\r\n\tMethadone maintenance treatment (MMT) has become the main pharmacological option for the treatment of opioid dependence. Methadone remains the gold standard in the substitution treatment, which is a harm reduction intervention, because the patient does not become abstinent, but there are a series of positive changes. Currently, the surveillance of methadone substitution treatment is considered an ongoing challenge, given the need for the individualization and the increasing of the therapy efficiency. Methadone has been also studied as an analgesic for the management of cancer pain and other chronic pain conditions.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe complexity of methadone pharmacology, the high inter-individual variability in methadone pharmacokinetics, the risk of opioid diversion, the overdose and other adverse events pose many challenges to clinicians. \r\n\tThe aim of the proposed book is to update and summarize the scientific knowledge on the opioid dependence, including the mechanism of opioid dependence, the misuse of prescription opioids and the substitution therapy of opioid dependence.
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She is a professor at the Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Carol Davila” Bucharest; ERT; Coordinator of the “Laboratory for toxicological, biochemical, pharmacognostic and microbiological investigations of natural products and xenobiotics” ; Senior Pharmacist, Pharmacovigilance Services, National Agency for Medicines and Medical Devices. Editor-in-Chief of the journal Trends in Toxicology and Related Sciences. Expertise in experimental and analytical toxicology. Her technical skills and competences include pharmaco-toxicological testing using animal models, as well as in development and validatation of bioanalytical methods (such as HPLC, GC/MS, LC/MS, TLC). Particular focus on toxicology of drugs of abuse, synthetic medicines, and environmental toxicology.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1197",title:"Pharmaceutical Drug",slug:"pharmaceutical-drug"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"220813",firstName:"Danijela",lastName:"Sakic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220813/images/6092_n.jpg",email:"danijela.s@intechopen.com",biography:"As Author Services Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As a PPM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Table",doi:"10.5772/6977",slug:"fpga-realization-of-a-motion-control-ic-for-x-y-table",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The development of a compact and high performance motion controller for precision X-Y table, CNC machine etc. has been a popular field in literature (Goto et al., 1996; Wang & Lee, 1999; Hanafi et al., 2003). In position control of X-Y table, there are two approaches to be considered. One is semi closed-loop control and the other is full closed-loop control. The full closed-loop control with feed-backed by a linear encoder as the table position signal has a better positioning performance than the semi closed-loop control that a rotary encoder attached to PMSM is feed-backed as the position signal. However, to develop a motion control IC for X-Y table, the fixed-point digital signal processor (DSP) and FPGA provide two possible solutions in this issue. Compared with FPGA, DSP suffers from a long period of development and exhausts many resources of the CPU (Zhou et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\t
For the progress of VLSI technology, the FPGA has been widely investigated due to its programmable hard-wired feature, fast time-to-market, shorter design cycle, embedding processor, low power consumption and higher density for implementing digital control system (Monmasson & Cirstea, 2007; Naouar et al., 2007; Jung & Kim, 2007). FPGA provides a compromise between the special-purpose ASIC (application specified integrated circuit) hardware and general-purpose processors (Wei et al., 2005). Therefore, using an FPGA to form a compact, low-cast and high performance servo system for precision machine has become an important issue. However, in many researches, the FPGA is merely used to realize the hardware part of the overall control system. Recently, fuzzy control has been successfully demonstrated in industrial control field (Sanchez-Solano et al., 2007; Kung & Tsai, 2007).Compared with other nonlinear approaches, FC has two main advantages, as follows: (1) FC has a special non-linear structure that is universal for various or uncertainty plants. (2) the formulation of fuzzy control rule can be easily achieved by control engineering knowledge, such as dynamic response characteristics, and it doesn’t require a mathematical model of controlled plant. In literature, Li et al. (2003) utilized an FPGA to implement autonomous fuzzy behavior control on mobile robot. Lin et al. (2005) presented a fuzzy sliding-mode control for a linear induction motor drive based on FPGA. But, due to the fuzzy inference mechanism module adopts parallel processing circuits, it consumes much more FPGA resources; therefore limited fuzzy rules are used in their proposed method. To solve this problem, a FSM joined by a multiplier, an adder, a LUT (Look-up table), some comparators and registers are proposed to model the FC algorithm of the PMSM drive system. Then a VHDL is adopted to describe the circuit of the FSM (Hsu et al., 1996). Due to the FSM belongs to the sequential processing method; the FPGA resources usage can be greatly reduced. Further, in recent years, an embedded processor IP and an application IP can now be developed and downloaded into FPGA to construct a SoPC environment (Altera, 2004), allowing the users to design a SoPC module by mixing hardware and software in one FPGA chip (Hall & Hamblen, 2004). The circuits required fast processing but fixed computation are suitable to be implemented by hardware in FPGA, and the heavy computation or complicated processing can be realized by software in FPGA (Kung et al., 2004; Kung & Shu, 2005). The results of the software/hardware co-design increase the programmability, flexibility of the designed digital system, enhance the system performance by parallel processing and reduce the development time.
\n\t\t\t
To exploit the advantages, a motion control IC for X-Y table based on the new-generation FPGA technology is developed in this study and shown in Fig.1 (Kung et al., 2006), which the scheme of position/speed/current vector control of two PMSMs can be realized by hardware in FPGA, and the motion trajectory for X-Y table can be realized by software using Nios II embedded processor. Hence, all functionalities, which are based on software/hardware co-design, required to construct a full closed-loop control for X-Y table can be integrated and implemented in one FPGA chip. In addition, the FPGA resources usage can be greatly reduced by using the FSM in the control algorithm design. Herein, the Altera Stratix II EP2S60F672C5ES (Altera, 2008), which has 48,352 ALUTs (Adaptive Look-UP Tables), maximum 718 user I/O pins, total 2,544,192 RAM bits, and a Nios II embedded processor which has a 32-bit configurable CPU core, 16 M byte Flash memory, 1 M byte SRAM and 16 M byte SDRAM, are used. Finally, an experimental system included by an FPGA experimental board, two inverters, two sets of A/D converter and an X-Y table, is set up to verify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed FPGA-based motion control IC.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
The architecture of the FPGA-based motion control system for X-Y table.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. System description and controller design of X-Y table
\n\t\t\t
The X-Y table is driven by two PMSMs which the current, speed and position loop in each PMSM drive adopts vector control, P control and fuzzy control, respectively The architecture of the proposed FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table is shown in Fig. 1. The modeling of PMSM, the fuzzy control algorithm and the motion trajectory planning are introduced as follows:
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Mathematical model of PMSM and current vector controller
\n\t\t\t\t
The typical mathematical model of a PMSM is described, in two-axis d-q synchronous rotating reference frame, as follows
where v\n\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t, v\n\t\t\t\t\t\tq\n\t\t\t\t\t are the d and q axis voltages; i\n\t\t\t\t\td, i\n\t\t\t\t\tq, are the d and q axis currents, R\n\t\t\t\t\ts is the phase winding resistance; L\n\t\t\t\t\td, L\n\t\t\t\t\tq are the d and q axis inductance; \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the rotating speed of magnet flux; \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tλ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the permanent magnet flux linkage.
\n\t\t\t\t
The current loop control of PMSM drive in Fig.1 is based on a vector control approach. That is, if the i\n\t\t\t\t\td is controlled to 0 in Fig.1, the PMSM will be decoupled and controlling a PMSM like to control a DC motor. Therefore, after decoupling, the torque of PMSM can be written as the following equation,
where T\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t is the motor torque, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t is force constant, J\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t is the inertial value, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t is damping ratio, T\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t is the external torque, s\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t represents the displacement of X-axis or Y-axis table and r is the lead of the ball screw.
\n\t\t\t\t
The current loop of the PMSM drive for X- or Y-table in Fig.1 includes two PI controllers, coordinate transformations of Clark, Modified inverse Clark, Park, inverse Park, SVPWM (Space Vector Pulse Width Muldulation), pulse signal detection of the encoder etc. The coordination transformation of the PMSM in Fig. 1 can be described in synchronous rotating reference frame. Figure 2 is the coordination system in rotating motor which includes stationary a-b-c frame, stationary - frame and synchronously rotating d-q frame. Further, the formulations among three coordination systems are presented as follows.
\n\t\t\t\t
1.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t: stationary a-b-c frame to stationary - frame.
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the electrical angle.
\n\t\t\t\t
In Fig. 1, two digital PI controllers are presented in the current loop of PMSM. For the example in d frame, the formulation is shown as follows.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tthe \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t is the error between current command and measured current. The\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t are P controller gain and I controller gain, respectively. The\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t are the output of P controller only, I controller only and the PI controller, respectively. Similarity, the formulation of PI controller in q frame is the same.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Fuzzy controller (FC) for position control loop
\n\t\t\t\t
The position controllers in X-axis and Y-axis table of Fig. 1 adopt fuzzy controller, which includes fuzzification, fuzzy rules, inference mechanism and defuzzification. Herein, an FC design method for X-axis and Y-axis table is presented. At first, position error and its error change,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t are defined by
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Figure 2.
Transformation between stationary axes and rotating axes.
The K\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ter\n\t\t\t\t\t and K\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tder\n\t\t\t\t\t are the gains of the input variables\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, respectively, as well as u\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t is the output variables of the FC. The design procedure of the FC is as follows:
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a. Take the E and dE as the input linguist variables, which are defined by {A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t} and {B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}, respectively. Each linguist value of E and dE are based on the symmetrical triangular membership function which is shown in Fig.3. The symmetrical triangular membership function are determined uniquely by three real numbers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t≤\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t≤\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, if one fixes \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tξ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t. With respect to the universe of discourse of [-6.6], the numbers for these linguistic values are selected as follows:
b. Compute the membership degree of e and de. Figure 3 shows that the only two linguistic values are excited (resulting in a non-zero membership) in any input value, and the membership degree \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t can be derived, in which the error e is located between e\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and e\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, two linguist values of A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t are excited, and the membership degree is obtained by
where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t*\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Similar results can be obtained in computing the membership degree\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.\n\t\t\t\t
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Figure 3.
Fuzzification, fuzzy rule table, fuzzy inference and defuzzication.
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c. Select the initial fuzzy control rules by referring to the dynamic response characteristics (Liaw et al., 1999), such as,
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIF \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t is A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te is B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t THEN \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t is c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj,i\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tE18
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
where i and j = 0~6, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t and B\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t are fuzzy number, and c\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj,i\n\t\t\t\t\t is real number. The graph of fuzzification and fuzzy rule table is shown in Fig. 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
d. Construct the fuzzy system u\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(e,de) by using the singleton fuzzifier, product-inference rule, and central average defuzzifier method. Although there are total 49 fuzzy rules in Fig. 3 will be inferred, actually only 4 fuzzy rules can be effectively excited to generate a non-zero output. Therefore, if the error e is located between e\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and e\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, and the error change de is located between de\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and de\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, only four linguistic values A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and corresponding consequent values c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj,i\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj+1,i\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj,i+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t, c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj+1,i+1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t can be excited, and the (18) can be replaced by the following expression:
where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t_\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t*\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. And those \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tdenote the consequent parameters of the fuzzy system.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Motion trajectory planning of X-Y table
\n\t\t\t\t
The point-to-point, circular and window motion trajectories are usually considered to evaluate the motion performance for X-Y table.
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a. In point-to-point motion trajectory, for smoothly running of the table, it is designed with the trapezoidal velocity profile and its formulation is shown as follows.
Where 0<t<t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t is at the acceleration region, t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t<t<t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t is at the constant velocity region, and t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t<t<t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t is at the deceleration region. The s represents the position command in X-axis or Y-axis table; A is the acceleration/deceleration value; s\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t is the initial position; v\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t is the maximum velocity; t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t, t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t and t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t represents the end time of the acceleration region, the start time of the deceleration region and the end time of the trapezoidal motion, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
b. In circular motion trajectory, it is computed by
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\twith\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. Where\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t ,\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t are angle increment, radius, X-axis trajectory command and Y-axis trajectory command, respectively.
c. The window motion trajectory is shown in Fig.4. The formulation is derived as follows:
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t→\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tE23
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t→\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tE25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t→\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tE27
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tg\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttrajectory \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t→\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tE29
where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t , \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t are position increment, angle increment, X-axis trajectory command and Y-axis trajectory command, respectively. In addition, the\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tare arc center of b-, d-, f-, and h-trajectory in the Fig. 4 and r is the radius. The motion speed of the table is determined by\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΔ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.
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Figure 4.
Window motion trajectory.
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3. Design of an FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table
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The architecture of the proposed FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table is shown in Fig. 1, in which the motion trajectory is implemented by software using Nios II embedded processor and the current vector controller, the position and speed controller for two PMSMs are implemented by hardware in FPGA chip. However, in this section, we firstly introduce the concept of finite state machine (FSM). Then use FSM to design the complicated control algorithm, such as the FC and the vector controller in PMSM drive.
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3.1. Finite state machine (FSM)
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To reduce the use of the FPGA resource, FSM is adopted to describe the complicated control algorithm. Herein, the computation of a sum of product (SOP) shown below is taken as a case study to present the advantage of FSM.
Two kinds of design method that one is parallel processing method and the other is FSM method are introduced to realize the the computation of SOP. In the former method, the designed SOP circuit is shown in Fig. 5(a), and it will operate continuously and simultaneously. The circuit needs 2 adders and 3 multipliers, but only one clock time can complete the overall computation. Although the parallel processing method has fast computation ability, it consumes much more FPGA resources. To reduce the resource usage in FPGA, the designed SOP circuit adopted by using the FSM method is proposed and shown in Fig. 5(b), which uses one adder, one multiplier and manipulates 5 steps (or 5 clocks time) machine to carry out the overall computation of SOP. Although the FSM method needs more operation time (if one clock time is 40ns, the 5 clocks needs 0.2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tμ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\ts) than the parallel processing method in executing SOP circuit, it doesn’t loss any computation power. Therefore, the more complicated computation in algorithm, the more FPGA resources can be economized if the FSM is applied. Further, VHDL code to implement the computation of SOP is shown in Fig.6\n\t\t\t\t
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Figure 5.
Computation of SOP by using (a) parallel operation (b) FSM operation.
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Figure 6.
VHDL code to implement the computation of SOP.
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3.2. Design of an FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table
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The internal architecture of the proposed FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table is shown in Fig. 7. The FPGA is used by Altera Stratix II EP2S60 and a Nios II embedded processor can be downloaded into FPGA to construct an SoPC environment. The Altera Stratix II EP2S60 has 48,352 ALUTs (Adaptive Look-UP Tables), maximum 718 user I/O pins, total 2,544,192 RAM bits, and Nios II embedded processor is a 32-bit configurable CPU core, 16 M byte Flash memory, 1 M byte SRAM and 16 M byte SDRAM. A custom software development kit (SDK) consists of a compiled library of software routines for the SoPC design, a Make-file for rebuilding the library, and C header files containing structures for each peripheral. The motion control IC, which is designed in this SoPC environment, comprises a Nios II embedded processor IP and an application IP. The application IP implemented by hardware is adopted to realize two position/speed/current vector controllers of PMSMs and two QEP circuits of linear encoder. The circuit of each current vector controller includes a current controller and coordinate transformation (CCCT), SVPWM generation, QEP detection and transformation, ADC interface, etc. The speed loop uses P controller and the position loop adopts FC. The sampling frequency of the position control loop is designed with 2kHz. The frequency divider generates 50 Mhz (Clk), 25 Mhz (Clk-sp), 16 kHz (Clk-cur), and 2 kHz (Clk-po) clock to supply all circuits in Fig. 7.
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Figure 7.
Internal circuit of the proposed FPGA-based motion control IC.
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The internal circuit of CCCT performs the function of two PI controllers, table look-up for sin/cos function and the coordinate transformation for Clark, Park, inverse Park, modified inverse Clarke. The CCCT circuit designed by FSM is shown in Fig. 8, which uses one adder, one multiplier, an one-bit left shifter, a look-up-table and manipulates 24 steps machine to carry out the overall computation. The data type is 12-bit length with Q11 format and 2’s complement operation. In Fig. 8, steps s0~s1 is for the look-up sin/cos table; steps s2~s5 and s5~s8 are for the transformation of Clarke and Park, respectively; steps s9~s14 is for the computation of d-axis and q-axis PI controller; and steps s15~s19 and s20~s23 represent the transformation of the inverse Park and the modified inverse Clarke, respectively. The operation of each step in FPGA can be completed within 40ns (25 MHz clock); therefore total 24 steps need 0.96 s operation time. Although the FSM method needs more operation time than the parallel processing method in executing CCCT circuit, it doesn’t loss any control performance in overall system because the 0.96 s operation time is much less than the designed sampling interval, 62.5 s (16 kHz) of current control loop in Fig. 1. To prevent numerical overflow and alleviate windup phenomenon, the output values of I controller and PI controller are both limited within a specific range.
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Figure 8.
Designed CCCT circuit in Fig. 7.
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An FSM is employed to model the FC of the position loop and P controller of the speed loop in PMLSM and shown in Fig. 9, which uses one adder, one multiplier, a look-up table, comparators, registers, etc. and manipulates 23 steps machine to carry out the overall computation. With exception of the data type in reference model are 24-bits, others data type are designed with 12-bits length, 2’s complement and Q11 format. Although the algorithm of FC is highly complexity, the FSM can give a very adequate modeling and easily be described by VHDL. Furthermore, steps s0~s2 are for the computation of speed, position error and error change; steps s3~s6 execute the function of the fuzzification; s7 describes the look-up table and s8~s16 defuzzification; and steps s17~s22 execute the computation of speed and current command output. The SD is the section determination of e and de, and its flow chart of circuit design is shown in Fig.10. And the RS,1 represents the right shift function with one bit. The operation of each step in Fig.9 can be completed within 40ns (25 MHz clock) in FPGA; therefore total 23 steps need 0.92s operation time. It doesn’t loss any control performance in the overall system because the operation time with 0.92s is much less than the sampling interval, 500 s (2 kHz), of the position control loop in Fig.1.
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In Figure 7, with exception of the CCCT circuit, others circuit design, like SVPWM and QEP, are presented in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b), respectively. The SVPWM circuit is designed to be 12 kHz frequency and 1s dead-band. The circuit of the QEP module is shown in Fig.11(b), which consists of two digital filters, a decoder and an up-down counter. The filter is used for reducing the noise effect of the input signals PA and PB. The pulse count signal PLS and the rotating direction signal DIR are obtained using the filtered signals through the decoder circuit. The PLS signal is a four times frequency pulses of the input signals PA or PB. The QEP value can be obtained using PLS and DIR signals through a directional up-down counter.
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Figure 9.
State diagram of an FSM for describing the FC in position loop and P controller in speed loop.
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Figure 10.
Section determination in Fig. 9.
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Figure 11.
Block diagram of (a) SVPWM circuit (b) QEP circuit.
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The Nios II embedded processor IP is depicted to perform the function of the motion trajectory for X-Y table in software. Figure 12 illustrates the flow charts of the main program and the interrupt service routine (ISR), where the interrupt interval is designed with 2ms. All programs are coded in the C programming language in Fig.10. Then, through the complier and linker operation in the Nios II IDE (Integrated Development Environment), the execution code is produced and can be downloaded to the external Flash or SDRAM via JTAG interface. Using the C language to develop the control algorithm has the portable merit and is easier to transfer the mature code from the other processor to the Nios II embedded processor. Finally, Table 1 shows the FPGA utility of the proposed motion control IC and the overall circuits included a Nios II embedded processor IP (5,059 ALUTs and 78,592 RAM bits) and an application IP (10,196 ALUTs and 102,400 RAM bits), use 31.5% ALUTs resource and 7.1% RAM resource of Stratix II EP2S60.
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Figure 12.
Flow chart of the main and ISR program in Nios II embedded processor.
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Table 1.
Utility evaluation of a motion contron IC for X-Y table in FPGA.
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4. Experiments and results
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The overall experimental system is depicted in Fig. 1. This system includes an FPGA experimental board, two sets of voltage source IGBT inverter and an X-Y table which is driven by two PMSMs and two ball-screws. The power, rating, voltage, current and rating speed of PMSM are 200W, 92V, 1.6A and 3000rpm, respectively. A 2500 ppr rotary encoder attached to PMSM is used to measure the motor’s electrical angle. Two linear encoders with 5m resolution are mounted on the X-axis and Y-axis table as a position sensor. Each ball-screw has 5mm lead. The inverter has 6 sets of IGBT type power transistors. The collector-emitter voltage of the IGBT is rating 600V, the gate-emitter voltage is rating 12V, and the collector current in DC is rating 25A and in short time (1ms) is 50A. The photo-IC, Toshiba TLP250, is used for gate driving circuit of IGBT. Input signals of the inverter are PWM signals from FPGA chip. The FPGA-Altera Stratix II EP2S60 in Fig.1 is used to develop a full digital motion controller for X-Y table. The motion trajectory are implemented by software using Nios II embedded processor, and the two axis position/speed/current vector controller are implemental by hardware in FPGA. In the experimental system, the PWM switching frequency of inverter is designed with 12k Hz, dead-band is 1s, and the sampling frequency in current loop and position loop of the PMSM are designed with 16kHz and 500Hz, respectively. The motion control algorithms are coded by C language.
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In experiment, the position step response and the motion trajectory control are used to evaluate the dynamic performance of the proposed system. In the experiment of the step response, the results of X-axis and Y-axis table under 10 mm amplitude and 0.5Hz square wave command are shown in Fig. 13. The rising time, overshoot and steady-state value in Fig. 13(a) are 110ms, 14% and near 0mm, and in Fig. 13(b) are 90ms, 15% and near 0mm. It reveals that the mass carried in X-axis table is heavier than those in Y-axis table. In the experiment of the motion trajectory tracking, one-dimensional trapezoidal motion trajectory, two-dimensional circular and window motion trajectory are tested and its experimental tracking results are shown in Figs. 14 ~ 16. In one-dimensional motion trajectory, the trapezoidal velocity profile is considered which the acceleration and deceleration is designed with 500mm/s2, maximum speed is 125mm/s, and the overall displacement is designed with moving from 0 mm to 100 mm position. The trajectory tracking results in each axis corresponding with the aforementioned input commands is shown in Fig. 14. It can be seen that the motion of X-axis and Y-axis table can give a perfect tracking with command target both in position or speed trajectory. Further, in two-dimensional motion trajectory, the circular motion trajectory control with center (60, 60) mm and radius 50mm is evaluated and the tracking errors are the maximum \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t±\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.55 mm in X-axis, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t±\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.75 mm in Y-axis in Fig. 15. The window motion trajectory designed as Fig.4 and its experimental result is shown in Fig. 16, which also shows the tracking errors maximum \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t±\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.5 mm in X-axis, and \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t±\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t0.9 mm in Y-axis. Therefore, from the experimental results of Figs. 13~16, it demonstrates that the proposed FPGA-based motion controller IC for X-Y table is effective and correct.
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Figure 13.
Step response for (a) X-axis table (b) Y-axis table.
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Figure 14.
a) Position and speed tracking response in X-axis and in (b) Y-axis table.
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Figure 15.
Response of the circular trajectory (a) circular trajectory response (b) response for X- and Y- axis (c) control effort (d) tracking error.
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Figure 16.
Response of the window trajectory (a) window trajectory response (b) response for X- and Y- axis (c) control effort (d) tracking error.
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5. Conclusion
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This study successfully presents a motion control IC for X-Y table based on novel FPGA technology. The works herein are summarized as follows.
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The functionalities required to build a fully digital motion controller of X-Y table, such as the two current vector controllers, two speed P controllers, and two position fuzzy controllers and one motion trajectory planning, have been integrated in one FPGA chip.
An FSM joined by one multiplier, one adder, one LUT, or some comparators and registers has been employed to model the overall FC algorithm and the CCCT in vector control of the PMSM, such that it not only is easily implemented by VHDL but also can reduce the FPGA resources usage.
The software/hardware co-design technology under SoPC environment has been successfully applied to the motion controller of X-Y table.
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However, the experimental results by step response, point-to-point, window and circular motion trajectory tracking, has been revealed that the software/hardware co-design technology with the parallel processing well in the motion control system of X-Y table.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/6596.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/6596.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/6596",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/6596",totalDownloads:3162,totalViews:373,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 1st 2010",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/6596",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/6596",book:{slug:"motion-control"},signatures:"Ying-Shieh Kung and Ting-Yu Tai",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. System description and controller design of X-Y table ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Mathematical model of PMSM and current vector controller",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Fuzzy controller (FC) for position control loop",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Motion trajectory planning of X-Y table",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Design of an FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Finite state machine (FSM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Design of an FPGA-based motion control IC for X-Y table",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Experiments and results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAltera Corporation\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\t SOPC World.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAltera\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\twww.altera.com.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNakamura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKyura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 Accurate contour control of mechatronic servo systems using gaussian networks, IEEE Trans. Ind. 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Power Application, 152\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1137\n\t\t\t\t\t1148 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMonmasson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCirstea\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 FPGA design methodology for industrial control systems- a review, IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics, 54\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t1824\n\t\t\t\t\t1842 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNaouar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMonmasson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNaassani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSlama-Belkhodja\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPatin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 FPGA-based current controllers for AC machine drives- a review, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,\n\t\t\t\t\t54\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t1907\n\t\t\t\t\t1925 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSanchez-Solano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCabrera\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaturone\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoreno-Velo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBrox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 FPGA implementation of embedded fuzzy controllers for robotic applications, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,\n\t\t\t\t\t54\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t1937\n\t\t\t\t\t1945 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Neural-network cross-coupled control system with application on circular tracking of linear motor X-Y table, International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, 2194\n\t\t\t\t\t2199 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWei\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSeitz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGruber\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHirzinger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 FPGA based Hardware Architecture for HIT/DLR Hand, Proceeding of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and System, 523 528.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTakahahi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 FPGA realization of a high-performance servo controller for PMSM, Proceeding of the 9th IEEE Application Power Electronics conference and Exposition,\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t1604\n\t\t\t\t\t1609 .\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ying-Shieh Kung",address:null,affiliation:'
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Kotova",authors:[{id:"4873",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeri",middleName:null,surname:"Kovalev",fullName:"Valeri Kovalev",slug:"valeri-kovalev"},{id:"133838",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",fullName:"Robert Harrison",slug:"robert-harrison"}]},{id:"8431",title:"Bismuth-doped Silica Fiber Amplifier",slug:"bismuth-doped-silica-fiber-amplifier",signatures:"Young-Seok Seo and Yasushi Fujimoto",authors:[{id:"4778",title:"Researcher",name:"Young-Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",fullName:"Young-Seok Seo",slug:"young-seok-seo"},{id:"4885",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujimoto",fullName:"Yasushi Fujimoto",slug:"yasushi-fujimoto"}]},{id:"8432",title:"Radio-over-Fibre Techniques and Performance",slug:"radio-over-fibre-techniques-and-performance",signatures:"Roberto Llorente and Marta Beltrán",authors:[{id:"4404",title:"Ms.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Beltran",fullName:"Marta Beltran",slug:"marta-beltran"},{id:"16540",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Llorente",fullName:"Roberto Llorente",slug:"roberto-llorente"}]},{id:"8433",title:"Time-Spectral Visualization of Fundamental Ultrafast Nonlinear-Optical Interactions in Photonic Fibers",slug:"time-spectral-visualization-of-fundamental-ultrafast-nonlinear-optical-interactions-in-photonic-fibe",signatures:"Anatoly Efimov",authors:[{id:"4545",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",middleName:null,surname:"Efimov",fullName:"Anatoly Efimov",slug:"anatoly-efimov"}]},{id:"8434",title:"Dispersion Compensation Devices",slug:"dispersion-compensation-devices",signatures:"Lingling Chen, Meng Zhang and Zhigang Zhang",authors:[{id:"4565",title:"Ms.",name:"Lingling",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lingling Chen",slug:"lingling-chen"},{id:"4773",title:"Professor",name:"Zhigang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhigang Zhang",slug:"zhigang-zhang"}]},{id:"8435",title:"Photonic Crystal Fibre for Dispersion Controll",slug:"photonic-crystal-fibre-for-dispersion-controll",signatures:"Zoltán Várallyay and Kunimasa Saitoh",authors:[{id:"4607",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan Krisztian",middleName:null,surname:"Varallyay",fullName:"Zoltan Krisztian Varallyay",slug:"zoltan-krisztian-varallyay"},{id:"133834",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunimasa",middleName:null,surname:"Saitoh",fullName:"Kunimasa Saitoh",slug:"kunimasa-saitoh"}]},{id:"8436",title:"Resonantly Induced Refractive Index Changes in Yb-doped Fibers: the Origin, Properties and Application for All-Fiber Coherent Beam Combining",slug:"resonantly-induced-refractive-index-changes-in-yb-doped-fibers-the-origin-properties-and-application",signatures:"Andrei A. Fotiadi, Oleg L. Antipov and Patrice Mégret",authors:[{id:"4725",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Fotiadi",fullName:"Andrei Fotiadi",slug:"andrei-fotiadi"},{id:"107849",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mégret",fullName:"Patrice Mégret",slug:"patrice-megret"},{id:"133847",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Antipov",fullName:"Oleg Antipov",slug:"oleg-antipov"}]},{id:"8437",title:"Polarization Coupling of Light and Optoelectronics Devices Based on Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate",slug:"polarization-coupling-of-light-and-optoelectronics-devices-based-on-periodically-poled-lithium-nioba",signatures:"Xianfeng Chen, Kun Liu, and Jianhong Shi",authors:[{id:"4180",title:"Professor",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"},{id:"133851",title:"Prof.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Kun Liu",slug:"kun-liu"},{id:"133853",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhong",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Jianhong Shi",slug:"jianhong-shi"}]},{id:"8438",title:"All-Optical Wavelength-Selective Switch by Intensity Control in Cascaded Interferometers",slug:"all-optical-wavelength-selective-switch-by-intensity-control-in-cascaded-interferometers",signatures:"Hiroki Kishikawa, Nobuo Goto and Kenta Kimiya",authors:[{id:"4400",title:"Professor",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Nobuo Goto",slug:"nobuo-goto"},{id:"133356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Kishikawa",fullName:"Hiroki Kishikawa",slug:"hiroki-kishikawa"},{id:"133358",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenta",middleName:null,surname:"Kimiya",fullName:"Kenta Kimiya",slug:"kenta-kimiya"}]},{id:"8439",title:"Nonlinear Optics in Doped Silica Glass Integrated Waveguide Structures",slug:"nonlinear-optics-in-doped-silica-glass-integrated-waveguide-structures",signatures:"David Duchesne, Marcello Ferrera, Luca Razzari, Roberto Morandotti, Brent Little, Sai T. Chu and David J. Moss",authors:[{id:"4405",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Moss",fullName:"David Moss",slug:"david-moss"},{id:"4783",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Duchesne",fullName:"David Duchesne",slug:"david-duchesne"},{id:"95840",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Razzari",fullName:"Luca Razzari",slug:"luca-razzari"},{id:"135390",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrera",fullName:"Marcello Ferrera",slug:"marcello-ferrera"},{id:"135391",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Morandotti",fullName:"Roberto Morandotti",slug:"roberto-morandotti"},{id:"135392",title:"Prof.",name:"Brent",middleName:null,surname:"Little",fullName:"Brent Little",slug:"brent-little"},{id:"135393",title:"Prof.",name:"Sai",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Sai Chu",slug:"sai-chu"}]},{id:"8440",title:"Advances in Femtosecond Micromachining and Inscription of Micro and Nano Photonic Devices",slug:"advances-in-femtosecond-micromachining-and-inscription-of-micro-and-nano-photonic-devices",signatures:"Graham N. Smith, Kyriacos Kalli and Kate Sugden",authors:[{id:"4668",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"N",surname:"Smith",fullName:"Graham Smith",slug:"graham-smith"},{id:"133360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyriacos",middleName:null,surname:"Kalli",fullName:"Kyriacos Kalli",slug:"kyriacos-kalli"},{id:"133361",title:"Prof.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Sugden",fullName:"Kate Sugden",slug:"kate-sugden"}]},{id:"8441",title:"Magneto-Optical Devices for Optical Integrated Circuits",slug:"magneto-optical-devices-for-optical-integrated-circuits",signatures:"Vadym Zayets and Koji Ando",authors:[{id:"4688",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadym",middleName:null,surname:"Zayets",fullName:"Vadym Zayets",slug:"vadym-zayets"},{id:"133363",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Ando",fullName:"Koji Ando",slug:"koji-ando"}]},{id:"8442",title:"Tunable Hollow Optical Waveguide and Its Applications",slug:"tunable-hollow-optical-waveguide-and-its-applications",signatures:"Mukesh Kumar, Toru Miura, Yasuki Sakurai and Fumio Koyama",authors:[{id:"63461",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar",slug:"mukesh-kumar"},{id:"133388",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",fullName:"Toru Miura",slug:"toru-miura"},{id:"133402",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Sakurai",fullName:"Yasuki Sakurai",slug:"yasuki-sakurai"},{id:"133404",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Koyama",fullName:"Fumio Koyama",slug:"fumio-koyama"}]},{id:"8443",title:"Regenerated Fibre Bragg Gratings",slug:"regenerated-fibre-bragg-gratings",signatures:"John Canning, Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Palas Biswas, Mattias Aslund, Michael Stevenson and Kevin Cook",authors:[{id:"5461",title:"Professor",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Canning",fullName:"John Canning",slug:"john-canning"},{id:"133394",title:"Dr.",name:"Somnath",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Somnath Bandyopadhyay",slug:"somnath-bandyopadhyay"},{id:"133395",title:"Prof.",name:"Palas",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Palas Biswas",slug:"palas-biswas"},{id:"133396",title:"Prof.",name:"Mattias",middleName:null,surname:"Aslund",fullName:"Mattias Aslund",slug:"mattias-aslund"},{id:"133397",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"Michael Stevenson",slug:"michael-stevenson"},{id:"133400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Cook",fullName:"Kevin Cook",slug:"kevin-cook"}]},{id:"8444",title:"Optical Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes for Fiber-based Device Fabrication",slug:"optical-deposition-of-carbon-nanotubes-for-fiber-based-device-fabrication",signatures:"Ken Kashiwagi and Shinji Yamashita",authors:[{id:"5133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kashiwagi",fullName:"Ken Kashiwagi",slug:"ken-kashiwagi"},{id:"38416",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Shinji Yamashita",slug:"shinji-yamashita"}]},{id:"8445",title:"High Power Tunable Tm3+-fiber Lasers and Its Application in Pumping Cr2+:ZnSe Lasers",slug:"high-power-tunable-tm3-fiber-lasers-and-its-application-in-pumping-cr2-znse-lasers",signatures:"Yulong Tang and Jianqiu Xu",authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang",slug:"yulong-tang"}]},{id:"8446",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg"}]},{id:"8447",title:"Designer Laser Resonators based on Amplifying Photonic Crystals",slug:"designer-laser-resonators-based-on-amplifying-photonic-crystals",signatures:"Alexander Benz, Christoph Deutsch, Gernot Fasching, Karl Unterrainer, Aaron M. Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65918",title:"Management of Odontogenic and Nonodontogenic Oral Pain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83837",slug:"management-of-odontogenic-and-nonodontogenic-oral-pain",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Odontogenic pain, a common malady globally and the most prevalent type of orofacial pain, originates from dental structures, pulpal or periodontal [1]. Differential diagnosis for odontogenic pain is outlined in Table 1. Oral pain of nonodontogenic origin can originate from the intraoral structures, such as buccal mucosa, gingival tissues, and alveolar bone. Some of the main causes for nonodontogenic pain of oral origin are shown in Table 2. The complexity of the orofacial region makes the management of odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain of oral origin a challenging task for the clinicians. For an effective diagnosis and treatment, the clinician should have a thorough knowledge of the various pain complaints pertaining to the orofacial region and the different options available for their optimal management [2, 3].
Traumatic periodontitis Periodontal (lateral) abscess Perio-endo, endo-perio, and combined lesions
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Table 1.
Differential diagnosis for odontogenic pain.
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Noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers
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Acute pericoronitis
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Acute alveolar osteitis (dry socket)
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Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
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Oral mucositis (OM)
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Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG)
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Desquamative gingivitis (DG)
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Table 2.
Causes of nonodontogenic pain of oral origin.
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For managing odontogenic pain, The “3-D’s” principle—diagnosis, dental treatment, and drugs—should be used. The first and foremost step is to determine the condition causing the pain and then to discover that what caused that condition. Removal of the cause usually leads to rapid recovery and should be done by an appropriate dental treatment. Medications should only be used to complement the dental treatment [4].
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For managing nonodontogenic pain particularly in complex cases, a multidisciplinary pain management approach should be adopted encompassing both nonpharmacological and pharmacological modalities [5].
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2. Odontogenic pain
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2.1 Pulpal pain
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2.1.1 Dentine hypersensitivity
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Dissolution of the dental enamel results in development of dental caries. If caries goes unchecked, it may involve the dentin and the pulp, resulting in pain. In the initial stages, caries penetrates and exposes the dentin leading to dentine hypersensitivity. The pain due to dentin exposure is of a sharp and shooting nature with a shorter duration and is classically stimulated by exposure to heat, cold, sweet drinks/food, and mechanical trauma such as tooth brushing. Apart from caries, there exist other predisposing factors for dentine hypersensitivity. These include anatomical defects, gingival recession, erosion, abrasion, and attrition. The diagnosis of dentine hypersensitivity is based upon detection of dentin exposure or tooth wear. Therapies for managing dentinal hypersensitivity are aimed at: sealing the exposed dentinal tubules (composite resin application), reducing dentinal neuron activity (application of desensitizing agents such as potassium nitrate and strontium chloride), and making the enamel and dentin more resistant to demineralization (application of fluoride-containing medicaments) [6, 7].
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2.1.2 Reversible and irreversible pulpitis
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The extension of caries to pulp leads to pulpal inflammation known as pulpitis. Other cause of pulpitis can be operative dental procedures. The chemicals, heat, and friction involved in such procedures may trigger pulpal inflammation. Pulpitis has two clinical forms: acute (reversible) and chronic (irreversible). Acute pulpitis represents mild inflammation and is characteristically associated with sharp and shooting pain of a shorter duration. On the other hand, inflammation in irreversible pulpitis is severe enough to undermine the pulp. It is characterized by spontaneous and dull pain that persists even after the removal of a stimulus such as cold or heat [6, 7, 8].
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Diagnosis of pulpitis is based mainly on clinical evaluation and pulp vitality tests. Radiographs can be helpful in cases where carious lesions are not clinically visible [8, 9].
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The management strategies are determined based on the type of pulpitis and presence of infection involving the periapical area. In reversible pulpitis, pulp vitality can be maintained if the tooth is treated, usually by removing the caries, and then restored [10]. In irreversible pulpitis, management options include endodontic (root canal) therapy or tooth extraction. In root canal treatment, an opening is made in the tooth and the pulp is extirpated. The root canal system is thoroughly cleaned, shaped, and then obturated with gutta-percha points. Following root canal therapy, adequate healing is manifested clinically by resolution of symptoms and radiographically by bone filling in the radiolucent area at the root apex over a period of months. If symptoms persist or worsen, root canal therapy is usually repeated in case a root canal was missed [11, 12].
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2.1.3 Cracked tooth or cracked cusp syndrome
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Cracked tooth syndrome occurs when a crack has occurred in the enamel or dentine and reaches the pulp chamber. The crack is usually not visible to the naked eye. Application of excessive force on a normal tooth or physiologic forces applied to a weakened tooth can lead to cracks. The diagnosis of cracked tooth is often tricky. Radiography is not helpful in detection of fractures, as cracks occur in a mesiodistal direction, parallel to that of the plane of the film. Simple test is to have patient bite on a cotton roll that evokes a sharp pain. Pain due to cracked tooth is sharp and shooting in nature, and is usually associated with biting and chewing. Hot and cold stimuli also evoke the pain. Restorable teeth should be treated endodontically, followed by a full-coverage restoration of tooth. However, tooth with large cracks may require extraction [7, 13].
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2.2 Periodontal pain
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2.2.1 Periapical periodontitis (periapical abscess, granuloma, and cyst)
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Pulpitis, if untreated, is followed by death of the pulp. The necrotic pulp is infected and leads to spread of infection through the apical foramina into the periapical tissues. This in turn causes inflammation and destruction of the periradicular tissues known as periapical periodontitis. It includes acute/chronic nonsuppurative inflammation and suppurative inflammation. Periapical granuloma forms due to chronic inflammation without pus, while periapical abscess is the result of inflammation involving pus. The other likely cause of periapical periodontitis can be chemical irritation. This irritation can be due to the escape of antiseptics used for root canal sterilization through the root apex into the surrounding periapical area [11, 12].
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Acute periapical abscesses characteristically present with severe pain in the area of the nonvital tooth particularly on percussion, inflammation, or complaint of pus drainage (with its associated foul taste). Pain also typically interferes with sleep. Treatment includes drainage through an opening in the tooth itself or through the soft tissue surrounding the jaw, if cellulitis has developed. If patients with abscess have systemic signs of infection (e.g., fever), an oral antimicrobial is prescribed (amoxicillin 500 mg every 8 hours; for patients allergic to penicillin, clindamycin 150 or 300 mg every 6 hours). On resolution of the abscess, the patient should undergo root canal therapy or extraction [8, 10, 11, 14].
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Periapical granulomas or cysts usually follow acute pulpal infection that remains unresolved due to inadequate drainage. Tooth with periapical granulomas may present with a dull pain or may be asymptomatic. Radiographically, abscesses, granulomas, or cysts have the same features and microscopic examination should be done for distinction. Teeth with periapical granulomas are nonvital and needs root canal treatment or removal. Root canal treatment done competently leads to healing even if cystic phase has started. Persistence of periapical radiolucency after 6–12 months may be due to technical faults associated with root canal treatment. In such a case, apical curettage with apicoectomy may be indicated [6, 8, 14, 15].
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2.2.2 Traumatic periodontitis
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Traumatic periodontitis is a painful condition that arises because of injury to the periodontium. This injury is caused by the trauma from excessive occlusal forces. The occlusal trauma affecting periodontium can be primary, secondary, or combined. Tooth or teeth with normal periodontal support enduring increased occlusal loads may undergo primary occlusal trauma. The causes may include bruxism, overextended margins of restorations, excessive loading during orthodontic movements, and recent fitting of a new partial denture. Tooth or teeth with inadequate periodontal support if subjected to normal occlusal forces may undergo secondary occlusal trauma. Excessive occlusal force on a diseased periodontium may lead to combined occlusal trauma. The excessive occlusal forces are generally from parafunctional movements such as bruxism. The clinical features of traumatic periodontitis include pain on chewing/biting or percussion, progressive tooth mobility, and nonphysiological movement of tooth during function (fremitus). Additionally, there can be gingival inflammation with pocket formation in combined occlusal trauma.
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Radiographic features include evidence of circumferential and furcal bone loss, in combination with widening of the periodontal ligament space.
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The goal of management of traumatic periodontitis is the removal of excessive occlusal forces and brings the dentition in occlusal harmony. Primary occlusal trauma can be managed with analysis and correction of occlusion. One or more of the following steps can do occlusal adjustments: tooth movements, tooth removal, dental restorations, coronoplasty, etc. Progressive tooth mobility due to secondary occlusal trauma may be reduced by occlusal adjustment. Pain occurring due to hypermobility can be managed by splinting of teeth. The aim of splinting is to increase the resistance of dentition to the occlusal forces through stabilization. It involves joining of two or more teeth [16, 17]. Managing the periodontal inflammation is of primary importance in cases of combined occlusal trauma. Premature occlusal contacts usually contribute to the progression of periodontitis. This can be tackled by simple correction of the occlusion that may eradicate the premature occlusal contacts [16, 17].
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2.2.3 Periodontal (lateral) abscess
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A periodontal abscess arises because of acute infection of a periodontal pocket. Unlike a periapical abscess, periodontal abscess is associated with a vital tooth. Varieties of reasons are implicated in causation of periodontal abscess. Primarily incomplete calculus removal can be a causative factor. Occasionally, it may occur following root planing, as the trauma to pocket lining implants bacteria into the periodontal tissues. Other contributing factors can be food packing down between teeth with poor contact points or foreign body (e.g., fish bone) driven through the floor of a pocket. Poorly controlled diabetes mellitus can also be a predisposing factor for periodontal abscess formation.
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Periodontal abscess has a rapid onset. The gingival swelling and inflammatory edema prevent drainage through the pocket orifice. The initial gingival tenderness progresses to throbbing pain that is well localized. The affected tooth is tender to percussion or biting. There is tooth mobility with its elevation in the socket. Pus exudation may occur from the pocket; however, a deep abscess has a sinus tract that points on the alveolar mucosa. Fever and regional lymphadenopathy can be occasional clinical features. The vitality of the tooth, deep pocketing, and less severe tenderness helps to differentiate between a periodontal and pulpal abscess.
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Periodontal abscess should be ideally drained through pocket or occasionally by an incision through the gingiva. If the abscess is too large and drainage cannot be done, subgingival scaling and root planing or deferring the surgical access until the major clinical signs have subsided. Before initiating the treatment of acute periodontal abscess, the evaluation of patient’s medical history, dental history, and systemic conditions is crucial to determine the need for antibiotics. The indications for antimicrobial therapy in patients with acute abscess are fever, lymphadenopathy, evidence of spreading of infection (cellulitis), deep periodontal pocketing, and immunosuppression. Administration of antibiotics alone without the local drainage of the abscess is contraindicated. The drainage is mandatory in order to eliminate the etiologic factors. Extraction of the affected tooth can be considered as a last resort to treat the periodontal abscess, if there is poor response to therapy, horizontal tooth mobility exceeding 1 mm, pocketing exceeding 8 mm, and more than 40% alveolar bone resorption [6, 18, 19].
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2.2.4 Perio-endo, endo-perio, and combined lesions
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In perio-endo lesions, microorganisms from the periodontal pockets can reach the pulp through accessory canals, thereby leading to pulpal inflammation and necrosis.
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In endo-perio lesions, pulpal necrosis leads to involvement and destruction of the periodontal ligament and adjacent alveolar bone. Clinically endo-perio lesions present as deep periodontal probing depth extending to the apex of the tooth.
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In managing the lesions of pulpal or periodontal origin, making an accurate diagnosis as to the source of infection is a critical determinant of the treatment outcome. Sequence of the disease process can be an important factor in determining the exact nature of lesions: perio-endo and endo-perio lesions. Conventional root canal therapy (RCT) alone leads to a complete resolution of the periodontal defects arising from primary pulpal infection. However, pulpal infections resulting from primary periodontal infections require both endodontic and periodontal treatments for achieving complete healing [18].
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3. Nonodontogenic pain of oral origin
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Oral ulcers are a broad entity that encompasses a variety of causes, such as infections (bacterial, viral, and fungal), neoplasia, immunological disturbances, drug reactions, etc.
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3.1 Noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers
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A detailed clinical history and examination, and laboratory investigations including biopsy, culture, and immunochemistry tests are essential for ruling out the neoplastic, infectious, and immunological causes of oral ulcerations. The causative factors for noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers usually include mechanical trauma (self-induced trauma such as on chewing and biting, aggressive tooth brushing, and iatrogenic causes particularly due to dental treatment) and chemicals (aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid, acid etchants, etc.)
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Superficial ulcers usually lead to soreness; severe pain and discomfort are the features of deep ulcers.
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On elimination of cause, acute forms of traumatic- and chemical-induced ulcers usually heal in 7–10 days. They develop chronicity if subjected to continuous trauma or irritation. The considerations in management of such type of ulcers are as follows:
Maintenance of oral hygiene. In the presence of an ulcer, tooth brushing particularly near to the ulcerative area can be detrimental. In such as case, an antiseptic mouthwash (e.g., 0.2% chlorhexidine solution) can be of considerable help. Chlorhexidine mouth rinse is recommended to be used three times daily after meals and held in the mouth for at least 1 minute. Oral rinsing with chlorhexidine has been found to lessen down the discomfort and duration of aphthous stomatitis.
Avoidance of irritation or injury to the area of ulceration. Covering agents, e.g., carboxymethylcellulose paste (Orabase®) and carmellose sodium can be helpful in safeguarding the ulcers from the effects of friction or injury. When correctly applied, these covering agents absorb moisture and form an adhesive gel, which can remain in place for several hours.
For management of pain, over-the-counter anesthetic agent (an example is Orobase® with 20% benzocaine). Topical application of weak potency corticosteroids (hydrocortisone hemisuccinate) and medium potency steroids (triamcinolone acetonide) also assist in reducing the associated pain and inflammation; however, they are unlikely to expedite the healing of ulcers. Hydrocortisone hemisuccinate 2.5 mg pellets allowed to be dissolved in the mouth close to ulcers, three times a day. Triamcinolone 0.1% in Orabase applied to ulcer three times daily. However, long-term and/or repeated topical application of such corticosteroids has a downside in the form of adrenal suppression. This concern can be addressed by using the topical corticosteroids at the lowest possible concentration and frequency. The problem of adrenal suppression is not evidenced with 0.05% fluocinonide in adhesive paste and betamethasone-17-valerate mouth rinse.
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Tetracycline (e.g., doxycycline), or tetracycline plus nicotinamide in rinse form may provide significant pain relief and reduce ulcer duration, particularly in aphthous ulcers. However, usage of tetracycline should be avoided in children below 12 years of age due to the risk of tooth staining. For oral rinsing, a tetracycline capsule (250 mg) is crushed and stirred in a little water and held in the mouth for 2–3 minutes, three times daily.
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Tetracycline mouth rinses can also reduce the frequency of aphthous ulcers on regular usage for 3 days each week.
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Salicylates based on their anti-inflammatory role can be helpful in reducing the discomfort of oral ulcers. Over the counter, preparation of choline salicylate in gel form is recommended for application to ulcers, 3–5 times daily [6, 20, 21].
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3.2 Acute pericoronitis
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It is the inflammation of the flap of tissues (operculum) around an erupting tooth, and most commonly associated with impacted mandibular third molars. The chief complaints in this condition are severe pain that can radiate to surrounding areas and swelling of the pericoronal tissues. The hyperplastic-inflamed flap of tissue can become a hotbed for bacteria, as it readily holds food particles and debris. This scenario leads to bacterial infection with clinical manifestations of discharge of pus, trismus, fever, regional lymphadenopathy, and in some cases spread of the infection to adjacent tissue spaces.
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If the pain and inflammation are limited to the tooth, local measures, such as debridement of food debris and plaque, irrigation with normal saline or hydrogen peroxide, and avoidance of occlusal trauma are recommended.
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Antimicrobial therapy is indicated for patients presenting with fever, trismus, and pus exudation. Metronidazole 400 mg three times a day for 5 days is to be prescribed in combination with phenoxymethylpenicillin 500 mg four times a day for 5 days.
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If it is envisaged that the tooth can be useful for chewing and patient also has the desire to retain the tooth, hyperplastic pericoronal tissue should be excised out through a minor oral surgery procedure known as operculectomy. This will allow better access to properly clean the area and prevent the accumulation of bacteria and food debris. In some unfortunate instances, the gum tissue may grow back and create the same problem.
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Since impacted teeth frequently are unfavorably aligned and do not erupt completely, extraction of such tooth is commonly performed. This method eliminates any chance of recurrence of pericoronitis.
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The risks and benefits of removal of impacted molars are mired in controversy, as extraction can lead to inferior alveolar nerve damage; retention can precipitate serious, even life-threatening infection [14, 22].
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3.3 Acute alveolar osteitis (dry socket)
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This painful condition is a complication that may occur following dental extraction. It presents with a severe throbbing pain caused by bone exposure at the site of extraction. Following the extraction, a blood clot forms within the extraction socket to safeguard the bone. If a blood clot forms inadequately in the socket or it is dislodged, the bone and nerves are exposed, leading to pain. Smoking, excessive extraction trauma, difficult disimpactions of third molars, vasoconstrictor in local anesthetic, and oral contraceptives are some of the predisposing factors to alveolar osteitis. Alveolar osteitis can strike 3–5 days after an extraction and may persist for a week. The exposed bone is acutely tender to touch; hence, mechanical stimulation by tongue movement and food particles results in frequent acute pain. On clinical examination, the socket appears empty with visible bony lamina dura.
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Minimization of trauma related to the extraction procedure can be an important factor in prevention of dry socket. Since removal of the debris from the socket expedites healing, irrigation with warmed saline or chlorhexidine is suggestive. Use of intra-alveolar dressing materials such as bismuth iodoform paraffin paste and lidocaine gel on ribbon gauze can protect the socket from painful stimuli and collection of food debris. These dressing materials also impart a soothing sensation of warmth in the painful area. Usually after one or two dressings, significant pain relief is achieved. It is better to be on the lookout for signs of infection, such as pus in the socket, localized swelling, and lymphadenopathy. Antibiotics should be prescribed if these signs are there. It is crucial that the reason for infection is determined such as retained root or bony fragments. A radiograph can be helpful. Surgical extraction is indicated for removal of root tip or bone sequestrum [6, 13, 23].
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3.4 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)
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Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is a complex painful disorder that is characterized by warm, burning, or tingling sensation in the oral mucosa, tongue, or lips. The pain may be associated with a feeling of intermittent numbness. Other associated features may include metallic taste and dryness in the mouth. Interestingly, a variety of names has been associated with this condition such as oral dysesthesia, stomatodynia, glossodynia, stomatopyrosis, glossopyrosis, sore mouth, and sore tongue. BMS is a reasonably common chronic complaint to affect middle age or elderly patients, especially females. Diagnosis of BMS is challenging, because usually no clear-cut dental or medical cause is evident and laboratory findings does not reveal any abnormality.
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BMS can be classified into two clinical variants, namely, primary and secondary BMS. If no underlying medical or dental problem becomes evident on investigations, the diagnosis is primary or idiopathic BMS. Probably, the damage to the nerves that control pain and taste leads to primary BMS. Secondary BMS is caused by local, systemic, or psychological factors. A few common causes of secondary BMS include, dry mouth, acid reflux, deficiency of iron or vitamin B, hormonal disturbances (such as from thyroid problem or diabetes), etc. Because burning mouth syndrome can be associated with a wide array of local, systemic, or psychological conditions, an ambitious diagnostic approach is warranted. This approach should be based on a detailed history, clinical examination, laboratory tests, and exclusion of all other possible oral and systemic problems.
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If no organic cause can be found and diagnosis suggests psychological factors such as anxiety, stress, and depression, it is advisable to make the patient aware by explaining that depression and other emotional disturbances are just as much illnesses and cause as much suffering as physical diseases. Apart from psychogenic medications, cognitive behavioral therapy is indicated in BMS.
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Depending on the causative factors, medications used for BMS include antidepressants, analgesics, antiepileptic, antifungal, antibacterial, sialagogues, antihistamines, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and vitamin, mineral, and hormonal replacements.
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The topical application of clonazepam (by sucking a tablet of 1 mg), three times a day for 14 days can reduce the burning symptoms. Aloe vera gel also helps to reduce the burning sensation and pain in the sore areas of the tongue. Symptoms of secondary BMS go away when the underlying medical condition, such as diabetes or acid reflux, is treated [24, 25].
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Overall, successful management of BMS is dependent on a holistic diagnostic workup and collaborative management involving dental practitioners, psychologist, and physician.
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3.5 Specific anticancer treatment painful oral complications: oral mucositis (OM)
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This grossly painful disorder usually occurs as a complication of chemo- and radiotherapy. An allergic reaction to certain medications, dental materials, or infections may also lead to nonspecific mucositis. Oral mucosal injury is the hallmark of OM that occurs due to the interference of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy with normal turnover of oral mucosal cells.
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Chemotherapy-induced and/or radiation therapy-induced OM clinically manifests as the painful swelling, atrophy, and ulceration of the oral mucosa. Candidaand streptococcal infections may also occur due to the disintegration of the oral mucosa.OM-affecting pharynx and other areas of alimentary canal can lead to complications, including dysphagia, electrolyte disturbances, systemic infection, malnutrition, and even death [20, 26].
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Oral mucosal injury tends to be acute in cases where chemotherapy is administered over a short span of time. Chemotherapy-induced mucosal damage usually develops within a week after the start of therapy and peaks within 2 weeks. Radiotherapy-induced mucositis has a slower onset since it is most often administered in small fractions given over weeks. Radiation-induced mucositis typically starts in 1–2 weeks of starting the radiotherapy at cumulative doses of about 15 Gy (gray, a unit of absorbed radiation). At doses greater than 30 Gy, OM attains full severity and may last for weeks or even months.
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Factors related to treatment and patient characteristic can influence the development of OM. Treatment factors that influence the severity and presence of mucositis include the class, dose, and administration frequency of systemic chemotherapeutic agents, radiation dose and field, and use of adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation. The majority of patients treated for head and neck cancers or those receiving high-dose chemotherapy develop severe OM. Usually the healing within lesions of OM is evidenced within 2–4 weeks after stoppage of either therapy.
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So much so, the OM is a painful and agonizing condition that it has a drastic impact on oral hygiene maintenance, nutritional intake, and quality of life. Current clinical management of OM is largely supportive and aimed at maintaining oral hygiene, pain relief, and nutritional support. A majority of patients with mucositis pain has difficulty in food intake through mouth and a nasogastric tube or gastrostomy tube helps to achieve nutrition. Diet modifications in the form of liquid and soft diet are suggested to facilitate the food intake during the cancer therapy [27].
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Maintenance of oral hygiene has an important contribution in the prevention and management of OM; however, it remains a neglected habit. Moreover, a good oral care helps to prevent secondary infection and sepsis in the lesions of OM. Oral hygiene measure such as tooth brushing, flossing, rinsing with sterile water, and using mouth moisturizers helps control pain and bleeding and prevent infections of the oral soft tissue. However, at the same time, caution must be exercised that tooth brushing and flossing do not traumatize the oral mucosa. In case, a patient with OM is unable to tolerate the use of a tooth brush, oral sponges and foam brushes can be used instead.
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Simple analgesia, e.g., paracetamol (1 g four times a day) in soluble form used as a mouth rinse will be adequate to control the mild-to-moderate pain of OM. For controlling severe pain, opioid analgesics (e.g., hydromorphone or morphine) can be used. Use of opioids is both logical and appropriate to alleviate the intolerable pain of OM, and strong opioids can be helpful in this direction.
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When swallowing pills can be problematic in patients with severe OM, the use of parenteral administration of opioid analgesics is required. For seeking short-term relief in pain of OM, oral rinsing with 2% viscous lidocaine (topical anesthetic) in combination with diphenhydramine and magnesium aluminum hydroxide may allow the patient to eat and maintain oral hygiene. Mucosal-coating agents such as sucralfate, Gelclair®, and Caphosol® by adhering to oral mucosa form a protective coating. This coating aids in patient comfort by shielding the exposed and overstimulated nerve endings [20].
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Prevention of OM is also an important aspect to be considered and has involved multiple medications. The updated clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of mucositis have suggested the use of chemo-preventative agents to prevent and/or reduce severity of OM. The most commonly prescribed preventative agents for OM are ice chips (given 30 minutes prior to chemotherapy) or amifostine (a thiol drug) and keratinocyte growth factor-1 (palifermin). Moreover, the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) and the International Society for Oral Oncology (ISOO) guidelines for treatment of oral recommends the use of benzydamine for prevention of radiation-induced OM. Benzydamine hydrochloride (HCl) is a cytoprotectant with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activity. On being used as an oral rinse, it significantly reduced OM-related erythema and ulceration [20].
Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG) is an acute infection of the gingiva and is characterized by pain, bleeding, fetid breath, and gingival necrosis. Fever, malaise, and regional lymphadenopathy may be accompanying features. Oral functions including speaking and swallowing become difficult due to intense gingival pain.
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Destructive pattern in the form of gingival ulcerations, necrosis, and ‘punched-out’ ulcerated papillae makes ANUG unique when compared with other periodontal diseases. Initially cratered ulcers affect the tips of interdental papilla, later on spreading along gingival margins. ANUG most commonly affects smokers and stressful immunocompromised individuals. Other risk factors are neglected oral hygiene, sleep deprivation, and malnutrition. ANUG is an opportunistic bacterial infection that is caused by a complex of fusiforms and spirochaetes.
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Maintenance of oral hygiene through self-care and gentle debridement by the dentist is the stepping stone to the successful management of ANUG. Patients may be advised to use mouth rinses, such as warm normal saline or 1.5% hydrogen peroxide or 0.12% chlorhexidine at hourly intervals for the first few days. Analgesics may help to ward off the intense pain associated with ANUG. In order to prevent recurrence of ANUG, the patient must be educated to maintain high personal oral hygiene, to have adequate nutrition, and to get sufficient rest. Antibiotics are indicated in case of systemic involvement. The recommended antibiotics are amoxicillin 500 mg, three times daily for 10 days plus metronidazole 250 mg, three times daily for 10 days. The healed gingival craters can act as stagnation areas where plaque can accumulate and ANUG may reoccur. For correction of superficial craters, gingivectomy and/or gingivoplasty procedures may be helpful. For rehabilitation of deep craters, periodontal flap surgery or regenerative surgery may be considered [28, 29, 30].
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3.7 Desquamative gingivitis (DG)
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Desquamative gingivitis (DG) is a specific clinical presentation of unknown etiology in which the attached gingiva appears fiery red, glazed, and friable. Desquamative gingivitis may be a clinical manifestation of various mucocutaneous disorders—erythema multiforme, erosive lichen planus, pemphigus, pemphigoid, and psoriasis. DG is characterized by gingival soreness and burning sensation, which worsens on eating spicy and acidic food. The typical clinical feature in severe cases is of desquamation of gingival epithelium. The treatment of DG is aimed at minimizing the gingival injury and irritation. Therefore, the patient should avoid spicy or acidic foods. Oral hygiene maintenance can be helpful in removal of exacerbating factors, particularly dental plaque. However, in order to avoid injury to the friable gingiva, tooth brushing should be done gently with a soft tooth brush or toothette. Use of an anesthetic mouthwash, e.g., benzydamine hydrochloride can be helpful in tackling the pain. Topical therapies are the mainstay of treatment for DG. High potency corticosteroid gels are commonly used as first-line topical therapy. Clobetasole-17-propionate or fluocinonide 0.05% in gel form can be prescribed. Ease of gel application can be facilitated via the use of custom fabricated trays. Furthermore, 0.1% triamcinolone orabase can also be used. For complete resolution of DG, it is important that the underlying disease leading to DG is diagnosed and treated appropriately by specific therapies [31, 32].
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4. Conclusion
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Odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain may occur due to a variety of factors and causes. A differential diagnosis of orofacial pain, distinguishing between odontogenic pathologies and nonodontogenic painful etiologies, is a requisite before taking any clinical or pharmacological decision for pain management. Exactness of differential diagnosis is dependent on a thorough medical and dental history, comprehensive clinical examination, and appropriate investigations. Any decision on pain management should encompass a treatment regimen (e.g. palliative, dental, pharmacological, and psychological) that can adequately address the clinical problem of pain. For the successful accomplishment of a durable pain management, the treatment decisions should be based upon the best-available evidence, consideration of cost-effectiveness, and patient’s expectation. Specialist referral is warranted, if the conventional clinical and pharmacological measures fail to control the odontogenic or non-odontogenic oral pain [1].
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Conflict of interest
The author declares no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this chapter.
\n',keywords:"orofacial pain, odontogenic pain, nonodontogenic oral pain, pain management, pulpitis, periapical periodontitis, traumatic periodontitis, cracked tooth syndrome, noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers, burning mouth syndrome, oral mucositis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65918.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65918.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65918",totalDownloads:288,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 3rd 2019",datePrePublished:"March 1st 2019",datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pain in the orofacial region is by far the commonest reason for patients to seek treatment. Tooth and intraoral structures are often the main sources of orofacial pain. Odontogenic pain, also commonly known as tooth pain, originates from dental structures, pulpal or periodontal. Nonodontogenic oral pain can originate from intraoral structures such as gingiva and buccal mucosa. Arriving at a correct and definitive diagnosis is of paramount importance to institute an appropriate treatment. Obtaining a detailed history from the patient including the location, duration, frequency, periodicity, character, and quality of pain assists in differentiating odontogenic from nonodontogenic causes. Wide varieties of pharmacological agents, along with invasive and noninvasive procedures, are available to manage odontogenic and nonodontogenic pain. While managing orofacial pain, clinical and pharmacological judgment should encompass a systematic and objective assessment in compliance with the strongest evidence available. In this chapter, there will be a discussion of various choices and options available to manage a few of the orofacial pain complaints.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65918",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65918",signatures:"Sameer Shaikh",book:{id:"7897",title:"From Conventional to Innovative Approaches for Pain Treatment",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"From Conventional to Innovative Approaches for Pain Treatment",slug:"from-conventional-to-innovative-approaches-for-pain-treatment",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Marco Cascella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7897.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199335",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Cascella",slug:"marco-cascella",fullName:"Marco Cascella"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"277736",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameer",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",fullName:"Sameer Shaikh",slug:"sameer-shaikh",email:"smrshaikh@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Odontogenic pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Pulpal pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Dentine hypersensitivity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Reversible and irreversible pulpitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Cracked tooth or cracked cusp syndrome",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Periodontal pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1 Periapical periodontitis (periapical abscess, granuloma, and cyst)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2 Traumatic periodontitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.3 Periodontal (lateral) abscess",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.4 Perio-endo, endo-perio, and combined lesions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Nonodontogenic pain of oral origin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1 Noninfectious and nonmalignant oral ulcers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2 Acute pericoronitis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 Acute alveolar osteitis (dry socket)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4 Burning mouth syndrome (BMS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.5 Specific anticancer treatment painful oral complications: oral mucositis (OM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.6 Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.7 Desquamative gingivitis (DG)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Odontogenic pain management. International Dental Journal. 2018;68:20-21. DOI: 10.1111/idj.12375. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/idj.12375\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Romero-Reyes M, Uyanik JM. Orofacial pain management: Current perspectives. Journal of Pain Research. 2014;7:99-115. DOI: 10.2147/JPR.S37593\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Clark GT. Chapter 1: The 30 most prevalent chronic painful diseases, disorders, and dysfunctions that occur in the orofacial region. In: Clark GT, Dionne RA, editors. Orofacial Pain: A Guide to Medications and Management. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Hargreaves K, Abbott PV. Drugs for pain management in dentistry. Australian Dental Journal. 2005;50(4 Suppl 2):S14-S22\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Clark GT. Chapter 2: Top 60 most important medications used in an orofacial pain treatment center. In: Clark GT, Dionne RA, editors. Orofacial Pain: A Guide to Medications and Management. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Cawson RA, Odell EW, Porter S. Cawson’s Essentials of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine. 8th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2008\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Shephard MK, Macgregor EA, Zakrzewska JM. Orofacial pain: A guide for the headache physician. Headache. 2014;54(1):22-39. DOI: 10.1111/head.12272\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Regezi JA, Sciubba JJ, Jordan RCK. Oral Pathology: Clinical Pathologic Considerations. 6th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2012\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Dabuleanu M. Pulpitis (reversible/irreversible). Journal of the Canadian Dental Association. 2013;79:d90\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Ubertalli JT. Pulpitis [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/dental-disorders/common-dental-disorders/pulpitis [Accessed: November 15, 2018]\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Marchick M. Chapter 4: Sore throat, dental pain, and other oral issues. In: Desai B, Desai A, editors. Primary Care for Emergency Physicians. Cham: Springer; 2017\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Rosenberg PA. Chapter 2: Odontogenic and non-odontogenic pain. In: Rosenberg PA, editor. Endodontic Pain: Diagnosis, Causes, Prevention and Treatment. 1st ed . (Endodontic Topics). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Publishing; 2014. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-54701-0\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Greenwood M, Corbett I. Dental Emergencies. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing Ltd; 2012. DOI: 10.1002/9781118702895\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Eversole LR. Clinical Outline of Oral Pathology: Diagnosis and Treatment. 4th ed. USA: People’s Medical Publishing House; 2011\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Graunaite I, Lodiene G, Maciulskiene V. Pathogenesis of apical periodontitis: A literature review. Journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Research. 2011;2(4):e1\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Patel B. Chapter 1: Pain of odontogenic and non-odontogenic origin. In: Patel B, editor. Endodontic Diagnosis, Pathology and Treatment Planning. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. p. 2015. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15591-3\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Barzilay I. Splinting teeth—A review of methodology and clinical case reports. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association. 2000;66(8):440-443\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Newman MG, Takei HH, Klokkevold PR, Carranza FA. Carranza’s Clinical Periodontology. 11th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders; 2012\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Patel PV, Sheela Kumar G, Patel A. Periodontal abscess: A review. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2011;5(2):404-409\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Kumar S, Teruel A, Clark GT. Chapter 12: Treatment for oral mucositis and noninfectious, non-neoplastic oral ulcerations. In: Clark GT, Dionne RA, editors. Orofacial Pain: A Guide to Medications and Management. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Scully C, Felix DH. Oral medicine—Update for the dental practitioner. Aphthous and other common ulcers. British Dental Journal. 2005;199(5):259-264\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Moloney J, Stassen LF. Pericoronitis: Treatment and a clinical dilemma. Journal of the Irish Dental Association. 2009;55(4):190-192\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Mamoun J. Dry Socket etiology, diagnosis, and clinical treatment techniques. Journal of the Korean Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons. 2018;44:52-58\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Zakrzewska J, Buchanan JAG. Burning mouth syndrome. BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2016;2016:1301\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Jimson S, Rajesh E, Krupaa RJ, Kasthuri M. Burning mouth syndrome. Journal of Pharmacy & Bioallied Sciences. 2015;7(Suppl 1):S194-S196\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Naidu MU, Ramana GV, Rani PU, Mohan IK, Suman A, Roy P. Chemotherapy-induced and/or radiation therapy-induced oral mucositis—Complicating the treatment of cancer. Neoplasia. 2004;6(5):423-431\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Raber-Durlacher JE, Elad S, Barasch A. Oral mucositis. Oral Oncology. 2010;46:452-460\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Malek R, Gharibi A, Khlil N, Kissa J. Necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Contemporary Clinical Dentistry. 2017;8(3):496-500\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Dufty J, Gkranias N, Donos N. Necrotising ulcerative gingivitis: A literature review. Oral Health & Preventive Dentistry. 2017;15(4):321-327\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Ubertalli JT. Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis (ANUG) (Fusospirochetosis; Trench Mouth; Vincent Infection or Vincent Angina) [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/dental-disorders/periodontal-disorders/acute-necrotizing-ulcerative-gingivitis-anug [Accessed: November 15, 2018]\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Karagoz G, Bektas-Kayhan K, Unur M. Desquamative gingivitis: A review. Journal of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry. 2016;50(2):54-60\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Maderal AD, Lee Salisbury P, Jorizzo JL. Desquamative gingivitis: Diagnosis and treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology;2018(5):78, 851-861\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sameer Shaikh",address:"smrshaikh@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages, \nPublisher: IntechOpen \nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license \nDOI: 10.5772/61430 \nEdited Volume
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This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
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