Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7750",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Acrylate Polymers for Advanced Applications",title:"Acrylate Polymers for Advanced Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents five chapters, organised into two sections, on the latest developments in acrylate polymers materials in terms of properties, new ideas in design, synthesis and detailed applications. 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1. Introduction
Phosphoric acid (PA) is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the fertilizer industry, for metal surface treatment in the metallurgical industry and as an additive in the food industry. The PA industry is spread out worldwide in Europe, Asia and America, including countries that operate phosphate rock (PR) mines and produce PA, phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-based products. The PR reserves; worldwide are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
World phosphate rock reserves. Source: USSG mineral commodity summary 2011.
Acids, such as phosphoric (H3PO4), sulfuric (H2SO4), nitric (HNO3), hydrochloric (HCl) and acetic (CH3COOH) acids, are broadly applied in many industries: chemical, fertilizers, mineral leaching, water purification, petroleum refining, food and metal production [1–3].
2. The world phosphate rock (PR) market
PR is the raw material for the production of the diverse types of PA. It is mined in several continents and countries, as recorded in Table 1.
Countries
Production (in ‘000 metric tons)
China
65,000
USA
26,100
Morocco and Western Sahara
26,000
Tunisia
10,000
Jordan
7600
Brazil
6000
Egypt
5500
Israel
5000
Australia
3000
Syria
2800
South Africa
2300
Algeria
2000
Togo
800
Canada
700
Senegal
650
Others Countries
9500
Table 1.
World producers of phosphate rock.
Source: USSG Mineral Commodity Summary 2011.
3. Phosphate rock: types and chemical composition
Apatite is the most important PR applied in the production of industrial and food grade PA. It is mainly of the fluoride and hydroxide type. Both rocks contain many impurities: fluoride (F−), chloride (Cl−), iron and aluminum oxides (Fe2O3, Al2O3); pyrites (ferrous sulfide, FeS) and fossilized organic matter. These interfere with production procedures, impair the PA quality and enhance corrosion and deterioration of metallic and plastic materials used for fabrication of equipment and rubber linings for reactor walls [4–6]. The chemical composition (in weight percentage) of PRs from different sources is given in Table 2 [7].
Constituent
Florida, USA
North Carolina, USA
Palfos, RSA
Pesca, Colombia
Hazara, Pakistan
Monte Fresca, Venezuela
Araxa, Brazil
Hidalgo, Mexico
Sahara, Morocco
Safi, Morocco
Ruseifa, Jordan
Oron, Israel
P2O5
31.2
29.7
39.9
20.5
28.5
34.18
35.5
43.3
34.2
32.4
33.4
29.8
CaO
45.0
47.4
–
29.0
41.9
42.30
47.3
46.3
50.3
49.9
51.0
51.0
Cl
0.05
0.015
–
0.001
0.03
–
0.001
0.02
0.02
0.02
4.2
0.03
F
3.60
3.53
2.35
2.0
2.92
2.94
2.54
–
3.8
4.1
4.9
3.8
SiO2
9.48
1.73
1.0
39.2
23.2
10.29
0.41
2.8
–
2.85
0.2
0.68
Fe2O3
1.33
0.79
–
0.8
1.85
0.66
2.42
–
0.22
0.70
0.3
0.2
Al2O3
1.76
0.53
0.35
1.1
1.0
1.15
0.32
1.11
0.48
0.40
–
0.3
MgO
–
0.79
0.51
0.09
0.13
0.21
0.07
2.17
0.12
0.70
–
–
Na2O
0.89
0.98
–
0.14
0.16
1.30
0.03
0.05
–
0.90
–
–
K2O
0.11
0.17
–
0.14
0.31
0.18
0.10
–
–
0.10
4.5
–
CO2
3.48
4.18
1.0
3.0
1.1
–
1.7
0.02
2.7
4.1
–
7.8
Organic C
2.18
1.38
–
0.3
0.18
–
<0.1
–
0.06
–
–
0.6
Total S
1.05
1.1
–
0.1
0.18
–
1.52
–
–
0.20
–
–
Table 2.
Chemical composition of phosphate rocks.
4. Phosphoric acid: production processes and industrial plants
The main wet processes for PA production are:
The Wet process acid (WPA) uses sulfuric acid to convert the PR into PA and
The solvent extraction (SX) process, where the PR is acidulated with HCl and PA is separated applying an industrial alcohol as solvent.
4.1. The WPA consists of three main stages
Acidulation of PR by H2SO4; the overall reaction with fluoroapatite is usually expressed as:
Ca10(PO4)6F2+10H2SO4→10CaSO4+6H3PO4+2HFE1
The hydrogen fluoride reacts with any active silica present to form silicon tetrafluoride:
4HF+SiO2→SiF4+2H2E2
It volatilizes as such or hydrolyzes to fluorosilicic acid and forms silica deposits:
3SiF4+2H2O→2H2SiF6+SiO2E3
During the acidulation, thick slurry is formed containing 30% of solid particles, mainly gypsum (CaSO4) and unreacted PR components.
Filtration is performed to separate the solid particles from the filter acid, 30% w/w P2O5 (50% PA).
Concentration is performed by evaporation of the filter acid to merchant grade PA, 54% w/w P2O5 (70% PA).
The H2SO4 reacts with any calcium carbonate and heavy metal oxides present in most rocks:
CaCO3+H2SO4→CaSO4+ CO2+H2OE4
Fe2O3+3H2SO4→Fe2(SO4)3+3H2OE5
Al2O3+3H2SO4→Al2(SO4)3+3H2OE6
PRs contain chlorides, such as NaCl, which yields HCl:
2NaCl+H2SO4→Na2SO4+2HClE7
The PR industry requires large amounts of water to wash its ore and to dissolve corrosive chlorides. These Negev desert waters were investigated to characterize their scaling, corrosion and fouling mechanisms, which affect the water system [8]. A critical unit is the huge reactor into which PR and H2SO4 are fed (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Typical wet process industrial plant.
4.2. The solvent extraction process
PR is reacted with HCl to form an aqueous reaction mixture comprising PA and CaCl2:
Ca3(PO4)2+6 HCl→2H3PO4+3 CaCl2E8
In this version, the slurries obtained by treatment with H2SO4 (wet process) and with HCl (SX process) are mixed, and subsequently, the PA is extracted with an aliphatic alcohol (Figure 3) [9–11].
Figure 3.
Diagram of solvent extraction process.
5. Phosphate rock impurities: influence on production
PR is the principal source of dissolved and suspended impurities in wet process phosphoric acid (WPA). Other impurities, such as Cl− may be introduced in process water, particularly brackish water. Sometimes contaminated H2SO4 obtained from the hydrometallurgy industry introduces additional impurities. The impurities impart undesired color and turbidity to the WPA and increase the corrosiveness of PA. Cl− and F− are particularly corrosive, and other impurities that affect corrosion are SiO2, Al2O3, alkali metal salts, SO4−, S−, organic matter and oxidizing agents. The corrosivity of a specific impurity depends on its chemical nature, the concentration of its active species, and its interaction with other acid constituents and with the surface of the specific metal [12, 13].
In addition to affecting corrosion, some impurities change the density and viscosity of the acid and form acid sludge and sediments. In contact with metallic surfaces, these sediments may influence the corrosion behavior of the metal by forming deposits that promote localized corrosion.
5.1. Influence of chloride ion
The chloride ion (Cl−) in PA comes from phosphate ores in which it is present as an alkali metal chloride, such as NaCl. It may be removed by washing with fresh water, but it may also come from the wash water since seawater is sometimes used for washing the PR or forming rising tanks or cargo holds. The Cl− content then can rise to a dangerous level. Chloride may also occur in the apatite itself, sometimes as a water-insoluble salt or as an oxychloride formed during calcination of the PR.
Chloride contamination may also result from handling and storing of raw materials. In many fertilizer plants, PR and muriate of potash (MOP, the most common source of potassium used in agriculture as potassium chloride) are unloaded with the same equipment and stored in bulk in the same building. Small amounts of MOP often are left in elevators and conveyors and may be mixed with the PR subsequently handled in the equipment.
The corrosivity of the halogen acids, HCl and HF, and of the halide ions Cl− and F− in strong mineral oxygen-acids, such as H3PO4 and H2SO4, is related to the physicochemical properties of the halogens, and the electronegativity, ion size, and ionic character of the HX molecule indicate their high chemical reactivity. Chloride ion is adsorbed on metal surfaces and replaces adsorbed oxygen or water molecules. This shifts the potential of the metal to more active (electronegative) values and causes breakdown of the passive state, mainly at elevated temperatures, which leads to the formation of pits. During attack of stainless steel (SS), chlorides of iron, nickel and chromium are formed; these are highly soluble in PA because of its complexing of cations of the transition group elements [14].
The values of the electrochemical parameters of the anodic polarization curve, such as iCC which indicates corrosion activity, increase with increasing Cl− concentration.
5.2. Influence of fluoride ion
The CaF2 constituent of the fluoroapatite of PR reacts with H2SO4 during acidulation to produce HF which may form (HF)2 and F− ions, depending on the hydrogen ion activity of the solution according to the equilibrium:
Dissolved aluminum compounds form acid-soluble aluminum fluoride complexes, for example, (AlF6)−3. Other reactions that decrease corrosion include formation of partially soluble metals fluoride complexes with Fe+3, Mg+2, Ca+2 and Na+, and formation of insoluble fluoroaluminates and fluorosilicates that settle on metallic surfaces, such as Na2SiF6, NaKSiF6, MgNaAlF6, Na3AlF6 and MgSiF6.
The main corrosion agent is the free fluoride ion, which is not complexed by cations. Reactive silica decreases the free HF by forming SiF4 or H2SiF6. When the silica content of the PR is relatively less than the fluoride content, addition of reactive silica in the acidulation stage is recommended as a means of decreasing corrosion. This effect can be obtained also by mixing the rock with another PR that is high in reactive silica or aluminum compounds.
These effects have been demonstrated in laboratory corrosion test with 30% P2O5 (phosphoric acid) to which HF or complex fluorine compounds, such as H2SiF6 were added. The test included weight loss and electrochemical techniques. The electrode potential of UNS S31600 (0.16 V) becomes active in the presence of HF (−0.23 V), indicating a tendency to corrosion. The electrochemical parameters of the anodic polarization plot reveal anodic dissolution as a result of addition of HF and stable passive behavior in the presence of H2SiF6.
5.3. Influence of H2S
Some PRs contain as much as 1% sulfide. In acidulation the sulfide is converted to hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a weak acid that dissociates as in the equilibrium:
H2S⇌H++ HS-⇌2H++ S−E10
H2S and the sulfide ion may act as reducing agents that affect the stability of the passive film on metals. Results of tests in a laboratory acidulation to which H2S was added showed that the potential of S31600 fell slowly until it became negative, corresponding to active corrosion of the SS [15].
5.4. Influence of minerals: Erosion-corrosion
Erosion-corrosion (EC) is characterized in appearance by deep gullies, grooves, waves, rounded holes and valleys, exhibiting a directional pattern usually related to the direction of the fluid flow. These EC effects impair the protective film present on passive alloys, such as SS causing breakdown of passivity. On active alloys, such as CS, an active surface is maintained. In this way, the corrosion process is accelerated by mechanical removal of asperities, protuberances, and corrosion products, such as oxides or phosphates which otherwise might form a protective layer. A continuously renewed surface is generated, enhancing corrosion activity.
Corrosion, erosion and abrasion are frequent problems in chemical and mineral processing plants, leading to failures of equipment operating under severe hydrodynamic conditions. Many metals and alloys, such as CS-, SS- and Ni-base alloys, are susceptible to EC. All types of equipment that handle moving fluids, such as agitators, pumps, valves, nozzles, centrifuges, impellers and ball mills, are apt to undergo EC. The interaction between the chemical and the mechanical factors and their continuous effect on the metal surface causes EC [16].
6. Corrosion in phosphoric acid production
WPA plants operate under severe conditions that include elevated temperatures and rapid heat transfer, high acid concentration, agitation and circulation of liquids containing erosive suspended solids, aeration, formation of foam, and volatilization of corrosive acidic vapor that condenses on cooler metallic surfaces. Destructive corrosion results from combinations of these factors in which their combined action is greater than the sum of their separate actions.
PA is a mineral, nonoxidizing acid; its first dissociation follows the equilibrium:
H3PO4⇌H++H2PO4-Ka=7.52×10-3@25°CE11
The corrosivity of pure PA solutions increases with increase in concentration to about 60% H3PO4 and then decreases with further increase in concentration. This behavior parallels the hydrogen ion concentration which increases with increase in acid concentration to about 50% H3PO4 and then decreases as the equilibrium in concentrated acid shifts to the left with further increase in acid concentration. H2SO4 solutions behave similarly. In both PA and H2SO4 there is a fairly good correlation between hydrogen ion concentration and the rate of corrosion.
In the WPA process, the filter acid (30% P2O5) is concentrated and converts into the PA product (52% P2O5). These acids are very corrosive, particularly to heat-exchanger surfaces where temperatures and velocities are high. During the concentration, part of the salts, such as fluoride compounds, precipitate and either from scale on the surfaces of the evaporation or remain in suspension. Fluorides are evolved with water vapor:
H2SiF6(aq)→heat and acidSiF4(g)+2HF(g)E12
and Cl− ions are removed as HCl vapor.
The corrosivity of halide ions in pure 30 and 50% H3PO4 decreases in the order F− > Cl− > Br in accordance with the chemical activity of the halides. In 70 and 85% H3PO4 (52 and 62% P2O5), however, the corrosivity of the halides is in the order Cl− > F− > Br.
This result reflects the formation of stable monofluorophosphoric acid, which complexes F− and decreases its corrosivity. The following equilibrium is established:
H3PO4+HF⇌H2PO3F+H2OE13
In 30 and 50% H3PO4, the fluorophosphate complexes hydrolyze and yield free active F− which promotes corrosion.
A rise in temperature increases the rate of the chemical reactions that occur in the acidulation of the PR and the concentration of the acid. Higher temperatures in the reactor accelerate the corrosion of SS agitator and pumps, and higher temperatures in the concentration stage lead to increased corrosion in heat exchangers, pipes and pumps. To minimize corrosion, nonmetallic materials are used wherever possible; these include impregnated impervious graphite, carbon bricks, Teflon coatings and fiber-glass-filled phenolic resins.
Breakdown of the passive state may occur at elevated temperatures. For example, S31600 is resistant to 85% H3PO4 between 25 and 90°C, but at higher temperatures the passive layer is damaged and corrosion increases.
Agitation produces high velocity, turbulence, impingement, cavitation and erosion; all of these increase corrosion. The destructive effect that results from the combination of mechanical wear and electrochemical corrosion usually is greater than the sum of the two factors acting separately [17].
The abrasive solids, gypsum crystals, silica, and unreacted phosphate rock in the reactor slurry which contains about 35% solids, severely attack agitators, pump impellers and casings, and pipes, causing EC [18].
The ability of the SS- and Ni-based alloy passive films to protect the WPA plant equipment depends on their resistance to mechanical wear and their rate of regeneration when destroyed or damaged. The condition of the protective film depends on its interaction with the WPA constituents, such as Cl−, F− and oxidizing agents.
PR contains organic matter from fossil organisms, but its nature is not clearly defined. Its amount ranges from 0.5 to 2.3% organic carbon. Part of the organic matter may have been introduced as flotation agents that were adsorbed during beneficiation of the PR. Chemicals that control foaming, such as amines, fatty acids, and esters, are added in the acidulation step also contribute organic matter.
The effects of these different kinds of organic matter on corrosion in WPA have not been investigated thoroughly. They affect corrosion by forming films of organic matter on metallic surfaces and decreasing or increasing corrosion according to their chemical nature and physicochemical properties, such as adsorption.
6.1. Erosion-corrosion devices and measurements
In equipment handling, in particular in moving corrosive fluids containing suspended solid particles, such as in slurries, the main phenomenon is EC. A particular type of localized corrosion is caused by the synergetic action of mechanical erosion and electrochemical corrosion. Several environments and equipment are affected by FC in local plants: handling and processing slurries, for example, phosphate ore washing; wet process phosphoric acid (WPA) production; periclase hydration; and carnallite and sylvinite slurries, used in potash production.
In order to understand the causes and mechanisms of EC phenomena and to measure its magnitude, the chemical and mineral industries apply different laboratory and plant devices which simulate service conditions and sometimes increase the severity of the chemical, mechanical, and hydrodynamic factors involved in EC.
Many EC-measuring devices have been designed and constructed in the last years and are frequently reported in the literature [19]. They are based, in principle, on simulation of the mechanical forces acting on the plant equipment surface and a measurement of the mechano-chemical effect on a static or dynamic metallic specimen exposed to a moving fluid The FC effect is assessed by physical changes (weight, length, volumes roughness), by an electrochemical measurement or by applying both techniques simultaneously or successively.
6.2. IMI erosion-corrosion measuring devices
During the past years the Corrosion Laboratory of IMI (TAMI)—Institute for Research and Development was engaged in the study of corrosion in several industrial plants handling aggressive slurries and in the selection of EC-resistant alloys to be used in these plants. Since EC is the main type of corrosion encountered in these systems, it was necessary to develop devices to study and measure FC phenomena in these slurries. Accordingly, two instruments were developed, built and applied in several plants.
6.2.1. Erosion-corrosion unit (ECU)
This instrument simulates EC phenomena occurring in equipment handling flowing fluids, enhanced by suspended solids in slurries or entrained solids in brines. A jet of slurry or brine is impinged continuously on the curved surface of the submerged rotating specimen, through a nozzle. The instrument measures corrosion potential and instantaneous corrosion current by the polarization resistance technique in accordance with the ASTM Practice for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance Measurements [20].
Figure 4 presents a schematic diagram of the apparatus, which consists of three parts: the cell, the agitated vessel and the electrochemical measuring instrument.
Figure 4.
Diagram of erosion-corrosion unit/ECU.
The cell (a)—in a polypropylene vessel (1) (diameter 12 cm, height 18 cm) the alloy under test in the form of a cylinder (2) (diameter 20 mm, height 6 mm) is rotated about a vertical axis (3) while a jet of fluid is impinged continuously onto its curved surface through an interchangeable nozzle (4). The specimen and its mercury contact (5) are kept in place by means of a hollow rod holder. Immediately adjacent to the cylinder are an auxiliary platinum electrode (6) and a reference electrode (7).
The effects due to rotation, impingement and simultaneous rotation and impingement are determined by varying the specimen’s rotational velocity and the jet’s impact energy. Agitated vessel (b)—The cell is connected to an agitated slurry (B) which supplies the solids-containing fluid via a pump (14).
The electrochemical measuring instrument (c)—This instrument measures the potential (9) of the specimen and the corrosion current (10) which flows between the specimen (2) and the auxiliary electrode (6) when a fixed, 20-mV polarization potential (12) is applied to the specimen. The potential is set with respect to an Ag/AgCl or an SCE reference electrode (6) with a polypropylene body. The instrument also measures the oxidation-reduction potential EORP of the fluid. The electronic instrument was designed by Ch. Yarnitzky, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, and built by Opal Co., Israel.
6.2.2. Erosion-corrosion tester (ECT)
The instrument applies rotational sliding abrasion on a static metallic specimen to simulate the corrosive wear effects of the solids-containing fluid on the surface of the equipment. The abrader material and its shape vary according to the solids type, the plant equipment and their interactions. The magnitude of the effect on electrochemical corrosion is measured by the polarization resistance technique to determine the instantaneous corrosion rate and by weight loss to assess the contribution of mechanical erosion.
The tester described in Figure 5 consists of two parts:
Figure 5.
Diagram of erosion-corrosion tester/ECT.
The EC cell (a)—the cell (3) is a polypropylene cylinder, 40-cm high and 10 cm in diameter. It contains three electrodes; the working electrode(5) in the form of a disk, made from the alloy under the test and the Ag/AgCl reference electrode (8) and auxiliary platinum electrode(9), both immediately adjacent to the disk (5). The cell is immersed into the vessel (1) containing the agitated fluid (2). A cross-shaped, rigid polypropylene abrader (6) or soft rubber wiper (6a) is attached to the base of the rotating shaft (7). The solids are swept outwards, and their particles are ground on the specimen surface. The shape of the abrader (and wiper) permits the particles to be swept onto the specimen surface. The severity of the mechanical action is controlled by weights (10) mounted on the rotating shaft and by increasing the rotational velocity of the shaft.
Electrochemical measuring instrument (b)—This instrument measures the open-circuit potential (12) of the specimen and the corrosion current (13) which flows between the specimen (5) and the auxiliary electrode (9) when a fixed, small polarization potential (15) is applied to the specimen, set with respect to the reference electrode (8).
6.3. Phosphoric acid production
Wet process phosphoric acid (WPA) is produced by attack of phosphate ore by concentrated sulfuric acid. Impurities, such as Cl− and F− increase the corrosivity of the medium. EC appears mainly in the reaction stage, where an aggressive slurry, containing 42% PA (H2PO4), 2% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and 30% solid particles (gypsum, sand, quartz, and undissolved rock) is processed at 75°C (167°F). The main equipment undergoing EC are the reactor agitators and pump impellers, made of an austenitic stainless steel (Fe-20Cr-25Ni-4.5Mo-1.5Cu), in short, Fe-20Cr-25Ni.
The EC instruments were employed in WPA pilot plants to evaluate the corrosivity of various phosphate ores and for selection of EC-resistant alloys to be used for the fabrication of industrial plant equipment.
In an industrial plant trial, the ECT was applied to assess the effect of the addition of siliceous clays to the WPA reaction system, to complex the free hydrofluoric acid and minimize its corrosivity. AISI 316 SS high-alloyed austenitic stainless steels (Steel A, Fe-20Cr-25Ni-4.5Mo-1.5Cu, and steel B, Fe-17Cr-31Ni-3.5Mo-1.5Cu) and a Ni-base alloy (Ni-15Cr-16Mo-5Fe-2.5Co-4W) were tested. The results of several runs, with and without addition of clay, indicate clearly the significant reduction of EC rates in the presence of clay. The ECT was set at a rotation speed of 100 rpm and the load on the abrader was 1.1 kg/cm3. The EC rate was measured by the linear polarization resistance technique.
Anodic polarization plots were obtained at a scan rate of 60 mV/min of Fe-20Cr-25Ni alloy, obtained both on a static specimen and on a specimen being abraded by the ECT. The current fluctuations, Plot b, indicate a rapid sequence of breakdown of the passive film by the mechanical action of the hard, sharp particles in the slurry, followed up by the formation of a protective oxide film. On the other hand, Plot a shows stable and smaller currents. Both plots reach same value in the transpassive region. A singular behavior was reported by Matsumura et al. during erosion-corrosion measurements.
7. Applications of phosphoric acid and phosphates
The great variety of PRs, industrial production process and plants of PAs and its distinct applications in critical reactors of the global economy, for example, fertilizers for the agricultural grouts, treatment of metallic machinery, addition to food and beverages, products for medicinal uses and for chemical treatment in environments and industries are depicted in Figure 6. A typical PR mine is presented in Figure 7.
Fertilizers. WPA is the most important intermediate in the fertilizer industry since it is a major constituent of triple superphosphate, ammonium phosphate and mixed NPK fertilizers. Industrialized countries produce PK and NPK fertilizers for domestic utilization and for export; they are also supplied as slow-release fertilizers, as special fertilizer for fertigation (fertilization combined with irrigation) and for foliar application. Fertilizers may be acidic, neutral or basic; their pH and hygroscopicity affect their corrosiveness in the presence of moisture [21].
Figure 6.
Phosphoric acid process, products and uses.
Figure 7.
Phosphate rock mine.
Ground PR is directly dispersed in agricultural fields in tropical regions to neutralize the soil’s natural acidity.
Metallurgy. Chemical conversion coatings are applied on steel and aluminum surfaces for protection against corrosion. Phosphating solutions, containing PA with special active additives are employed for protection of steel vehicles, office furniture, aircraft, merchant and military ships and machinery. The phosphate coating ensures the adhesion and performance of posterior painting [22, 23].
Phosphate conversion coating is the most widely employed technique to afford good corrosion protection to sheet steel, in particular in the automotive industry. PA is an important industrial acid utilized in many industries. In metallurgical applications, it is used for pickling and supplementary treatment of steel sheeting used for steel car bodies and steel machinery. The phosphate layer consists of numerous crystals of different sizes, which implies the presence of voids between these crystals. Porosity is usually quite low: that is, 0.5–1.5% of phosphate coating.
Solutions of PA are employed for removal of rust from corroded surfaces; the black phosphate coating improves their corrosion resistance. PA solutions are utilized for cleaning and sanitation of equipment and machinery in industrial plants, for example, dairy plants; for electropolishing of SS, aluminum and copper alloys; and as a flux component in soldering. Fuel cells for electricity generation operate with PA as a liquid electrolyte.
Chemicals. PA is used for many chemical devices and operations: to remove mineral deposits, to clean hard water stains, to etch solution nitride in micro-fabrication, in hydroponics to lower the pH of nutrient solution, as an etching agent for semiconductors, in cosmetic and skin-care products to adjust the pH, for drinking water treatment, for preparation of synthetic rubber, for leather tanning, as an additive for varnishes, pigments and paints. It is used as an additive in the manufacture of fire bricks, fire retarding agents, ceramic colors, and as a catalyst in polypropylene polymerization and to enhance the setting action of synthetic resins. Laundry detergents contain soluble phosphates. Phosphonates, organophosphorus compounds from PA, are used as corrosion and scale inhibitors for water treatment and in the desalination industry.
Food and beverages. Pure food grade PA [24, 25] is an additive to food sauces, mayonnaise and fruit juices, and is used to acidulate cola-type beverages. Calcium phosphate salts are added to baked goods and white, soft cheeses to avoid water segregation [26]. It is used in sugar and edible oil refining and for bacteria control in food processing. Sodium and potassium phosphate salts serve as food preservatives.
Medicine. PA combined with zinc powder forms zinc phosphate, which is used as a dental cement. In orthodontics it is applied to clean and roughen the teeth before inserting brackets and other dental devices. Eliminating plaques and whitening the teeth are done with PA derivatives. Orthopedic metallic implants are covered with calcium phosphate to promote their integration with osseous tissue. Phosphatic cements are applied in surgery of bone systems. Also, phosphate salts are used to reduce pain in sensitive teeth.
\n',keywords:"corrosion, phosphoric acid, phosphate rock, erosion-corrosion, WPA",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56162.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56162.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56162",totalDownloads:3905,totalViews:2128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 25th 2016",dateReviewed:"June 6th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 12th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Phosphoric acid (PA) is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the fertilizer industry, for metal surface treatment in the metallurgical industry and as an additive in the food industry. The PA industry is spread out worldwide in Europe, Asia and America, including countries that operate phosphate rock (PR) mines and produce PA, phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-based products.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56162",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56162",book:{slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions"},signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener and Juan Ricardo\nSalinas Martinez",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",email:"mschorr2000@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The world phosphate rock (PR) market",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Phosphate rock: types and chemical composition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Phosphoric acid: production processes and industrial plants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. The WPA consists of three main stages",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. The solvent extraction process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Phosphate rock impurities: influence on production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1. Influence of chloride ion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2. Influence of fluoride ion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.3. Influence of H2S",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.4. Influence of minerals: Erosion-corrosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Corrosion in phosphoric acid production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1. Erosion-corrosion devices and measurements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2. IMI erosion-corrosion measuring devices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"6.2.1. Erosion-corrosion unit (ECU)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"6.2.2. Erosion-corrosion tester (ECT)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.3. Phosphoric acid production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Applications of phosphoric acid and phosphates",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dillon CP. Corrosion Control in the Chemical Process Industries. 2nd ed. Houston, TX: NACE; 1993'},{id:"B2",body:'Lehman U. Environmentally sustainable recycling of acid for pickling of stainless steel. ThyssenKrupp Techforum. 2005;1:26'},{id:"B3",body:'Gilmour R. Phosphoric Acid: Purification, Uses, Technology, and Economics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2013'},{id:"B4",body:'Ross RW. Corrosion by phosphoric acid. In: ASM Handbook. Stephen D. Cramer and Bernard S. Covino, Corrosion: Environments and Industries. Vol. 13C. Materials Park, OH: ASM International; 2006'},{id:"B5",body:'Schorr M. Corrosion control in WPA production using Phalaborwa igneous phosphate rocks. Phosphorous & Potassium. 1993;184:23–33'},{id:"B6",body:'Schorr M, Valdez B. The phosphoric acid industry: Equipment, materials, and corrosion. Corrosion Reviews. 2016;34:85–102'},{id:"B7",body:'Jasinski SM. Phosphate rock. USGS Minerals Information. Personal Communication; February 2009'},{id:"B8",body:'Charrach J, Schorr M, Weintraub E. Corrosion and scaling behavior in Dead Sea basin saline waters. Corrosion Reviews. 1990;9:293–352'},{id:"B9",body:'Baniel A, Blumberg R, Alon A. Process for preparation of substantially pure phosphoric acid. US Patent: 1965. No. 3 338 674'},{id:"B10",body:'Baniel A. HCL Clean Tech. Jerusalem, Israel. Personal Communication; January 2015'},{id:"B11",body:'Blumberg R. Liquid-Liquid Extraction. London: Academic Press; 1998'},{id:"B12",body:'Schorr M, Valdez B, Zlatev R, Stoytcheva M. Erosion-corrosion in phosphoric acid production. Materials Performance. 2010;49:56–59'},{id:"B13",body:'Schorr M. Corrosion Manual, Corrosion Testing and Control in Fertilizer Intermediates and Products. Part One: Wet Process Phosphoric Acid. USA: International Fertilizer Development Center; 1981. pp. 1–98'},{id:"B14",body:'Shi W, Xiang S, Li YL, Yang M, Hu YN, Wang QD. Effect of temperature on electrochemical behavior of stainless steel in phosphoric acid. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2013;351:1072–1076'},{id:"B15",body:'Bellaouchou A, Guenbour A, Benbachir A. Corrosion behavior of stainless steel in phosphoric acid polluted by sulfide ions. Corrosion. 1993;49:656–662'},{id:"B16",body:'Schorr M, Valdez B, Zlatev R, Stocycheva M. Phosphate ore processing for phosphoric acid production; classical and novel technology. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy. 2010;119:125–129'},{id:"B17",body:'Schorr M, Valdez B, Zlatev R, Santillan N. Agitator corrosion in wet phosphoric acid production. Materials Performance. 2007;46:50'},{id:"B18",body:'Hael AE, Mohammad AS, Hassan H. The effect of motion on the behavior of corrosion stainless steels in industrial phosphoric acid. Open Access Scientific Report. 2012;1:9'},{id:"B19",body:'Jang W, Pozzo RL, Iwasaki I. Technical note: Estimation of corrosive wear of grinding media by electrochemical measurements. Corrosion. 1988;44(11):836–838'},{id:"B20",body:'ASTM Standard G59-78. Standard Test Method for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance Measurements. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 1984'},{id:"B21",body:'Agarwal DC. Phosphoric acid production for fertilizer applications. Stainless Steel World. 2002;14:58–65'},{id:"B22",body:'Sanchez-Tovar R, Montanes MT, Garcia-Anton J, Guenbour A. Galvanic corrosion of the base AISI 316l/micro-plasma arc welded AISI 316l in polluted phosphoric acid media at different temperatures. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2011;6:5550–5564'},{id:"B23",body:'Santana I, Pepe A, Jimenez-Pique E, Pellice S, Ceré S. Silica-based hybrid coatings for corrosion protection of carbon steel. Part I: Effect of pretreatment with phosphoric acid. Surface and Coatings Technology. 2013;236:476–484'},{id:"B24",body:'Rotem Amfert Negev. Food grade phosphoric acid 85%. Product specification. Rotem Amfert Negev; 2012'},{id:"B25",body:'Li YL, Xiang S, Zeng HT, Wang JP, Wang QD. The corrosion behavior of 304L and 316L stainless steels in food grade phosphoric acid solutions. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2012;109:28–31'},{id:"B26",body:'Calcium Phosphates [Internet]. 1997–2016. Available from: http://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Calcium_phosphate.html [Accessed: February 20, 2015]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Benjamín Valdez Salas",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute of Engineering, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Mexicali, Baja California, México
Institute of Engineering, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Mexicali, Baja California, México
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1. Introduction
Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their research. It shows the path through which these researchers formulate their problem and objective and present their result from the data obtained during the study period. This research design and methodology chapter also shows how the research outcome at the end will be obtained in line with meeting the objective of the study. This chapter hence discusses the research methods that were used during the research process. It includes the research methodology of the study from the research strategy to the result dissemination. For emphasis, in this chapter, the author outlines the research strategy, research design, research methodology, the study area, data sources such as primary data sources and secondary data, population consideration and sample size determination such as questionnaires sample size determination and workplace site exposure measurement sample determination, data collection methods like primary data collection methods including workplace site observation data collection and data collection through desk review, data collection through questionnaires, data obtained from experts opinion, workplace site exposure measurement, data collection tools pretest, secondary data collection methods, methods of data analysis used such as quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis, data analysis software, the reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data, reliability of data, reliability analysis, validity, data quality management, inclusion criteria, ethical consideration and dissemination of result and its utilization approaches. In order to satisfy the objectives of the study, a qualitative and quantitative research method is apprehended in general. The study used these mixed strategies because the data were obtained from all aspects of the data source during the study time. Therefore, the purpose of this methodology is to satisfy the research plan and target devised by the researcher.
2. Research design
The research design is intended to provide an appropriate framework for a study. A very significant decision in research design process is the choice to be made regarding research approach since it determines how relevant information for a study will be obtained; however, the research design process involves many interrelated decisions [1].
This study employed a mixed type of methods. The first part of the study consisted of a series of well-structured questionnaires (for management, employee’s representatives, and technician of industries) and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders (government bodies, ministries, and industries) in participating organizations. The other design used is an interview of employees to know how they feel about safety and health of their workplace, and field observation at the selected industrial sites was undertaken.
Hence, this study employs a descriptive research design to agree on the effects of occupational safety and health management system on employee health, safety, and property damage for selected manufacturing industries. Saunders et al. [2] and Miller [3] say that descriptive research portrays an accurate profile of persons, events, or situations. This design offers to the researchers a profile of described relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organizational, and industry-oriented perspective. Therefore, this research design enabled the researchers to gather data from a wide range of respondents on the impact of safety and health on manufacturing industries in Ethiopia. And this helped in analyzing the response obtained on how it affects the manufacturing industries’ workplace safety and health. The research overall design and flow process are depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Research methods and processes (author design).
3. Research methodology
To address the key research objectives, this research used both qualitative and quantitative methods and combination of primary and secondary sources. The qualitative data supports the quantitative data analysis and results. The result obtained is triangulated since the researcher utilized the qualitative and quantitative data types in the data analysis. The study area, data sources, and sampling techniques were discussed under this section.
3.1 The study area
According to Fraenkel and Warren [4] studies, population refers to the complete set of individuals (subjects or events) having common characteristics in which the researcher is interested. The population of the study was determined based on random sampling system. This data collection was conducted from March 07, 2015 to December 10, 2016, from selected manufacturing industries found in Addis Ababa city and around. The manufacturing companies were selected based on their employee number, established year, and the potential accidents prevailing and the manufacturing industry type even though all criterions were difficult to satisfy.
3.2 Data sources
3.2.1 Primary data sources
It was obtained from the original source of information. The primary data were more reliable and have more confidence level of decision-making with the trusted analysis having direct intact with occurrence of the events. The primary data sources are industries’ working environment (through observation, pictures, and photograph) and industry employees (management and bottom workers) (interview, questionnaires and discussions).
3.2.2 Secondary data
Desk review has been conducted to collect data from various secondary sources. This includes reports and project documents at each manufacturing sectors (more on medium and large level). Secondary data sources have been obtained from literatures regarding OSH, and the remaining data were from the companies’ manuals, reports, and some management documents which were included under the desk review. Reputable journals, books, different articles, periodicals, proceedings, magazines, newsletters, newspapers, websites, and other sources were considered on the manufacturing industrial sectors. The data also obtained from the existing working documents, manuals, procedures, reports, statistical data, policies, regulations, and standards were taken into account for the review.
In general, for this research study, the desk review has been completed to this end, and it had been polished and modified upon manuals and documents obtained from the selected companies.
4. Population and sample size
4.1 Population
The study population consisted of manufacturing industries’ employees in Addis Ababa city and around as there are more representative manufacturing industrial clusters found. To select representative manufacturing industrial sector population, the types of the industries expected were more potential to accidents based on random and purposive sampling considered. The population of data was from textile, leather, metal, chemicals, and food manufacturing industries. A total of 189 sample sizes of industries responded to the questionnaire survey from the priority areas of the government. Random sample sizes and disproportionate methods were used, and 80 from wood, metal, and iron works; 30 from food, beverage, and tobacco products; 50 from leather, textile, and garments; 20 from chemical and chemical products; and 9 from other remaining 9 clusters of manufacturing industries responded.
4.2 Questionnaire sample size determination
A simple random sampling and purposive sampling methods were used to select the representative manufacturing industries and respondents for the study. The simple random sampling ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance for the selection or the chance of getting a response which can be more than equal to the chance depending on the data analysis justification. Sample size determination procedure was used to get optimum and reasonable information. In this study, both probability (simple random sampling) and nonprobability (convenience, quota, purposive, and judgmental) sampling methods were used as the nature of the industries are varied. This is because of the characteristics of data sources which permitted the researchers to follow the multi-methods. This helps the analysis to triangulate the data obtained and increase the reliability of the research outcome and its decision. The companies’ establishment time and its engagement in operation, the number of employees and the proportion it has, the owner types (government and private), type of manufacturing industry/production, types of resource used at work, and the location it is found in the city and around were some of the criteria for the selections.
The determination of the sample size was adopted from Daniel [5] and Cochran [6] formula. The formula used was for unknown population size Eq. (1) and is given as
E1
where n = sample size, Z = statistic for a level of confidence, P = expected prevalence or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, P = 0.5), and d = precision (in proportion of one; if 6%, d = 0.06). Z statistic (Z): for the level of confidence of 95%, which is conventional, Z value is 1.96. In this study, investigators present their results with 95% confidence intervals (CI).
The expected sample number was 267 at the marginal error of 6% for 95% confidence interval of manufacturing industries. However, the collected data indicated that only 189 populations were used for the analysis after rejecting some data having more missing values in the responses from the industries. Hence, the actual data collection resulted in 71% response rate. The 267 population were assumed to be satisfactory and representative for the data analysis.
4.3 Workplace site exposure measurement sample determination
The sample size for the experimental exposure measurements of physical work environment has been considered based on the physical data prepared for questionnaires and respondents. The response of positive were considered for exposure measurement factors to be considered for the physical environment health and disease causing such as noise intensity, light intensity, pressure/stress, vibration, temperature/coldness, or hotness and dust particles on 20 workplace sites. The selection method was using random sampling in line with purposive method. The measurement of the exposure factors was done in collaboration with Addis Ababa city Administration and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair (AACBOLSA). Some measuring instruments were obtained from the Addis Ababa city and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair.
5. Data collection methods
Data collection methods were focused on the followings basic techniques. These included secondary and primary data collections focusing on both qualitative and quantitative data as defined in the previous section. The data collection mechanisms are devised and prepared with their proper procedures.
5.1 Primary data collection methods
Primary data sources are qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative sources are field observation, interview, and informal discussions, while that of quantitative data sources are survey questionnaires and interview questions. The next sections elaborate how the data were obtained from the primary sources.
5.1.1 Workplace site observation data collection
Observation is an important aspect of science. Observation is tightly connected to data collection, and there are different sources for this: documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, and participant observations. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior. In this dissertation, the researchers used observation method as one tool for collecting information and data before questionnaire design and after the start of research too. The researcher made more than 20 specific observations of manufacturing industries in the study areas. During the observations, it found a deeper understanding of the working environment and the different sections in the production system and OSH practices.
5.1.2 Data collection through interview
Interview is a loosely structured qualitative in-depth interview with people who are considered to be particularly knowledgeable about the topic of interest. The semi-structured interview is usually conducted in a face-to-face setting which permits the researcher to seek new insights, ask questions, and assess phenomena in different perspectives. It let the researcher to know the in-depth of the present working environment influential factors and consequences. It has provided opportunities for refining data collection efforts and examining specialized systems or processes. It was used when the researcher faces written records or published document limitation or wanted to triangulate the data obtained from other primary and secondary data sources.
This dissertation is also conducted with a qualitative approach and conducting interviews. The advantage of using interviews as a method is that it allows respondents to raise issues that the interviewer may not have expected. All interviews with employees, management, and technicians were conducted by the corresponding researcher, on a face-to-face basis at workplace. All interviews were recorded and transcribed.
5.1.3 Data collection through questionnaires
The main tool for gaining primary information in practical research is questionnaires, due to the fact that the researcher can decide on the sample and the types of questions to be asked [2].
In this dissertation, each respondent is requested to reply to an identical list of questions mixed so that biasness was prevented. Initially the questionnaire design was coded and mixed up from specific topic based on uniform structures. Consequently, the questionnaire produced valuable data which was required to achieve the dissertation objectives.
The questionnaires developed were based on a five-item Likert scale. Responses were given to each statement using a five-point Likert-type scale, for which 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree.” The responses were summed up to produce a score for the measures.
5.1.4 Data obtained from experts’ opinion
The data was also obtained from the expert’s opinion related to the comparison of the knowledge, management, collaboration, and technology utilization including their sub-factors. The data obtained in this way was used for prioritization and decision-making of OSH, improving factor priority. The prioritization of the factors was using Saaty scales (1–9) and then converting to Fuzzy set values obtained from previous researches using triangular fuzzy set [7].
5.1.5 Workplace site exposure measurement
The researcher has measured the workplace environment for dust, vibration, heat, pressure, light, and noise to know how much is the level of each variable. The primary data sources planned and an actual coverage has been compared as shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Planned versus actual coverage of the survey.
The response rate for the proposed data source was good, and the pilot test also proved the reliability of questionnaires. Interview/discussion resulted in 87% of responses among the respondents; the survey questionnaire response rate obtained was 71%, and the field observation response rate was 90% for the whole data analysis process. Hence, the data organization quality level has not been compromised.
This response rate is considered to be representative of studies of organizations. As the study agrees on the response rate to be 30%, it is considered acceptable [8]. Saunders et al. [2] argued that the questionnaire with a scale response of 20% response rate is acceptable. Low response rate should not discourage the researchers, because a great deal of published research work also achieves low response rate. Hence, the response rate of this study is acceptable and very good for the purpose of meeting the study objectives.
5.1.6 Data collection tool pretest
The pretest for questionnaires, interviews, and tools were conducted to validate that the tool content is valid or not in the sense of the respondents’ understanding. Hence, content validity (in which the questions are answered to the target without excluding important points), internal validity (in which the questions raised answer the outcomes of researchers’ target), and external validity (in which the result can generalize to all the population from the survey sample population) were reflected. It has been proved with this pilot test prior to the start of the basic data collections. Following feedback process, a few minor changes were made to the originally designed data collect tools. The pilot test made for the questionnaire test was on 10 sample sizes selected randomly from the target sectors and experts.
5.2 Secondary data collection methods
The secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than the user. This data source gives insights of the research area of the current state-of-the-art method. It also makes some sort of research gap that needs to be filled by the researcher. This secondary data sources could be internal and external data sources of information that may cover a wide range of areas.
Literature/desk review and industry documents and reports: To achieve the dissertation’s objectives, the researcher has conducted excessive document review and reports of the companies in both online and offline modes. From a methodological point of view, literature reviews can be comprehended as content analysis, where quantitative and qualitative aspects are mixed to assess structural (descriptive) as well as content criteria.
A literature search was conducted using the database sources like MEDLINE; Emerald; Taylor and Francis publications; EMBASE (medical literature); PsycINFO (psychological literature); Sociological Abstracts (sociological literature); accident prevention journals; US Statistics of Labor, European Safety and Health database; ABI Inform; Business Source Premier (business/management literature); EconLit (economic literature); Social Service Abstracts (social work and social service literature); and other related materials. The search strategy was focused on articles or reports that measure one or more of the dimensions within the research OSH model framework. This search strategy was based on a framework and measurement filter strategy developed by the Consensus-Based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) group. Based on screening, unrelated articles to the research model and objectives were excluded. Prior to screening, researcher (principal investigator) reviewed a sample of more than 2000 articles, websites, reports, and guidelines to determine whether they should be included for further review or reject. Discrepancies were thoroughly identified and resolved before the review of the main group of more than 300 articles commenced. After excluding the articles based on the title, keywords, and abstract, the remaining articles were reviewed in detail, and the information was extracted on the instrument that was used to assess the dimension of research interest. A complete list of items was then collated within each research targets or objectives and reviewed to identify any missing elements.
6. Methods of data analysis
Data analysis method follows the procedures listed under the following sections. The data analysis part answered the basic questions raised in the problem statement. The detailed analysis of the developed and developing countries’ experiences on OSH regarding manufacturing industries was analyzed, discussed, compared and contrasted, and synthesized.
6.1 Quantitative data analysis
Quantitative data were obtained from primary and secondary data discussed above in this chapter. This data analysis was based on their data type using Excel, SPSS 20.0, Office Word format, and other tools. This data analysis focuses on numerical/quantitative data analysis.
Before analysis, data coding of responses and analysis were made. In order to analyze the data obtained easily, the data were coded to SPSS 20.0 software as the data obtained from questionnaires. This task involved identifying, classifying, and assigning a numeric or character symbol to data, which was done in only one way pre-coded [9, 10]. In this study, all of the responses were pre-coded. They were taken from the list of responses, a number of corresponding to a particular selection was given. This process was applied to every earlier question that needed this treatment. Upon completion, the data were then entered to a statistical analysis software package, SPSS version 20.0 on Windows 10 for the next steps.
Under the data analysis, exploration of data has been made with descriptive statistics and graphical analysis. The analysis included exploring the relationship between variables and comparing groups how they affect each other. This has been done using cross tabulation/chi square, correlation, and factor analysis and using nonparametric statistic.
6.2 Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data analysis used for triangulation of the quantitative data analysis. The interview, observation, and report records were used to support the findings. The analysis has been incorporated with the quantitative discussion results in the data analysis parts.
6.3 Data analysis software
The data were entered using SPSS 20.0 on Windows 10 and analyzed. The analysis supported with SPSS software much contributed to the finding. It had contributed to the data validation and correctness of the SPSS results. The software analyzed and compared the results of different variables used in the research questionnaires. Excel is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical solutions.
7. The reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data
7.1 Reliability of data
The reliability of measurements specifies the amount to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument [8]. In reliability analysis, it has been checked for the stability and consistency of the data. In the case of reliability analysis, the researcher checked the accuracy and precision of the procedure of measurement. Reliability has numerous definitions and approaches, but in several environments, the concept comes to be consistent [8]. The measurement fulfills the requirements of reliability when it produces consistent results during data analysis procedure. The reliability is determined through Cranach’s alpha as shown in Table 2.
Table 2.
Internal consistency and reliability test of questionnaires items.
K stands for knowledge; M, management; T, technology; C, collaboration; P, policy, standards, and regulation; H, hazards and accident conditions; PPE, personal protective equipment.
7.2 Reliability analysis
Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency, i.e., how closely related a set of items are as a group [11]. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. The reliability of internal consistency most of the time is measured based on the Cronbach’s alpha value. Reliability coefficient of 0.70 and above is considered “acceptable” in most research situations [12]. In this study, reliability analysis for internal consistency of Likert-scale measurement after deleting 13 items was found similar; the reliability coefficients were found for 76 items were 0.964 and for the individual groupings made shown in Table 2. It was also found internally consistent using the Cronbach’s alpha test. Table 2 shows the internal consistency of the seven major instruments in which their reliability falls in the acceptable range for this research.
7.3 Validity
Face validity used as defined by Babbie [13] is an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variables, and it is the subjective judgment that the instrument measures what it intends to measure in terms of relevance [14]. Thus, the researcher ensured, in this study, when developing the instruments that uncertainties were eliminated by using appropriate words and concepts in order to enhance clarity and general suitability [14]. Furthermore, the researcher submitted the instruments to the research supervisor and the joint supervisor who are both occupational health experts, to ensure validity of the measuring instruments and determine whether the instruments could be considered valid on face value.
In this study, the researcher was guided by reviewed literature related to compliance with the occupational health and safety conditions and data collection methods before he could develop the measuring instruments. In addition, the pretest study that was conducted prior to the main study assisted the researcher to avoid uncertainties of the contents in the data collection measuring instruments. A thorough inspection of the measuring instruments by the statistician and the researcher’s supervisor and joint experts, to ensure that all concepts pertaining to the study were included, ensured that the instruments were enriched.
8. Data quality management
Insight has been given to the data collectors on how to approach companies, and many of the questionnaires were distributed through MSc students at Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT) and manufacturing industries’ experience experts. This made the data quality reliable as it has been continually discussed with them. Pretesting for questionnaire was done on 10 workers to assure the quality of the data and for improvement of data collection tools. Supervision during data collection was done to understand how the data collectors are handling the questionnaire, and each filled questionnaires was checked for its completeness, accuracy, clarity, and consistency on a daily basis either face-to-face or by phone/email. The data expected in poor quality were rejected out of the acting during the screening time. Among planned 267 questionnaires, 189 were responded back. Finally, it was analyzed by the principal investigator.
9. Inclusion criteria
The data were collected from the company representative with the knowledge of OSH. Articles written in English and Amharic were included in this study. Database information obtained in relation to articles and those who have OSH area such as interventions method, method of accident identification, impact of occupational accidents, types of occupational injuries/disease, and impact of occupational accidents, and disease on productivity and costs of company and have used at least one form of feedback mechanism. No specific time period was chosen in order to access all available published papers. The questionnaire statements which are similar in the questionnaire have been rejected from the data analysis.
10. Ethical consideration
Ethical clearance was obtained from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University. Official letters were written from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering to the respective manufacturing industries. The purpose of the study was explained to the study subjects. The study subjects were told that the information they provided was kept confidential and that their identities would not be revealed in association with the information they provided. Informed consent was secured from each participant. For bad working environment assessment findings, feedback will be given to all manufacturing industries involved in the study. There is a plan to give a copy of the result to the respective study manufacturing industries’ and ministries’ offices. The respondents’ privacy and their responses were not individually analyzed and included in the report.
11. Dissemination and utilization of the result
The result of this study will be presented to the Addis Ababa University, AAiT, School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. It will also be communicated to the Ethiopian manufacturing industries, Ministry of Labor and Social Affair, Ministry of Industry, and Ministry of Health from where the data was collected. The result will also be availed by publication and online presentation in Google Scholars. To this end, about five articles were published and disseminated to the whole world.
12. Conclusion
The research methodology and design indicated overall process of the flow of the research for the given study. The data sources and data collection methods were used. The overall research strategies and framework are indicated in this research process from problem formulation to problem validation including all the parameters. It has laid some foundation and how research methodology is devised and framed for researchers. This means, it helps researchers to consider it as one of the samples and models for the research data collection and process from the beginning of the problem statement to the research finding. Especially, this research flow helps new researchers to the research environment and methodology in particular.
Conflict of interest
There is no “conflict of interest.”
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New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International; 1987'},{id:"B10",body:'Wong TC. Marketing Research. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1999'},{id:"B11",body:'Cronbach LJ. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika. 1951;16:297-334'},{id:"B12",body:'Tavakol M, Dennick R. Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education. 2011;2:53-55. DOI: 10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd'},{id:"B13",body:'Babbie E. The Practice of Social Research. 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; 2010'},{id:"B14",body:'Polit DF, Beck CT. Generating and Assessing Evidence for Nursing Practice. 8th ed. Williams and Wilkins: Lippincott; 2008'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",address:"jkassu@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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