is greatly affected by ψs as the more the value of ψs, the higher the energy exerted by plant to pull deep underground water. Consider sodic/saline soil, through which the plants have to exert the water, and then it can exert a ψs equal to the permanent wilting point of soils. Thus determining the value of ψs = -RTCs, where R, T, and Cs represent universal gas constant (82 bars cm−2), absolute temperature, and solute/salt concentration in soils, respectively, is the most difficult as it also includes those species which dissociate into the ions [9].
\n
There are many terminological terms, namely, water-use efficiency at global and local levels and allocation efficiency pertaining to water used in the literature [20, 23] for sustainable use of the irrigation water throughout the globe. Further, Allan coined the term “virtual water” for human consumption. Further, published literature also delineate some terms pertaining to crop water, namely, green, blue, gray, and black water [20]. The most important term that pertains to human water use is referred to as “blue water” as it is rain water, which directly enters the lakes and is used by humans. For plants, the most important water term is “green water” as it is there in soil pores and meets the transpiration demands of plants to produce biomass [24]. Domestic activities such as bathing and dishwashing constitute the “gray water,” while “black water” is the produce of laundry which consists of toilet water. Among all the different categories of water, only gray water has the huge potential of being reused, which further cut off the freshwater demand by 30% in cities [9].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Soil moisture balance computation
\n
Computation of the soil water balance is an important aspect which needs to be focused, and their detailed methodological understanding is a must more particularly for the budding scientists. Nowadays, many research papers are published in the journals of repute, publishing effect of RCTs, namely, laser leveler, DSR, zero tillage, etc., on improving the water as well as land productivity without discussing much on the estimation part. Thus, there is confusion in between the scientists especially budding ones as to how to estimate the performance of a particular RCT under different conditions of soil texture and climate. Moreover, there is an interest in the evaluation of these RCTs in improving the production potentials by diverting maximum ET water to the T components, thereby providing higher nutrients to the plants [15, 25, 26] and recommending them as per the soil textural class as these technologies are location specific and not a single technology is capable of performing equally under all the conditions. Hence, there is a need to delineate the estimation/calculative part of the different moisture balance components of the soil.
\n
Nowadays, agricultural scientists are focusing on techniques to reduce the soil evaporation [27, 28, 29, 30] for partitioning higher part of the soil moisture from evaporation (unproductive component) to the transpiration (productive component) for improving the grain yields of the farmers of the water-stressed regions throughout the globe. Countries, namely, Switzerland, the USA, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, etc., recognized the significance of the aquifer management [29, 31]. Proper water allotment, as per demand and availability, is a decisive issue [29, 32]. Further, to feed 9.5 billion population up to 2050 [33], around 60% more food [34] is required to produce from the shrinking natural resources, namely, land and water [29, 35, 36, 37]. One other claimed way is to use waste or industrial water, but it needs efforts to clean it first which sometimes is not an easy step. Climate change further complicated the conditions as it has a significant effect on the agriculture by altering the rainfall patterns, CO2 concentration, air temperature, etc. [29, 36, 38]. Improved standards of living [39] and altered eating habits [8], which need more consumption of water, make the scenario more complex. Therefore, a challenge in front of the agricultural scientist to come out from this situation seems to be a bit difficult. The only way is to partition greater fraction of evapotranspiration (ET) component share to the transpiration side for improving the land productivity even in the water-stressed region, but without knowing the proper procedure for calculating the evaporation component, the budding scientists will not able to assess the impact of different RCTs for this partition. Therefore, estimation of the different soil moistures/water balance components is a must and of course very important for having an idea to what are the added water amounts (through rainfall or irrigation) and what are the lost amounts (either through evaporation, transpiration, seepage, drainage, change in profile moisture storage, etc.). Among all the water lost components on the left side, evapotranspiration generally denoted by ET is most important whose share remained almost the same [29, 38]. Further among ET, E pertains to unproductive water from open surfaces which must be partitioned to T for having higher yields [8, 20]. However, water loss through D and S is always away from the rhizosphere and thus is not used by the crop plants for meeting their ET requirements.
\n
Before sowing and after harvesting the crop, namely, during the intervening periods, profile moisture storage change could be measured, which further played an important role in the cultivation of fodder crops. A soil water balance component provides a way out to identify technologies which improve water productivity. Up to now, this period is the least attended as results of applied treatments evaluated are analyzed during this period [20, 27, 40, 41]. However, the intervening period delineation of soil moisture dynamics helped to assess the residual effects of these RCTs applied during the main crop [40, 41]. Therefore, for sustainable and judicious use of irrigation water, the analysis of the soil water balance component is very important. The following are the important parameters of the soil water balance which needs to be calculated for evaluating the performance of any RCT in any region of the globe:
\n
\n\nE\n+\nT\n+\nD\n+\nS\n+\n∆G\n=\nR\n+\nI\n\nE5
\n
where E is the evaporation, T is the transpiration, D is the drainage, S is the seepage, ∆G is the profile moisture change, R is the rainfall, and I is the irrigation.
\n
Details along with their calculative/instrumental part are discussed below.
\n
\n
3.1 Rainfall (R)
\n
Rainfall is an important soil water balance component which decides the fate of the rainfed crops grown particularly in the submountainous tracts where there is no irrigation facilities, which might be because of the hard subsurface and very deep underground water table [17, 23]. Therefore, its timely quantification is very important for recognizing stressed areas which further helps in rescheduling irrigation plans for improving land and water productivity over here. Received rainfall is estimated using a rain gauge, which is installed permanently at the location/period of experimentation, which is further used in calculating the rainfall water productivity (WPI) [15]. However, one should be very careful that the spot selected for rain gauge installation should be away from huge buildings or any obstacles or any hindrance. Necessary correction factor must be applied, which is the case of the heavy rainfall if rain gauge’s cylinder overflowed [39]. Many times, it is observed that rain gauge base is not fixed, which may result in tilting of the gauge while recording the rainfall; thus while installing it, it should be made sure that it should be fixed by using cement and sand mixture, so that no error in calculations will be there [15, 23, 39].
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Irrigation water amount (I)
\n
Irrigation is the most important for having potential agricultural yields in any area. But generally irrigation water-use efficiency is quite low in spite of the fact that water already is a limiting factor. Further, irrigation is an important input component for soil water solution; however, its exact measurement is generally not there, even in water management experiments. Nowadays we are well equipped with the water measuring meters which accurately measured the water amount which is being applied to a particular plot under any treatment, namely, area velocity flow meter (AVFM 5) which provides a digital reading of water supplied in any plot [15]. Generally, irrigation water depth of 50 and 75 mm in wheat and rice plots supplied which could be measured through the sensor (fitted in the pipe through which water enters a particular plot) of AVFM [27]. GREYLINE is the company manufacturing the Digital flow meter (Figure 8) the irrigation water measuring irrigation water device on a quantitative basis. Their sensor has to be fit in the plastic pipe. When water applied to a particular plot equipped by a particular treatment, sensor placed in the pipe starts recording and displaying the quantity of water entered in the plot in liters which could be further be used in calculating the irrigation water productivity of differently treated plots. As there is no electric supply in the remote agricultural fields, hence a battery is required for its power. Further, calibrations are required before using it by filling the water in a Known volume of drum and in case of any discrepancy, a correction factor must be applied for further calculations for applied irrigation amounts in the agricultural water management experiments so that correct irrigation water productivities will be delineated under different treatments.
\n
Figure 8.
Area Velocity Flow Meter for calculating the irrigation water applied.
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Evaporation (E)
\n
Evaporation generally is known as the unproductive loss of the water from any surface, namely, soil or water or leaf, when liquid water changed to vapor form in the presence of the certain energy, and is affected by establishment methods [8, 12, 20, 29, 42] as mulched plots experienced lesser evaporation losses. However, through the stomata of the leaf, loss of liquid water to atmosphere in gaseous form coined as productive loss, delineated as “transpiration (T)” as under transpiration pull along with water nutrient also enters into the plants through the roots which further results in higher grain yields. Therefore, for having higher production of the plants, higher transpiration is required; thus, every effort is made to divert a greater fraction of the ET share of the soil moisture to the T component [15, 39]. Generally, lysimeters are used for delineating the evaporation, while transpiration is delineated after subtracting other water loss factors from rainfall + irrigation. Lysimeters [41, 42] comprised of two pipes of PVC, the outer (0.16 m) being wider than the inner (0.102 m) in diameter while both of the same length (0.20 m). Porous end cap is used to seal the inner one from downward side, while the outer one was opened from both sides for making soil environment homogeneous in mini-lysimeter and the outer field. Cylindrical auger is used for making space in the field for fitting wider outer pipe (0.20 m long), in which inner soil-filled pipe (duly closed from downside with an end caps) is placed.
\n
The inner PVC tube weight was measured daily at 0.900 hours (Figure 9d) using a digital weighing balance. Mini-lysimeters are used (Figure 9a–d) in the treatment plots, where daily evaporation needs to be worked in mm below the crop canopy [20, 42, 43]. Providing permanent location in the field plots receiving differential treatments throughout the season is the main objective of providing outer PVC pipe, where evaporation could be regularly measured. Hammer is used for inserting the narrower inner PVC pipe in the field during each sampling (Figure 9a), which removed from the plot with the help of chain-pulley arrangement (Figure 9b). Weeds growing on the mini-lysimeters must be cut and removed, so that it may not affect evaporation readings. Without any soil disturbance, inner pipes should be placed in the outer pipes, and daily in the morning, about 9:00 am, lysimeters were weighed (Figure 9d) and placed back in the outer PVC pipe.
\n
Figure 9.
Step-wise technique of evaporation delineation with mini-lysimeters (a) Fitting of lysimeter in experimental plot, (b) use of chain-pulley for removing it from plots, (c) removed lysimeter, (d) weighing of lysimeters within the plots receiving differential treatments [23].
\n
\n
3.3.1 Delineation of calculations of evaporation
\n
Mostly, very little discussion is there in different research papers regarding the calculative part of the evaporation. Hence, the repetition of the carried-out work under differentially textured soils/agroclimatic conditions is quite difficult. As far as the calculative part, different lysimeters were installed in different plots receiving differently established methods/techniques.
\n
Let us suppose.
\n
Day 1 (Mass of the Lysimeter + Soil) = A g.
\n
Day 2 (Mass of the Lysimeter + Soil) = B g.
\n
Evaporated moisture mass after 1 day = A-B = X g (suppose it is 15 g).
\n
1 g = 1 cm3 (15 g = 15 cm3).
\n
For calculating evaporated water in 24 hours under differential treatments, the differential lysimeter weight in cm3 needs to be divided by the lysimeter area (п r2) cm2 where r is the radius. Let us suppose radius was 7.5 cm.
\n
Hence, evaporated water = 15 cm3/3.14 × 7.5 cm × 7.5 cm = 0.085 cm.
\n
Delineation of moisture evaporated from a particular treatmental plot during the last 24 hours is quite important. The “cm” units are converted into “mm” by multiplying it by 10. Therefore, in the above case, 0.85 mm (0.085 × 10 = 0.85 mm) of evaporation is there. With this way, the performance of different RCTs in reducing evaporation and thereby promoting the transpiration could be delineated in a particular region (Figure 10).
\n
Figure 10.
Working of electronic tensiometers (a) Fitting of tensiometers in the field, (b) filling of water in tensiometers, (c–e) installed tensiometers,( f) measuring of matric potential using digital soil spec [24].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.4 Drainage (D)
\n
Drainage is the loss of irrigation or rain water in the downward direction beyond the rhizosphere. Therefore, drained away water could never be used up by the plants. Hence it needs to be checked for providing more moisture to the rhizosphere. In wheat, generally, drainage losses are assumed to be negligible or near to 100 mm, while in the rice season, drainage losses are of significance (>2000 mm). For calculating the drainage losses in the rice season, electronic tensiometers are installed at 450 and 600 mm assuming rhizosphere up to 500 mm [15]. For a drainage calculation, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity needs to be delineated by using the disk permeameter, which is used throughout the soil profile (Figure 11).
\n
Figure 11.
Disk permeameter for delineation of un-saturated hydraulic conductivity [23].
\n
Now, for calculating the flux using Darcy’s law (Eq. (6)), delineation of the unsaturated K of the transitional layer on a daily basis is very important, which is further expressed as deep drainage.
\n
\n\nq\n=\nK\n.\n∆H\n/\nL\n\nE6
\n
where Q is the flux, K is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, and ∆H/L is the hydraulic gradient.
\n
Hydraulic gradient (∆H/L) changed to the suction gradient (∆Ψt/L), for tensiometers
\n
\n\nq\n=\nK\n.\n∆Ψt\n/\nL\n\nE7
\n
where Ψt is the total potential which is the sum of matric and gravitational potentials, namely, Ψm + Ψg, which are delineated as in cm and kPa, respectively. kPa is easily converted into cm by multiplying it with 10. Disk permeameter (Figure 11) is generally used for estimating unsaturated hydraulic conductivity values up to 0–150 cm. For estimating water drained deep through the soil profile, Eq. (4) is used.
Sometimes under field conditions, different length tensiometers had to be used depending upon their availability; hence, a correction factor is applied to nullify this effect.
Generally, the tensiometer reading is in kPa, but for the soil water balance studies, readings in “cm” are necessary, which are converted by multiplying kPa reading with 10. After filling reading in Eq. (5), flux (q)/drainage loss in different plots could be easily delineated.
\n
\n
\n
3.5 Seepage (S)
\n
S is the sideway water travels from side to side of the bunds, which could alter the water amounts used. For delineating the seepage loss in the rice season, water level variation in whole plots and infiltration rings is recorded during every irrigation [15, 43]. After each irrigation/heavy rainfall, seepage was calculated. After 2–3 hours depending upon the soil textural class, water from plot disappears, and then, the ring water level provides us with a scheme of the seepage losses from a particular experimental plot.
\n
\n
\n
3.6 Change in profile moisture (∆G)
\n
Profile moisture change is also an important part of the soil water balance equation. For measuring soil profile moisture change, the thermogravimetrical method is used for measuring moisture before sowing and after harvesting throughout the profile up to a depth of 1.5 m.
\n
\n\n\n\n\nMoisture of soil\n\n(\n\ng g\n−1\n\n)\n=\nFresh soil mass (g)\n–\noven‐dried soil mass (g)\n/\n\n\n\n\n\nOven‐dried soil mass (g).\n\n\n\n\nE12
\n
From the above conversion, above weight basis (g g−1) values of soil moisture to volumetric basis (cm3 cm−3), these values must be multiplied with a respective bulk density.
\n
\n\nØi\n=\nW\n×\n\nD\nb\n\n\nE13
\n
where Øi is the volumetric soil moisture (cm3 cm−3); W is the mass basis soil moisture; and Db is the bulk density.
\n
For Db determination, generally, core method [22] was used. Under this method, undisturbed metallic soil cores are used for calculating the Db, and fresh core weight was measured. Then, fresh soil + cores weight was recorded, and then, both fresh soil and cores are dried for 1 day in an oven at 105°C. For Db, the dried weight of soil is divided with the internal volume of the metallic cores [15]. Further for a specific depth under consideration, moisture (cm) is determined by
\n
\n\nIn\n\na\n\nspecific depth of soil\n,\nsoil moisture\n\n\ncm\n\n=\nØi\n×\nsoil profile depth\n\nE14
\n
Further, for delineating soil profile moisture up to 150 cm, each depth value of soil moisture is added up to have soil profile moisture (cm), which is further multiplied by 10 to get soil moisture of the whole profile in mm, the required units for the soil moisture balance.
\n
By adopting above methodology for calculating different soil moisture components, namely, rainfall, irrigation, evaporation, transpiration, seepage, drainage, and change in profile soil moisture, one could easily delineate the soil moisture components or validate the performance of a particular resource conservation technology, namely, happy seeder, laser leveler, tensiometers, direct-seeded rice, etc., in improving the yield potentials by partitioning the maximum share of the evapotranspiration water from evaporation to transpiration.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
Underground water is globally declining down which in itself is a matter of great concern. Further, population pressure is rising day by day whose requirements whether of food, fiber, etc. should be met out from the ever-diminishing resources, namely, water and land. Climate change further complicated the whole scenario by one or other way. Thus, under this whole current scenario, it is very much important to first have knowledge regarding soil moisture movement under the impacts of different soil moisture potentials, namely, matric potential, solute potential, and gravitational potential, so that irrigation water is applied as required for having higher water-use efficiency for which tensiometers may serve the purpose under the field conditions. Further, many RCTs are being proposed in the water-stressed regions for establishing the wheat-rice cropping sequence with claim to have higher water-use efficiency and, thus, higher land and water productivity. But a careful observation delineates that all of these RCTs are not universally applicable; rather their performance varied as per differential sand, silt, and clay ratios, soil slope, and agroclimatic conditions. Therefore, the first idea regarding different soil water potentials and then, secondly, rechecking of different recommended RCTs in a diversion of maximum share of green water from E to T are required. For this, estimating different soil moisture balance components and therefore their instrumental/calculative part needs more attention in the budding scientists more particularly dealing with the agricultural water management experiments in the water-stressed regions of the globe.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
No conflict of interest is expressed by the authors.
Abbreviations
Db\n
bulk density
RCT
resource conservation technologies
Es
evaporation from soil surface
D
drainage
Ψm
potential by virtue of attraction due to soil matrix
Ψg
potential by virtue of gravity
W
mass basis moisture
∆H/L
hydraulic gradient
Øi
moisture content on volumetric basis
SMP
soil matric potential
q
flux
K
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
I
irrigation
T
transpiration
AVFM
area velocity flow meter
PVC
polyvinyl chloride
DSR
dry-seeded rice
ET
evapotranspiration
R
rainfall
WPI\n
irrigation water productivity
E
evaporation
S
seepage
\n',keywords:"moisture potential, tensiometer, seepage, drainage, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, irrigation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72283.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72283.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72283",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72283",totalDownloads:594,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"November 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 22nd 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",dateFinished:"May 22nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Root architecture in soils is directly affecting crop yield potential, through influencing the moisture potential of soil and its balance components, as only transpiration share is useful for them. Soil moisture potential responsible for the soil moisture curves on the basis of differential energy states is quite important. Generally, a soil moisture flow rate is considered for its kinetic energy. Consequently, soil moisture energy state is defined by its equivalent potential energy, which is by virtue of its place in a force field which could assist to improve the water-use efficiency. Irrigation water losses significantly occur under the flood irrigation through evaporation, seepage, and drainage. While the soil moisture potential declines with help of the tensiometer, and significantly save the irrigation water. For evaluating the performance of any resource conservation technologies (RCT) in the region, estimation of the evapotranspiration (ET) is very important to analyze the effect of the RCT. It is also helpful in balancing the nutrient inflows in the plants through roots, which results to the improvement of land and water productivity. Hence, delineation of the soil moisture potentials and moisture balance components is important to improve the land as well as water productivity; it makes the livelihood security better in the water-stressed regions on the globe. This chapter deals with the methodological part of soil moisture potentials and moisture balance components, which is useful for the policymakers, modelers, scientists, students, and teachers engaged in the irrigation experiments under texturally divergent soils.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72283",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72283",signatures:"Rajan Bhatt and Ram Swaroop Meena",book:{id:"8937",type:"book",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-096-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-095-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-097-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262523",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatt",fullName:"Rajan Bhatt",slug:"rajan-bhatt",email:"rajansoils@pau.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/262523/images/system/262523.jpeg",institution:null},{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",email:"rsmeenaagro@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313528/images/system/313528.jpg",institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soil moisture potential (ψW)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Hydraulic potential",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Matric potential (ψm)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Pressure potential",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Gravitational potential",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Osmotic potential (ψs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Soil moisture balance computation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Rainfall (R)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Irrigation water amount (I)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Evaporation (E)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.3.1 Delineation of calculations of evaporation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Drainage (D)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.5 Seepage (S)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.6 Change in profile moisture (∆G)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nDane JH, Topp CG, Young MH, Sisson JB. Tensiometry. SSSA Book Series. 2002;5(4):575-608. DOI: 10.2136/sssabookser5.4.c21\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nGallopin GC, Rijsberman F. Three global water scenarios. International Journal of Water. 2000;1(1):16-40\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nYadav S, Evangelista G, Faronilo J, Humphreys E, Henry A, Fernandez L. Establishment method effects on crop performance and water productivity of irrigated rice in the tropics. Field Crops Research. 2014;166:112-127\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nYadav AS, Upadhyay RK. Climate smart agriculture. In: Rawat SK, Narain S, editors. Agricultural Technology for Sustaining Rural Growth. New Delhi, India: Biotech Books; 2020. pp. 69-83\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nCosgrove WJ, Loucks DP. Water management: Current and future challenges and research directions. 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Hydrological Processes. 2006;20:3335-3370\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nWerner AD, Ward JD, Morgan LK, Simmons CT, Robinson NI, Teubner MD. Vulnerability indicators of sea water intrusion. Ground Water. 2012;50(1):48-58. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.00817.x\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nXu Y, Beekman HE. Review of groundwater recharge estimation in arid and semi-arid Southern Africa. 2003. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001324/132404e.pdf [Accessed: 11 March 2016]\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nHamaiedeh ALH, Bino M. Effect of treated grey water reuse in irrigation on soil and plants. Desalination. 2010;256:115-119. DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2010.02.004\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nHoekstra AY, Hung PQ. Globalization of water resources: International virtual water flows in relation to crop trade. Global Environmental Change. 2005;15(1):45-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.06.004\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nFAO. FAOSTAT database: Agriculture production. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2013\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nScanlon BR, Jolly I, Sophocleous M, Zhang L. Global impacts of conversions from natural to agricultural ecosystems on water resources: Quantity versus quality. Water Resources Research. 2007;43:210-219. DOI: 10.1029/2006WR005486 W03437\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nSingh R, Singh GS. Traditional agriculture: A climate-smart approach for sustainable food production. Energy, Ecology and Environment. 2017;2(5):296-316. DOI: 10.1007/s40974-017-0074-7\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nNace RL. Water resources: A global problem with local roots. Environmental Science & Technology. 1967;1:550-560\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nSingh A, Panda SN. Integrated salt and water balance modelling for the management of waterlogging and salinization. 2: Application of SAHYSMOD. Journal of Irrigation & Drainage Engineering. 2012c;138(11):964-971\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nGuan D, Zhang Y, Kaisi MMA, Wang Q, Zhang M, Li Z. Tillage practices effect on root distribution and water use efficiency of winter wheat under rain-fed condition in the North China plain. Soil and Tillage Research. 2015;146:286-295\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nPanwar A, Renner M, Kleidon A. Imprints of evaporation and vegetation type in diurnal 2 temperature variations. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 16 March 2020. DOI: 10.5194/hess-2020-95\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nHoekstra JM, Boucher TM, Ricketts TH. Confronting a biome crisis: Global disparities of habitat loss and protection. Ecology Letters. 2015;8:23-29. DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00686.x\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nGupta N, Eberbach PL, Humphreys E, Singh B, Yadav S, Kukal SS. Estimating soil evaporation in dry seeded rice and wheat crops after wetting events. Agricultural Water Management. 2019;217:98-106. DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2019.02.037\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nSingh B, Eberbach PL, Humphreys E, Kukal SS. The effect of rice straw mulch on evapotranspiration, transpiration and soil evaporation of irrigated wheat in Punjab, India. Agricultural Water Management. 2011;98:1847-1855\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rajan Bhatt",address:"rajansoils@pau.edu",affiliation:'
Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University, India
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, India
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Research suggests that physical activity levels of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are lower than typically developing and developed peers. Despite evidence for PA decreasing negative behaviors and promoting positive behaviors, individuals with ASD may be less motivated and less likely to participate. Individuals with ASD may be more likely to be overweight or obese than their typically developing counterparts as a result of decreased activity levels. Conflicting findings regarding PA levels in individuals with ASD have been reported. Given mixed evidence, further inquiry is warranted. The present chapter provides a review of literature pertaining to PA in individuals with ASD. Four databases were searched. Predetermined search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria were clearly outlined to identify relevant articles which were then critically appraised. This research provides a greater understanding of the status of PA participation of individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Sara M. Scharoun, Kristen T. Wright, Jennifer E. Robertson-Wilson,\nPaula C. Fletcher and Pamela J. Bryden",authors:[{id:"190972",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Bryden",slug:"pamela-bryden",fullName:"Pamela Bryden"}]},{id:"52787",doi:"10.5772/65906",title:"The Clinical Gestalts of Autism: Over 40 years of Clinical Experience with Autism",slug:"the-clinical-gestalts-of-autism-over-40-years-of-clinical-experience-with-autism",totalDownloads:1713,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The clinical gestalts of autism are very broad and much more heterogeneous than people realise. DSM V [1] gives a more narrow and condensed description of what autism is in the twentieth century. DSM focuses on problems with socioemotional reciprocity, non-verbal communication and difficult interpersonal relationships, restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, early onset and functional impairment. First, I want to flesh out the autism spectrum disorder gestalts as it presents to experienced clinical practitioners. It is the opposite of the “tick box” approach to diagnosis so common today. It focuses on the phenomena as they would have been focused on in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, an approach that has faded into the background in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. It is critical at this point of the twenty-first century that we re-engage with phenomenology and with the clinical gestalt of psychiatric conditions which show a great deal of overlap with much mixed phenomenology. We will start by examining social relations in autism spectrum disorders. Clearly, this is central to autism.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Michael Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"191313",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}]},{id:"52976",doi:"10.5772/66201",title:"Family Quality of Life in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)",slug:"family-quality-of-life-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-asd-",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"In latest years the concept of quality of life (QoL) has been acknowledged as an important outcome in psychiatric pathology fields. Most researchers consider that social indicators and the perception of personal wellbeing also, should be considered when measuring the quality of life. Our purpose was to investigate the QoLof the families of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and to determine whether in this population, the potential mediators (irrational cognitions, negative automatic thoughts, coping strategies) relate significantly with the emotional distress reported. We also aimed to assess the parents’ irrational cognitions and negative automatic thoughts as mediators in the relationship between the overall assessment of family QoLand their emotional distress. We found significant correlations between the emotional distress reported by the parents and their automatic negative thoughts, irrational cognitions, and different coping strategies. The relationship between the overall assessment of family QoLand the parents’ emotional distress was partially explained by their negative automatic thoughts and irrational cognitions. In this view, the specialised services should include also interventions for the parents of children with developmental disorders (ASD, ADHD) in order to improve their overall assessment of familyQoL.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Elena Predescu and Roxana Şipoş",authors:[{id:"191660",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Predescu",slug:"elena-predescu",fullName:"Elena Predescu"},{id:"191661",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Sipos",slug:"roxana-sipos",fullName:"Roxana Sipos"}]},{id:"52521",doi:"10.5772/65409",title:"A Different Point of View: The Neurodiversity Approach to Autism and Work",slug:"a-different-point-of-view-the-neurodiversity-approach-to-autism-and-work",totalDownloads:2039,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"With this chapter, we want to open up the debate whether neurodiversity might be the next step of diversity. The term neurodiversity was first established in the online autism community in the 1990s and has since spread both off‐ and online. It describes the idea that, throughout the human population, different brain developments and structures exist. Neuronal variances such as Autism are therefore not to be seen as disorders but as variations different from the neurotypical brain. Instead of being considered ill and cure‐worthy, neurodiverse people should be included and integrated into society. In our current research, we follow the neurodiversity approach and focus on the subject of autism in the work context. We found that certain strengths and abilities are most prominent in autistic people (such as logical reasoning, visual perception) and that autistic people are able to find different effective solutions to overcome the barriers detaining them from entering the job market. Furthermore, while many autistic individuals are employed in regular competitive jobs, more focus on autism‐specific job environments is needed. These findings lead us to the conclusion that autistic individuals have potential that is beneficial for society.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Timo Lorenz, Nomi Reznik and Kathrin Heinitz",authors:[{id:"190954",title:"Dr.",name:"Timo",middleName:null,surname:"Lorenz",slug:"timo-lorenz",fullName:"Timo Lorenz"},{id:"195124",title:"Ms.",name:"Nomi",middleName:null,surname:"Reznik",slug:"nomi-reznik",fullName:"Nomi Reznik"},{id:"195125",title:"Prof.",name:"Kathrin",middleName:null,surname:"Heinitz",slug:"kathrin-heinitz",fullName:"Kathrin Heinitz"}]},{id:"52764",doi:"10.5772/65965",title:"Sociocultural Perspective on Autism Intervention",slug:"sociocultural-perspective-on-autism-intervention",totalDownloads:1877,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The landscape of the population in the United States is diversifying, as are the individuals who have a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. Autism spectrum disorder now affects one of out every 68 children. Although the diagnostic criteria do not differ, there are differences in time of diagnosis, treatment and acceptability of the diagnosis in various cultures, which is important for clinicians to understand. One approach to autism intervention is applied behavior analysis (ABA), which seeks to intervene on socially significant behavior. In addition, to using an approach such as ABA, which emphasis social significance, individuals may also use a cultural broker. The cultural broker can help to bridge the gap between parties and promote more effective treatment experience and thus help to ensure a more culturally sensitive approach to intervention.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Elizabeth Hughes Fong and Helen Lee",authors:[{id:"195244",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Hughes Fong",slug:"elizabeth-hughes-fong",fullName:"Elizabeth Hughes Fong"},{id:"195269",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"helen-lee",fullName:"Helen Lee"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52480",title:"Mindfulness and Autism Spectrum Disorder",slug:"mindfulness-and-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:2379,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The use of mindfulness interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a relatively new research area, which has followed a more established body of research investigating the efficacy of mindfulness interventions for parents of children with ASD. Given the chronic stress levels experienced by parents and high anxiety and stress levels in individuals with ASD, such research is well justified. The utility of mindfulness in clinical practice for individuals with ASD and their parents will be discussed. This chapter aims to evaluate the research literature, identify important limitations, and propose crucial directions for future research. Acknowledgment of the impact of attitudes, social bias, and a generational shift that may be accelerating the salience of mindfulness is discussed. The author aims to emphasize the importance of high-quality future research with robust methodological designs to clearly identify the potential role for mindfulness in this population. Despite having a solid foundation of preliminary findings, it is important that researchers refine current procedures and evaluation of mindfulness interventions for individuals with ASD and their parents while carefully selecting measures that are not solely self-report or parent report.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Renee L. Cachia",authors:[{id:"190422",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Renee",middleName:null,surname:"Cachia",slug:"renee-cachia",fullName:"Renee Cachia"}]},{id:"53550",title:"Physical Activity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): A Review",slug:"physical-activity-in-individuals-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-asd-a-review",totalDownloads:2198,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Current recommendations indicate that children and youth ages 5–17 should participate in 60 min and adults in 150 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily. Research suggests that physical activity levels of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are lower than typically developing and developed peers. Despite evidence for PA decreasing negative behaviors and promoting positive behaviors, individuals with ASD may be less motivated and less likely to participate. Individuals with ASD may be more likely to be overweight or obese than their typically developing counterparts as a result of decreased activity levels. Conflicting findings regarding PA levels in individuals with ASD have been reported. Given mixed evidence, further inquiry is warranted. The present chapter provides a review of literature pertaining to PA in individuals with ASD. Four databases were searched. Predetermined search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria were clearly outlined to identify relevant articles which were then critically appraised. This research provides a greater understanding of the status of PA participation of individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Sara M. Scharoun, Kristen T. Wright, Jennifer E. Robertson-Wilson,\nPaula C. Fletcher and Pamela J. Bryden",authors:[{id:"190972",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Bryden",slug:"pamela-bryden",fullName:"Pamela Bryden"}]},{id:"53617",title:"The Genetic and Epigenetic Basis Involved in the Pathophysiology of ASD: Therapeutic Implications",slug:"the-genetic-and-epigenetic-basis-involved-in-the-pathophysiology-of-asd-therapeutic-implications",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The prevalence of autism has increased in an exponential way in the past few years. Many monogenetic mutations as well as copy number variants and single nucleotide polymorphisms have been associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), a large proportion of which occur in genes associated with synaptogenesis and synaptic function. However, the increase in appearance of genetic alterations does not explain the etiology of an elevated number of ASD cases. Recent research is now focusing on the role of environmental/epigenetic factors, which by themselves and/or in combination with classical genetic factors, may be the root cause of a large number of ASDs. In this chapter we review the current literature regarding the epigenetic changes involved in ASD, including their possible mechanisms of action such as oxidative stress, altered fatty acid metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA methylation and histone methylation (via the one‐carbon metabolism cycle), histone variants, and ATP‐dependent chromatin remodeling. We discuss possible new biochemical markers related to autism as well as new lines of research for therapeutic targets.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Maria Carmen Carrascosa-Romero and Carlos De Cabo-De La Vega",authors:[{id:"61718",title:"Dr.",name:"María Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascosa-Romero",slug:"maria-carmen-carrascosa-romero",fullName:"María Carmen Carrascosa-Romero"},{id:"61719",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"De Cabo De La Vega",slug:"carlos-de-cabo-de-la-vega",fullName:"Carlos De Cabo De La Vega"}]},{id:"54098",title:"Sex Bias in Autism",slug:"sex-bias-in-autism",totalDownloads:1408,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with unknown exact etiology. Interestingly, it affects males more than females in a striking ratio (4:1), respectively. This biased ratio served as a clue to search about the factors that are sex linked and hence sex hormones and X chromosomes were good candidates. Although understanding the basic sex dimorphism in male and female brains is essential to understand autism pathology. Theories regarding the biased sex ratio in autism have been raised, and some have been supported by evidence from human studies. Furthermore, sex-linked genetic dysregulation has also been reported in autism. In this chapter, an overview of what is known about sex bias in autism is reviewed, emphasizing the importance of carrying on in uncoding the sex bias in autism.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Felwah S. Al-Zaid",authors:[{id:"191157",title:"Dr.",name:"Felwah",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zaid",slug:"felwah-al-zaid",fullName:"Felwah Al-Zaid"}]},{id:"52453",title:"Constructing Healthy Experiences through Human-Animal Interactions for Autistic Children and Their Families: Implications for Research and Education",slug:"constructing-healthy-experiences-through-human-animal-interactions-for-autistic-children-and-their-f",totalDownloads:1485,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"A significant body of research in the field of animal assistance in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) therapy indicates that positive human-animal interactions (HAIs), such as playing with therapy dogs or dogs presence while reading Social Stories, improve the social interactions and the level of the behavioral indicators of positive moods (smiling, laughing) in autistic children. In this chapter, we aim to present a series of evidence-based modalities of including animal-assisted activities in standard therapeutic settings but also in the home environment (e.g., interactions with family animals), targeting the socio-emotional development of autistic children and their optimal communication with the family members, including the companion animals. The studies presented here are discussed from the perspective of potential mechanisms, such as oxytocin system, and several attachment-related views. Our studies point toward the valorization of companion animals in the process of development and optimizing the interpersonal communication abilities of ASD children in a positive and engaging manner for both humans and animals.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Alina S. Rusu",authors:[{id:"191006",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:"Simona",surname:"Rusu",slug:"alina-rusu",fullName:"Alina Rusu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1055",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"11445",title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",hash:"d980826615baa6e33456e2a79064c5e8",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"March 29th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"265237",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Sheremet",slug:"igor-sheremet",fullName:"Igor Sheremet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11446",title:"Industry 4.0 - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11446.jpg",hash:"be984f45b90c1003798661ef885d8a34",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 12th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"303193",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",surname:"Gordan",slug:"meisam-gordan",fullName:"Meisam Gordan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11448",title:"Artificial Neural Networks - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11448.jpg",hash:"e57ff97a39cfc6fe68a1ac62b503dbe9",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"22866",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Leung Patrick",surname:"Hui",slug:"chi-leung-patrick-hui",fullName:"Chi Leung Patrick Hui"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 14th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:48,paginationItems:[{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104486",signatures:"Juan Pedro Lapuente",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/76767",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"76767"},fullPath:"/profiles/76767",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()