Salient features of various molecular markers [97].
\r\n\t
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Since the end of Summer 2021, he has been working as the Lead of Strategic Planning for CEVT AB in Sweden.",institutionString:"China Euro Vehicle Technology AB",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"204176",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad 'Athif Mohd",middleName:null,surname:"Faudzi",slug:"ahmad-'athif-mohd-faudzi",fullName:"Ahmad 'Athif Mohd Faudzi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204176/images/system/204176.png",biography:"Prof. Ir. Ts. Dr. Ahmad `Athif Mohd Faudzi received a BEng in Computer Engineering and an MEng in Mechatronics and Automatic Control from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, and a Dr.Eng. in System Integration from Okayama University, Japan, in 2004, 2006, and 2010, respectively. He was a visiting research fellow at the Tokyo Institute of Technology from 2015 to 2017. He was also a fellow in the Academia-Industry Talent Exchange Programme (AI-xChange): Ceo@Faculty Programme 2.0 \\'Coached by the Pro\\' under Todd Ashton, CEO of Ericsson Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. from 2018 to 2019. He is currently the director of the Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIRO), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He is a Professional Engineer with Practicing Certificate (PEPC), a Charted Engineer (CEng), president for Persatuan Saintis Muslim Malaysia (PERINTIS), committee member of the Malaysia IEEE Robotics and Automation Society (RAS), and a member of ASM-YSN, Akademi Sains Malaysia Special Interest Group ASM-SIG Biodiversity, and ASM-SIG Robotics. He is the leader of the R&D subgroup Malaysia National Robotic Roadmap. In 2020, he received the Top Research Scientist Malaysia (TRSM) award in Robotics. 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Most of the traits are controlled by polygenes with complex nonallelic quantitative effects and environmental interactions. In most cases, despite the fact that biometrical genetics reveals the presence of additive or non-additive effects on loci involved in the inheritance of quantitative trait, a specific locus may not be detected [1]. Tightly linked loci with desired trait can support plant breeding program by rapid introgression of quantitative trait loci (QTL) using associated molecular markers [2]. Genomic region having genes of interest for a particular trait is designated as QTL (Quantitative Trait Loc). QTL analysis involves partioning of genetic variation in single component. So, DNA‐based molecular markers provide a tool to plant breeders for the selection of desirable plants based on genotype instead of phenotype.
\nThe expression of gene(s) individually their interaction with the climatic factors and agronomic measures can determine the cultivar adaptability [3]. Selection of new plant varieties with the desirable traits under given environmental conditions and cultural practices is the fundamental basis of plant breeding [4], genetic variability produced in germplasm as a result of selection, which alter the inheritance pattern of the traits, is quite useful to screen and select the cultivars for required traits. New cultivars have been developed by exploiting genotypes with enormous variation [5]. Rapid changes are needed in agricultural production, and biologically diverse as well as low‐input novel farming systems must be developed and employed. There is also a need for new crop varieties that are (1) fitting‐in to global climate change in the present era, (2) adapted to biodiverse farming systems, and finally (3) giving more products to farmers and eventually to consumers.
\nCotton (
At the beginning of the 20th century, scientists discovered that Mendelian factors controlling inheritance are organized in linear order on chromosomes. It was shown that genes could be inherited individually or in combination with other genes. The individual fragments flanking within a defined interval are known as molecular DNA markers [12]. Precise DNA portion with a known position on the chromosome [13], or a measurable trait that is associated with variation in DNA sequence [14, 15] or a difference may act as a genetic marker if it identifies characteristics of an individual.
\nMarkers are broadly divided into three classes: (1) morphological markers, which themselves have phenotypic traits meaning the morphological and physiological features of plants are used to understand the genetic variation. Although morphological features may be indicative of the phenotype, they are also highly affected by environmental factors and growth practices; (2) biochemical markers, including isozymes, which involve allelic variants of proteins/enzymes; (3) molecular markers, manifest mutations in heredity material such as DNAs and RNAs [16–19].
\nPolymorphism of molecular markers shows differentiation of homozygotes and heterozygotes [20]. Thottappilly et al. [21] refer to molecular markers as naturally occurring polymorphism, which include the proteins and nucleic acids that indicate certain differences. The use of molecular markers in plant breeding is called marker‐assisted selection, often referred as MAS or marker‐assisted breeding (MAB) (Figure 1) [4, 22].
\nMarker‐assisted scheme [
In traditional plant breeding, traits are selected depending on the phenotype, which is highly affected by the climatic factors. This approach makes the breeding a slow, expensive, and challenging process [23–25]. Practical advantages of using genetic markers, potential values of linkage maps, and exploiting for direct selection in plant breeding were begun to be studied about the 1930s [26]. Molecular markers are essential for mapping the genes of interest, MAS/MAB, and cloning of genes using mapping‐based cloning strategies [27]. In addition, the use of molecular markers includes gene introgression through backcrossing, germplasm characterization, and phylogenetic analysis [28]. It has been observed that MAS is more efficient than conventional breeding techniques [4, 29, 30]. Selection based on genotypic structure through employment of molecular markers in the field crops [31] has laid the foundation of MAS [32, 33]. Many biological and medical science applications and studies, including genetic diversity, molecular tagging of economic traits, and procurement of heritable diseases have successfully utilized molecular markers [2, 34–37]. Thus far, molecular markers have been exploited in rice [38], wheat [39], maize [40, 41], and barley [42, 43]. However, MAS has achieved the desired goals in cotton with limited success due to a genetic bottleneck through historic domestication and limited polymorphism in cultivar germplasm [44–47].
\nAbout 145 morphological markers are reported in cotton so far, but they have low utility in variety development because of incapability to assemble diverse markers in a genotype [48]. Isozymes produced through allelic variants are considered more authentic but not widely used due to their differential expression in different growth stages. For improving productivity and other key quantitative traits, cotton genetic markers have more value than morphological or isozyme markers [48]. DNA markers have become handy and effective tools for plant breeders because their expression is not necessary for their detection [49]. In order to enhance the benefits through molecular markers, vast developments have been made in ‘omics’, which, in turn, allowed the use of these markers in diverse ways for genetic studies instead of using them solely for phylogenetic studies [50]. Obtaining pure DNA plays a major role for the development of molecular markers in cotton [51–53]; genetic analysis has many drawbacks due to the presence of phenolic compounds, which affect quality of DNA and protein during tissues grinding [51].
\nPolygenic traits are mostly affected by the climatic conditions and show discrete variability after hybridization. Recombination frequency allows investigators to differentiate genes on linkage map by relative distance between a generation and their parents. The main hindrance for QTL mapping of agronomic traits is related to a large number of genes involved in phenotypic expression and their interaction with the environment [54]. As number of genes affects the trait phenotypically, it is desired that more loci should be evaluated for QTL determination, and the screening of individuals should be done at multiple locations/environments to maximize the use of QTLs. MAB uses QTLs to pyramid favorable alleles and break linkage groups for tagging QTLs of interest [55–57]. In recent years, conventional plant breeders started to use MAS for the identification of traits with high heritability such as disease resistance, as well as the yield of major field crops [57]. However, yield‐related components have low heritability, which is a major challenge for the utilization of MAS [56, 58]. MAS is being employed for the identification of transgressive segregants. Transgressive segregation is the production of plants in F2 generation that are superior to both parents for one or more traits. Transgressive breeding aims at improving yield or contributing to yield‐related traits through transgressive segregation [59–61]. Several QTLs have been identified for seed cotton yield, fiber quality, plant architecture, resistance to diseases such as bacterial blight and
There is a gap between discovery of useful genes and QTLs, and their utilization in breeding programs. To date, few examples are reported [55, 63] for the successful release of genotypes developed by MAS, and they have shown significant contribution to yield improvement. High‐throughput, high‐density genome‐profiling tools enable the rapid and low‐cost of crop genome in a precise and high‐resolution manner. Identification of molecular variants in DNA sequence opens opportunities for plant scientists [55]. The potential exists in plant breeding for efficient use of next‐generation sequencing (NGS) that also has revolutionized the plant genomics [55]. Markers can be analyzed across the genomes simply and accurately, with high‐throughput. Increased number of next generation sequencing allows conducting genome‐wide association studies (GWAS) [63]. It is thanks to the developments in knowledge of useful genetic diversity and QTLs, advances in sequencing, genotyping, and bioinformatics approaches that rapid, high‐throughput molecular marker discovery methods have been enabled.
\nDay‐by‐day developments of new, specific markers, and trait determination tools makes molecular markers important in understanding the genomic variability and diversity within and among species. In this chapter, we discuss about the applications and types of molecular markers, next‐generation sequencing, and role of molecular breeding in development of plants with improved economical traits in cotton.
\nEconomically important traits such as nutritive value, earliness, agronomic traits, resistance etc. can be improved through MAS [64, 65]. Polygenic mapping allows breeders to estimate and assess the hereditary pattern of the traits governed by many genes found throughout genome; Ultimately it leads to efficient utilization of these traits for molecular breeding. Highly saturated genetic maps in a high population index permits to observe the impact of many regions of genomes on a single trait value. Paterson [66] revealed that sharing of homologues during crossing over is the basis of QTLs. The regions of the genomes connected to the traits of economic value are QTLs [67]. Association of a marker’s genotypic value to a phenotype is the basis of QTL mapping. Recombination frequency is used to evaluate the relative distance among markers in the linkage map. It is assumed that markers at or lower recombination ratio of 50% are considered as unlinked found either on homologues or alternative loci while the markers which are tightly connected will be transferred to offspring more often than the unlinked markers [67].
\nReinisch et al. [68] developed the pioneer genetic map of cotton during 1994. Although large number linkage maps have been constructed since then due to abundance of several DNA markers, it is still needed to determine reliable QTLs from breeding perspective. Yu et al. [69] screened genotypes by simple sequence repeats (SSRs) to map loci connected to fiber quality and lint yield in a backcross inbred line and developed a pioneer genetic map using BIL within allotetraploid cultivated cotton species. Map consisted of 392 highly cosegregated loci covering 2895 cM length and having mean interlocus distance 7.4 cM. As a whole, 39 QTLs were directly connected to yield components and 28 were associated to fiber quality.
\nAltaf et al. [70] explored F2 population developed from three different species of
Shappley et al. [72] used F2:3 families derived from HS‐46 and MARCABUCAAG‐1‐8896 genotypes and constructed genetic map by using 120 RFLPs which spanned to 865 cM and arranged in 31 linkage groups. Fifty one linked groups were developed through a map constructed with RFLP and RAPD markers [73] spanning to 6663 cM including 332 AFLPs, 91 RAPDs and three morphological markers. Khan et al. [74] studied comparison for ploidy level to diploid ancestors and tetraploid cotton with RAPD markers. 119 F2:3 families developed from MD5678ne × Prema and utilized RFLPs for genetic map. Seventeen linkage panels were distributed on 700.7 cM map having mean distance of 7–8 cM among the markers [75].
\nRFLP, AFLP, and SSRs were screened in a backcrossed breeding population derived from crosses of [(
Mei et al. [78] developed interspecific population among
Two hundred and thirty‐three linked loci were mapped in backcross population of [
Wang et al. [81] applied microsatellites for identifying QTLs related to fiber quality in RIL population. The genetic map was published with two common QTLs for lint percentage and fiber length. The results were in accordance to earlier studies and can be utilized in marker‐assisted breeding. Lin et al. [82], screened SRAP, SSR, and RAPDs, have constructed linkage map, and a mean relevant distance was 9.08 cM among markers and total length of the map was 5141.8 cM. Park et al. [83] published the pioneer linkage map by applying EST‐SSRs in RIL population derived from (
Researchers [84, 85] have used SSRs and AFLPs for determining oligonucleotides that is a good source for pyramiding of genes for marker‐assisted selection. The mapping population developed by crossing parents having diversity for drought. Highly favorable environment was used; dryland and irrigated regimes for screening of genotypes. Quantitative trait loci mapped on different loci including one QTL (BNL1693) for seed cotton production on chromosomes 1 and 15 and two additional QTLs (BNL1153 and BNL2884) on chromosome 6. Moreover, chromosomes 6, 14, and 25 having BNL2884, BNL3259, and BNL1153 marker‐associated QTLs found for osmotic pressure for drought in highly uniform lines. Researchers also revealed that NAU2715 and NAU2954 can be used as marker for relative water contents while relative water contents with NAU2954 will contribute a lot to drought tolerance in cotton.
\nSSRs were analyzed for establishing genetic diversity and QTLs [86]. F2 population of crosses (7235 × TM 1), (HS 427‐10 × TM‐1), and (PD 6992 × SM 3) utilized for assigning QTLs for fiber traits in the three different linkage maps which span to 666.7, 557.8, and 588 cM, respectively, with number of mapped loci with difference of 86, 56, and 73 [86].
\nHe et al. [87] screened RAPDs, Retrotransposon-microsatellite amplified polymorphism (REMAP), SSRs, and sequence-related amplified polymorphisms in hybrids of
Abdurakhmonov et al. [88] revealed that chromosomes 12, 18, 23, and 26 having QTLs controlling lint percentage by applying SSRs and EST‐SSRs in a RIL population. Four QTLs for lint index, eight for seed index, 11 for lint yield, four for seed cotton yield, nine for number of seeds per boll, three for fiber strength, five for fiber length, and eight for fiber fineness were determined in F2 population (
SSRs were used to screen F2 progeny for nematode resistance [89], and researchers identified gene “GB713” that control resistance, and could be used for
Several types of molecular markers are available for characterization of germplasm of crop plants (Table 1). The amount of variation prevailing in the germplasm helps to maintain genetic conservation [98]. Availability of vast genomic database provides opportunity to develop enormous markers for detection of genetic variation [99, 100]. According to Weising et al. [101], these molecular markers must be (1) highly polymorphic, (2) codominant, (3) evenly distributed in a genome, (4) without pleiotropic effects, (5) easy to handle and fast assayed, (6) low cost and reproducible.
\nThe cost of production of a marker is directly related to marker technique in use, polymorphic nature, and efficiency [102]. Polymorphic markers are divided into three types: (1) hybridization‐based, (2) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based, and (3) DNA sequence based markers [103].
\nHybridization is occurred to the fragments of genomic DNAs produced by restriction endonucleases with various lengths among individuals. These types of markers are called “hybridization‐based markers.”
\nRestriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) is a type of hybridization‐based marker in plant genome and initially used for detection of polymorphism in a DNA sequence for gene mapping during the 1975s [31]. Nucleotide sequences of 4, 5, 6, or 8 bp, called restriction sites, are recognized by restriction endonucleases [104]. Digestion of DNA with restriction enzymes results in fragments whose number and size can vary among individuals, populations, and even within species.
\nMany scientists developed genetic mapping during the 1975s populations of cottons that were analyzed by using RFLP. Domestication of
S.N. | \nFeature | \nRFLP | \nRAPD | \nAFLP | \nSSRs | \nSNPs | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nDNA require (µg) | \n10 | \n0.02 | \n0.5–1.0 | \n0.05 | \n0.05 | \n
2 | \nPCR based | \nNo | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \nYes | \n
3 | \nDNA quality | \nHigh | \nHigh | \nModerate | \nModerate | \nHigh | \n
4 | \nNo of polymorphic loci analyzed | \n1–3 | \n1.50–50 | \n20–100 | \n1–3 | \n1 | \n
5 | \nType of polymorphism | \nSingle base change, insertion deletion | \nSingle base change, insertion deletion | \nSingle base change, insertion deletion | \nChange in repeat length | \nSingle base change, insertion deletion | \n
6 | \nDominance | \nCodominant | \nDominant | \nDominant/ codominant | \nCodominant | \nCodominant | \n
7 | \nReproducibility | \nHigh | \nUnreliable | \nHigh | \nHigh | \nHigh | \n
8 | \nEase of use and development | \nNot easy | \nEasy | \nEasy | \nEasy | \nEasy | \n
9 | \nAutomation | \nLow | \nModerate | \nModerate | \nHigh | \nHigh | \n
10 | \nCost per analysis | \nHigh | \nLow | \nModerate | \nLow | \nLow | \n
11 | \nDevelopmental cost | \nLow | \nLow | \nModerate | \nHigh | \nHigh | \n
12 | \nNeed for sequence data | \nYes | \nNo | \nNo | \nYes | \nYes | \n
13 | \nAccuracy | \nVery high | \nVery low | \nMedium | \nHigh | \nVery high | \n
14 | \nRadioactivity detection | \nUsually yes | \nNo | \nNo | \nNo | \nYes | \n
15 | \nGenomic abundance | \nHigh | \nVery high | \nVery high | \nMedium | \nMedium | \n
16 | \nPart of genome surveyed | \nLow copy coding regions | \nWhole genome | \nWhole genome | \nWhole genome | \nWhole genome | \n
17 | \nLevel of polymorphism | \nLow | \nLow to moderate | \nLow to moderate | \nHigh | \nHigh | \n
18 | \nInheritance | \nCodominant | \nDominant | \nDominant | \nCodominant | \nCodominant | \n
19 | \nDetection of alleles | \nYes | \nNo | \nNo | \nYes | \nYes | \n
20 | \nUtility for genetic mapping | \nSpecies specific | \nCross specific | \nCross specific | \nSpecies specific | \nSpecies specific | \n
21 | \nUtility in marker‐assisted selection | \nModerate | \nLow to moderate | \nLow to moderate | \nHigh | \nLow to moderate | \n
22 | \nCost and labor involved in generation | \nHigh | \nLow moderate | \nLow moderate | \nHigh | \nHigh | \n
Salient features of various molecular markers [97].
Ulloa et al. [110] published genetic maps by using intraspecific populations developed from parents having diverse genetic background. Fifteen linkage groups were used for designating the chromosomes. Earlier mapped data was used for construction of map by observing the deficiency analysis of the probes. QTLs were determined for fiber and yield traits by using this map. As a whole 63 QTLs were found in A subgenome at five different loci and 29 QTLs observed at 3‐loci of D‐subgenome. First genetic map spans to 117 cM produced 26 QTLs with 54 RFLPs while second map produced 19 QTLs with 27 RFLPs, and spanned to 77.6 cM. It was revealed that these maps will serve as map‐based cloning for fiber quality.
\nPCR‐based markers, i.e., RAPD [111–113], AFLP [114-116], microsatellites (SSRs) [117-119], and inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) [120-121] represent major class of markers in cotton genomics due to their high utility and exploitation. Below are the major advantages of PCR techniques as compared to hybridization‐based methods: (1) low amount of DNA used for genotyping; (2) capacity to amplify fragments from frozen cells; (3) high polymorphism that enables to generate many genetic markers within a short time; and (4) ability to screen many genes simultaneously either for direct collection of data or provide opportunity to collect information prior to submit for nucleotide sequencing [109].
\nThe comparison of different aspects of generally used molecular markers is given in (Table 1) and brief description of these three classes of molecular markers is described below with reference to cotton genetics.
\nAmplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) relies on the restricted sequences and PCR amplification. Initially, genomic DNA is digested by a restriction enzyme and resulting fragments are ligated with adapters to both ends. Then, the adapter and restriction site sequences are selectively amplified; only the fragments whose ends are complementary to 3’ ends of selective primers are amplified resulting in small sequences. Finally, a gel is run for the separation of amplified fragments and it is visualized by fluorescence [34]. The focal point of this methodology relies on the magnification of endonuclease restricted fragments through PCR.
\nThe important advantages of using of AFLP markers is that they exist in large numbers in genomes, they have a great reproducibility due to high PCR annealing temperatures, and less cost per marker basis [104]. In addition to reliability and reproducibility [116], there is no need of DNA sequence for analysis. In contrast to RFLPs and microsatellites, enormous polymorphic loci can be investigated by having single oligonucleotide pair running a single gel through AFLPs [122]. For digestion; partially degraded DNA and good quality DNA can be utilized, but care should be taken that isolated genomic DNA should be free of chemicals that interferes with polymerase chain reaction.
\nLacape et al. [97] initially developed RILs population by introgression of Guazuncho 2 (
AFLPs were screened in a backcross population developed from intra-hirsutum cultivars for agronomic traits and fiber quality enhancement [124]. They found 50 AFLPs associated with the fiber quality traits and few for other; further evaluated that E1M1‐106, E1M4‐153; E1M3‐168, E6M3‐266 for lint yield and lint percentage, respectively can be used in future for MAS [124]. AFLPs were used for introgression among
Jixang et al. [124] revealed genetic diversity in a germplasm by using AFLPs. A range of 0.1–0.34 estimates of genetic diversity were found among the genotypes, and showed that genotypes having significant variation in the gene stock include AU 5367, Acala 1517‐99, and LA 05307025.
\nRandomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) relies on use of short and random primers to amplify random portions of genome [126]. Such markers have found to be widespread in population genetic studies whose characterizations of genetic diversity and divergence within and among populations are based on assumptions of Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium and selective neutrality of the markers is employed [127]. Ultimate success of RAPDs is shown in the increase of molecular markers which require small amount of DNA and no need for sequencing, except of having all prerequisites for PCR conditions [126]. DNA fragments having sequence of about 10 bp are amplified with artificial primers by using PCR [128]. RAPDs are being used vigorously for profiling of genotype of important field crops, also for mapping for certain traits in addition to biotic and abiotic stresses. For such studies, RAPD primers show polymorphism and should be free from palindromic sequences and should have minimum 40% GC contents in the fragments [113].
\nMany scientists have explored RAPDs in cotton for studying different aspects like phylogenetic studies, genetic diversity, and CLCuV disease screening [111, 112, 128]. R‐6592 and UBC607500 [113, 129] male sterility and fertility restorer traits can be improved by using RAPDs. Lan et al. [130] applied RAPDs for mapping fertility genes that is of immense value in cotton and tagged fertility restorer gene
Noormohammadi et al. [135] screened F2 population of Upland cotton and Opal variety by using 10 homo‐primers and seven hetero‐primers out of 26 RAPDs and found 261 reproducible bands, with an average of 4.18 [261 bands/17 primers = 15 bands/primer] bands per primer and 22% polymorphism for analyzing genetic resemblance in agronomic traits with 45 (Upland) and 80% (Opal) polymorphism, respectively. By applying agarose gel, multilocus genotyping can be carried out by staining with ethidium bromide and this facility is available in every lab working on molecular breeding [136].
\nRAPDs are often laboratory dependent and require immense care to design protocols for getting polymorphism. Several factors have been reported to influence the reproducibility of RAPD results such as quantity of template DNA, buffers of polymerase, concentration of magnesium chloride, primer to template ratio, annealing temperature, type or source of DNA polymerase, and brand of thermal cycler [137]. RAPDs also fail to discriminate between homozygotes and heterozygotes and complication of expressing Mendelian ratio of loci [138].
\nModifications of microsatellites, which utilize microsatellites‐complementary primers, overcome the need for flanking fragment information [139]. Polymorphism is revealed among simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers by using primer (16–25 bp) adjacent to a single SSR and annealing occur at either ends [139]. ISSR utilizes microsatellites as oligonucleotides in a PCR reaction to amplify inter simple sequence repeats for desired DNA. ISSRs utilize SSRs repeats dinucleotide, trinucleotide, and tetranucleotide as oligonucleotide [140]. Usually, ISSR primers have substantial fragments contrary to RAPD primers, enabling elevated annealing temperature, which produce highly polymorphic bands as compared to RAPDs [120, 141]. The amplified products can be separated by agarose and polyacrylamide gel due to longer length ranged from 200 to 2000 bp [139].
\nISSR markers have been vastly used in cotton improvement, phylogenetic study and for mapping of germplasm [120, 121]. Parkihya et al. [142] studied genetic diversity among cotton genotypes by using nine ISSR oligonucleotides and detected 86 bands of which 54 bands exhibited polymorphism of 62.79% having mean of six bands per primer. The PIC ranged from 0.8616 to 0.9090 and genetic similarity ranged from 0.60 to 0.917. Phylogenetic relation was revealed in 21 cotton genotypes by using 12 intersimple sequence repeat primers and observed 49.6% reproducibility [143].
\nGenetic diversity was studied in cotton with 10 ISSR and showed 88.5% polymorphism [144]. Liu and Wendel [145] showed that ISSR can be designed with low cost. Genetic diversity observed in genepool comprised of wild species and elite lines through SSRs and ISSR [146]. They observed 173 alleles having mean 3.93 alleles per locus by analyzing 39 SSRs and 5 ISSR markers which produced 89.6% reproducible bands. Among genotypes variation ranged from 0.04 to 0.58 while in diploid and tetraploid species it was 0.23–0.57%. Similar to RAPD, there may be some fragments with the same mobility originate from non-homologous regions [120].
\nRAPDs have more demerits of polymorphism as compared to other PCR‐based markers which are used for analyzing a large number of individuals with low cost. This problem was overcome by using sequence characterized amplified region. PCR assay uses couple of distinct oligonucleotides for DNA sequence at a specific locus [147]; oligonucleotides might be having a high‐copy, dispersed fragment within polymorphic loci. After sequencing the two ends of the two reproducible DNA fragments, one can develop two SCAR markers. SCAR 4311920 can be used in MAS program for screening genotypes with fiber strength. By using SCAR, codominance is produced [148].
\nThese markers have been used in genetic analysis and used for molecular breeding [149, 150]. Extended sequence specificity of primers in SCARs results in higher reproducibility than RAPDs [151]. SCAR is widely used among researchers for mapping studies within closely related species [152]. SCARs are more authentic for MAS after conversion of DNA markers. SCAR markers are cost effective and highly polymorphic which make them suitable to be used for evaluating large number of mapping populations in cotton [152]. QTLs for leaf traits were observed [153].
\nOslen et al. [154] developed sequence tag sites (STS) through observing impact of the PCR on human genome research, and argued that single‐copy DNA sequences of known map location could serve as markers for genetic and physical mapping of genes along the chromosome. STS marker allows the utilization of PCR with specific primers which produces one oligonucleotide connected to the trait of interest. In order to utilize STS for molecular breeding, RFLP, AFLP, and RAPDs are usually converted into STS [155]. Thus, in a broad sense, STS include the markers such as microsatellites (SSRs), SCARs, and ISSRs mentioned above. Backcross breeding population was developed [(B416R × Ark8518) × Ark8518] and used for identification of STS markers related to fertility [155]. Tetraploid and diploid species were involved and artificial hybrids created by colchiploidy.
\nRAPDs such as UBC1471400, UBC607500, UBC979700, and UBC169800 loci were associated to productivity restoration, and it was verified that UBC607500 is having enormous value for pyramiding genes to be used in molecular breeding [129]. Linkage maps were developed by using STS for diploid and tetraploid (AtDt)
Several cotton breeders have used STS markers for identification of male restorer parental lines for hybrid cotton [129] who mapped cotton genotypes by using backcross inbred lines (BILs) and RIL populations with informative primers, and detected 21 and 7 polymorphic STS markers in BILs and RIL populations, respectively. Twelve STS markers were mapped in BIL population, and four of them were located along with resistance gene analog‐amplified fragment length polymorphism (RGA‐AFLP) markers on the same chromosome. Importantly, two were mapped on chromosome c 4, flanking two main‐effect QTLs, which were previously detected. These STS markers should be useful for high‐throughput genotyping, gene mapping, and MAS for disease resistance including
Tandem repeats composed of several to over hundred repeats of one to four nucleotide motifs are found in all eukaryotic genomes. These repeats are designated as (AAAC)
Kinship studies are conducted by employing SSR markers assess the extent of variation [119]. Vos et al. [157] used agarose and polyacrylamide gel for the identification of SSRs having codominance nature like AFLP. Akkaya et al. [158] stated that genetic mapping is on fast track due to the use of SSRs in self‐pollinated crops where these markers are of great interest for breeders [159, 160]. SSRs are mostly codominant, and are indeed excellent for studying of population genetics and mapping [161–163]. The use of fluorescent primers in combination with automatic capillary or gel‐based DNA sequencers has got its way in most advanced laboratories, and SSRs are also shown to be excellent markers for fluorescent techniques, multiplexing and high‐throughput analysis.
\nDerived from trispecies hybridization that can be segregated for natural leaf defoliation trait. This RIL population screened with microsatellite markers, JESPR‐13, JESPR‐153, and JESPR178 tandem repeats were found to be highly associated to leaf defoliation trait value [162]. It was found that JESPR178 is closely linked to this trait in cotton. It has an immense importance that gene pyramiding can be accomplished for molecular breeding [164]. QTLs were tagged using SSRs in the nematode resistance RIL population developed via introgression from
Fiber length was increased up to 12–20% in cotton by using microsatellites in a population derived from interspecific hybridization and loci were discovered for marker‐assisted selection [166]. Twenty‐three chromosomes were analyzed by SSRs and found on an average relative distance of 4.9 cM [167]. Researchers [168–170] have utilized SSR markers for studying genetic diversity in cotton and observed limited genetic variations. Reddy et al. [171] used SSR‐enriched genomic libraries and identified 300 SSR markers. Multinational Seed Company has reported more than 1200 SSRs [172].
\nAbdurakhmonov et al. [173] conducted genome‐wide association mapping based on linkage disequilibrium (LD), scanning Upland germplasm consisting of 334
Bolek et al. [57] used SSR markers for verticilium resistance in cotton by using F2 population; 255 SSRs were screened over bulks constituted by 10 resistant, and 10 susceptible progenies. QTLs were tagged by using 60 polymorphic markers. Genetic map produced 11 linkage groups having 15.17 cM inter‐locus distance and spanning 531 cM.
\nBackcross inbred lines used [175] for observing the genetic variation of 446 SSR markers having relative mean distance of 10 cM interspecific linkage map and also detected 58 QTLs related to fiber quality and yield components. By using SSRs, genetic markers associated to cotton earliness were determined in progeny developed from intra-hirsutum hybrids [117], and these markers correspond to bud to flower duration and flower to boll period.
\nEarliness in cotton can be induced by the introgression of QTLS located near to the SSR markers such as BNL1044, DPL0209, NAU1004a, NAU 5046, NAU6078, and TMB0481 [117]. F2 progeny was developed within
Textile industry entirely depends upon fiber with good quality. Marker‐assisted selection allows developing a cultivar having good fiber quality. There are many SSRs which can be used for fostering the breeding program; for example, lint percentage can be approved by using TMB0471 and MGHES‐31, TMB0366, BNL3590, BNL1395, BNL1672, BNL1694, JESPER101, JESPR204, NAU3308, BNL1672, NAU3308; NAU4024 [168, 177–180]. Genetic base can be broadened for span length by using BNL 1395, DC40182, NAU2980, BNL2752, NAU2985, NAU1167, NAU1200, NAU2277 [50, 123, 177, 179]. BNL1122, BNL1317, BNL3145, BNL1521, CIR307, CGR6164, CGR6683, GH454, BNL3463, JESPER153, DC40182, NAU 1037, SHIN‐0463, TEMB1618, NAU3736, NAU445, NAU780, NAU1102, NAU1197, NAU1322, NAU1369, JESPR218, TMD05 can be applied for fiber strength enhancement [52, 92, 173, 174, 176, 181–188].
\nSingle nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) manifest alteration in single base. SNPs are the most frequent occurring variability in the individuals which is found in each 1000 bases [189]. These are changes in bases from transitions (C/T or G/A) to transversions (C/G, A/T, C/A, or T/G) while insertions and deletions also induce SNPs which show single base changes. SNPs show useful allelic variations and have been markers of choice in various genetic studies [190]. Rapid progress in high‐through put sequencing has allowed discovering SNPs in complex genomes with economic value by using genotyping by sequencing [191]. Frelichowski et al. [167] revealed that reproducibility is a major hindrance for using large number of markers developed in
Genotyping in plant sciences is progressing rapidly because SNPs for observing variation in a specific locus are utilized. Moreover, availability of enormous SNPs due to insertions‐deletions and whole genome genomic studies is laying the corner stone for next generation sequencing [195]. Developed genomic databases and SNPs information allow evolving SNPs to an influential research for related relatives. Owing to most common type of DNA polymorphism, SNPs are also flexible in the selection of SNP variants at target loci, and they provide the option to choose from a large number of genome‐wide loci when selecting sets of informative markers for specific germplasm pools [196]. Breeding programs comprised of genomic estimated breeding values are highly favored for whole genome techniques additional to targeted loci [197–199].
\nEconomically important traits from breeding perspective are also investigated through genome‐wide sequencing [200], saturated mapping of polygenic traits [201], and by using LD‐mapping [202]. An et al. [203] studied the expression of R2R3‐MYB transcription factors where few are expressed during fiber initiation and elongation. They observed phylogenetic relation among R2R3‐MYB genes and published a map by using SNPs in Upland cotton. QTLs were mapped in population derived from intra-hirsutum and interspecific (
Deynze et al. [205] reported more than 200 loci in
The group of plants, which is used for screening of molecular markers and segregated for the trait of interest, is designated as “mapping population.” From commercial point of view, such populations are developed from within species and can be also developed between different species for creating desirable variation. Polymorphism is compulsory in the progenitors for required trait [208]. The exchange of chromosome fragments during crossing over produces recombination, which provides the basis for developing linkage maps [59]. Populations are required for creating genetic maps in order to locate the quantitative trait loci from economical point of view.
\nMapping populations can be exemplified by F2, backcross, recombinant inbred lines (RILs), doubled haploid lines (DHL), F2‐derived F3 (F2:F3) populations, and near‐isogenic lines (NILs). F1 is produced by selfing two parents, having extreme properties for trait of interest that show a significant polymorphism for whichever type of loci are scored. Mostly, this population is used for genetic mapping as it requires less time for development. However, there are some drawbacks for this population, most important of which is the fact that it is not stable. Qualitative and quantitative traits in cotton have been mapped by using F2 [70, 74, 81, 86].
\nBackcross (BC) population is developed by crossing a genotype with an elite cultivar, which is deficient for a single gene or QTL [67]. A concept of BC population was developed in 1922 and widely applied in plant breeding programs till 1960 [209]. Backcross population has been used for linkage mapping in cotton for improving various traits [129, 155–156].
\nNear isogenic lines(NILs) can be developed either by using selfing until purity is Achieved; for all traits with wide variation of the trait of interest among NILs or by hybridizing the donor parent to the F1 plants and choosing the desired trait [63]. NILs are of high importance for genetic studies as they are stable like RILs. Researchers [210] used NILs for observing QTLs related to yield and drought related traits. They evaluated that NILs can be used for evaluating drought and can be used for MAS. Essenberg et al. [116] developed NILs in cotton and mapped bacterial blight resistance. They revealed that lines having Acala‐44 in their parentage are showing dominance to bacterial blight.
\nRecombinant inbred lines (RIL) are stable and are developed by using single seed descent method from first filial generation. It continues until homozygosity is obtained in the individuals. RILs are permanent and can be screened at multiple locations for desired traits. Each strain is homozygous and stable in the RIL population. Each cycle of selfing results in enhanced recombination frequency and these populations are highly suitable for saturated mapping [129]. Moreover, for genetic mapping in cotton this population has been utilized for various traits including nematode resistance [165], fiber quality improvement [166], and verticilium resistance [175]. One of the drawbacks of this population is long duration for development in which segregation bias can occur due to removal of some genotypes after selfing. Another disadvantage of using these populations is that major QTLs are having a masking effect, and multiple QTLs are having epistatic effects.
\nNested association mapping (NAM) [188] is designed for precise identification of QTLs [177]. Economically valued traits related to yield and subsequently to textile sector can be efficiently studied through developing new populations like NAM. NAM populations potentially address the limitations of conventional mapping populations
\nThe simplest, most widely used, and the most efficient form of MAS is MAB. In this form, two parents are used for the development; one is “donor parent” having trait of interest for transferring the targeted gene/loci and the other is “recipient parent” which is lacking gene. Parents are hybridized and F1 is developed. Marker‐assisted backcrossing relies upon the presence of a molecular marker associated with the trait, instead of targeting the expression of phenotypic value in traditional breeding. F1 is planted for confirming the marker loci at initial stages of development, and pure F1 is hybridized to recurrent parent. Markers are evaluated among individuals at the initial development stages of BCF1 and hybridized to recurrent parent having alternative alleles. BC1 individuals show segregation frequency of F1 population gametes as two genotypes are involved in this population. Highly efficient map is constructed by using this population in contrast to F2 population. This population is mostly used for overcoming hybrid in viability and hybrid breakdown in interspecific crosses [129]. This process is continued until three to four filial generation for stabilizing the marker and its associated trait of interest. MAB population has been utilized for observing traits of interest through quantitative trait loci [115].
\nBreeding techniques within the two cultivated tetraploid species rely on crossing and selection of traits using pedigree and recurrent selection methods. Promising genotypes having desirable traits can be developed using MAS and can be combined into a pedigree‐based selection. Mostly, the efficiency of MAS was investigated using two populations from pedigree selection, and modified backcrossing pyramiding has been developed [211]. The selection efficiency for the fiber strength was greatly increased when QTLfs‐1 was selected simultaneously with two molecular markers with known genetic distance [211].
\nMolecular markers should be applied for plant improvement in conjunction with the latest breeding methodologies. Marker‐assisted recurrent selection offers an opportunity to get maximum output from a recurrent selection [212]; and it is used for introgression of multiple genes.
\nQuantitative traits can be enhanced efficiently by using MARS, which allows selfing and genotyping within same cropping season in one cycle of selection. The increase in genetic gain was doubled from MARS in some populations as compared to phenotypic selection [213]. In cotton, resistance to American bollworm was achieved by using marker‐assisted recurrent selection; they revealed highly significant differences in individuals studied by MARS for this insect resistance [214].
\nGene pyramiding has been widely used for combining number of genes especially disease resistance genes for specific races of a pathogen. Vertical resistance for different strains of pathogens is done by involving multiple strains. It is also done by “molecular breeding” because breeding for resistance is extremely difficult to achieve using conventional methods. Gutiérrez et al. [215] have used this technique for nematode resistance in cotton while [155] they applied sequence tag sites and screened STS markers associated with fertility restoring genes in cotton.
\nSNP genotyping with latest high‐throughput sequencing has the potential to speed up the breeding programs [216]. New DNA sequencing technologies have made it possible for the breeders and investigators to perform a genome analysis not only more rapidly but also less expensively [179]. High‐throughput bioinformatics assist to identify large number of nucleotides per run [217]. Researchers have developed a lot of NGS methods with success in diverse platforms, which include Roche 454 FLX Titanium [218–220], Illumina MiSeq and HiSeq2500 [221], Ion Torrent PGM [222]. Genomic research contributes immensely to plant and animal sciences thanks to the advances in sequencing techniques [180, 221, 223–228]. The ultimate aim of all these techniques is to discover an authentic marker that could be used for sequencing in MAS with economical benefits [229–230].
\nPolyploidy is the main hindrance for isolation of useful SNPs in cotton because it produces homeologous and paralogous sequence variants which are combined together in allelic variations among cultivars [231–232]. Two cultivated tetraploids species were screened for the development of genomic SNPs through NGS by using reduced representation library obtained from Roche 454 pyrosequencing [206]. Competitive allele‐specific PCR (KASPar) showed 35.8% validity of SNPs and developed the genetic map of
Gore et al. [233] developed a linkage map in a RIL population derived from intra-hirsutum cv. TM‐1, and NM24016. The genetic map covered about 50% of the
In agricultural sciences, the discovery of reliable and true SNPs is compulsory for knowing about the utilization and importance of particular sequences. Molecular breeding tools can be applied to explore germplasm without available genomic data through genotyping by sequencing (GBS) methodology. GBS permits researchers to analyze complex genomes of polyploid species efficiently at low cost and it has been widely used due to the latest developments in high‐throughput sequencing [191]. Reduced representative libraries are developed by using endonucleases [55, 178, 236]. Single nucleotide polymorphism is discovered for genomic studies [237]. Genomic techniques; genome‐wide association study (GWAS), genomic diversity, genetic linkage analysis, molecular marker discovery offer to screen genotypes upon genotypic basis for traits of interest through GBS. Genotyping and reproducibility of markers are performed in a single step through GBS and SNPs are developed [238].
\nGBS‐based sequencing data are used for developing genetic map and tagging markers with quantitative traits in populations derived from different ways, i.e., filial generations, RILs, etc. and germplasm collections [218]. GBS approach has been used efficiently for genetic analysis and marker development of rapeseed, lupin, lettuce, switchgrass, soybean, maize, and cotton [38, 219, 222–224, 233, 239].
\nThe merits of GBS over existing marker development methodologies include availability of large number of markers, fast screening of populations composed of more number of individuals, diverse genotyping systems to tackle multiple traits, and more precise SNPs discovery and validity due to availability of high‐throughput sequencing data [216]. Recently, GBS approach has been used to identify SNPs in the collections of RILs of wheat and to map various traits useful for breeding programs [55]. It is needed that efforts should be made to develop strategies for getting the benefits of NGS and advanced genotyping from breeder perspectives [196]. GBS protocol of Poland et al. [236] likely is needed to maximize the cost‐effective concurrent discovery and genotyping of SNPs within cotton populations.
\nAlthough very efficient and productive in terms of achieving the desired goals, there are some drawbacks in GBS as well. GBS has incapability to assign true alleles of each locus in polyploids as compared to other techniques. As exemplified, Huang et al. [178] used RILs and biparental populations for assessing the utility of GBS in hexaploid oat. They observed that data analysis algorithm factors involved in SNP discovery, developed GBS derived loci description by forming two bioinformatics workflow. Its genetic map spans to 45,117 loci, which will be a source of further genetic studies [178].
\nIslam et al. [240] used GBS with two different approaches in cultivated cotton germplasm consisting of 11 diverse cultivars and their random‐mated RILs. Authors have discovered a large set of polymorphic SNPs with broad applicability. They identified 4441 and 1176 polymorphic SNPs with minor allele frequency of ≥0.1. The utility of developed SNP markers were confirmed using SNPs in 154 Upland cotton accessions with high genetic diversity.
\nGenome‐wide association study is used for developing highly saturated maps in cotton germplasm [241]. This technique allows detecting association among various markers and traits through assessing of the genetic diversity of required traits [242]. Linkage disequilibrium‐based mapping (LD‐mapping) is the advanced tool to study complex traits governed by many genes. LD‐mapping has been successfully used in self‐pollinated plants [243]. Microsatellites were screened in germplasm consisting of varieties at different locations to tag yield and fiber quality QTLs [202]. QTLs mapped for yield and fiber quality traits will serve as a reliable source to determine the diversity within the species and will contribute a lot in MAS [202]. In contrast to biparental populations, association mapping fosters molecular breeding because a vast genetic diversity is present in germplasms due to diverse sources [173]. Several protocols have been developed including complexity reduction of polymorphic sequences (CRoPS) [244], restriction site associated DNA (RAD) [216], GBS [195], and sequence‐based genotyping (SBG) [245, 246] for genome analysis. Of all protocols, LD‐mapping is on the top thanks to innovations done for high resolution. Association mapping is an authentic way for molecular tagging as it allows the screening of quantitative traits of value in a precise way [247]. Genome‐wide association makes it possible to detect association among various markers and traits.
\nAbdurakhmonov et al. [46] used LD‐mapping in a germplasm collection, which included photoperiodic lines. Simple sequence repeats were used for assessing the extent of LD in cotton and the major fiber quality QTLs were tagged using mixed linear model.
\nNested association mapping is also being used for identification of suitable SSRs in a NAM population derived from 20 diverse genotypes of
Sequenced genomic information allows breeders to analyze the genetic variation [248]. Major databases, which serve as a foundation, include CottonGen [58], Comparative Evolutionary Genomics of Cotton [249], National Center for Biotechnology Information [250] for Express sequence tags resource, TropGENE Database [251], the Cotton Diversity Database [252] and BACMan resources at Plant Genome Mapping Laboratory [253]. These resources provide genomic and heredity data of the cotton germplasm, QTLs tagged to loci and highly saturated linkage maps.
\nPhenotypic variation in plant genomes is produced by variation in DNA bases, which can be induced naturally and/or using different chemicals [254]. The targeting‐induced local lesions in genomes (TILLING) technique allows determining an allelic variation precisely in a single‐base pair for the targeted gene. Chemical treatments have been applied to generate SNP mutations. Point mutations, which are useful from breeder’s perspective, can be detected by TILLING and ECOTILLING techniques [255]. The mutagens used for induction of point mutation are highly selective and optimal concentration can spontaneously produce single base alternations at a high frequency in TILLING.
\nKnock‐out population is developed by treating the seed with chemicals, inducing change in DNA sequence [256]. Auld et al. [257] used TILLING in
There are many software tools which help to observe the bases variation; for instance, the method that determines whether a change occurs in an amino acid hampering codon is named conservation‐based SIFT (sorting intolerant from tolerant) [258]. Taylor [259] described that any alternation of a gene can be detected by PARSESNP (for Project Aligned Related Sequences and Evaluate SNPs [260]; graphs show the changes in sequence by using precise co‐segregating information, positioning of coding/and noncoding regions and reference DNA sequence.
\nDeveloping reliable markers, which will work in different populations and utilized in the breeding to enhance selection efficiency, is a very important step for breeding. Markers should allow desired genotype selection because of their tight linkage to the trait of interest. On the other hand, emerging technologies like high‐throughput marker systems and marker‐based selection methodologies have been developed, and are currently being used efficiently in cotton breeding. It is also promising that some economically important traits like fiber quality, yield,
Root canal treatment is one type of endodontic treatment. To understand endodontic treatment, it is important to know about the anatomy of the tooth. The lack of knowledge regarding morphological and anatomical variations of the root canal system can result in failure to identify all root canals and lead to inadequate instrumentation and consequent failure of the endodontic treatment.
\nThe external and internal morphological features of roots are variable and complex, and several classifications have been proposed to define the various types of canal configurations that occur commonly. Improvements in nondestructive digital image systems, such as cone-beam and micro-computed tomography, as well as the use of magnification in clinical practice, have increased the number of reports on complex root canal anatomy [2, 12].
\nInside the tooth, under the white enamel and the hard layer of the dentin, there is a soft tissue called the pulp. The pulp contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue and creates the surrounding hard tissues of the tooth during development (Figure 1).
\nAnatomy of the tooth.
The endodontist removes the inflamed or infected pulp, carefully cleans and shapes the inside of the root canal, and then fills and seals the space. The endodontically treated tooth will receive a crown or other restoration to protect and restore it to full function [21].
\nA canal is considered well obturated when a radiopaque mass is visualized on the radiographs, being homogeneous and continuous, without voids, adapted to the lateral walls, terminating near the radiographic apex, namely 0.5–1 mm [16].
\nThe principal stages of endodontic treatment are as follows (Figure 2):
The endodontist examines and takes a radiograph of the tooth using X-rays and then administers local anesthetic. After the tooth is numb, the endodontist places a small protective sheet called a “dental dam” over the area to isolate the tooth and keep it clean and free of saliva during the procedure.
The endodontist makes an opening in the crown of the tooth. Very small instruments are used to clean the pulp and the root canals.
After the space is cleaned and shaped, the endodontist fills the root canals with a biocompatible material, usually a rubberlike material called gutta-percha. The gutta-percha is placed with an adhesive cement to ensure complete sealing of the root canals. In most cases, a temporary filling is placed to close the opening. The temporary filling will be removed by the dentist before the tooth is restored [3].
In the end of the treatment, the tooth will need a crown or other types of restoration to protect and restore it to full function.
Important stages of endodontic treatment.
The main purpose of endodontics is the total elimination or significant reduction of bacteria and their products by combining root canal system instrumentation with chemical cleaning and filling with an inert material in order to maintain or to restore the health of periradicular tissues. Endodontic treatment aims to eliminate inflamed pulpal tissue, to clean and to obturate the canals. The sealing material must be inert, biocompatible, and stable to fill the spaces left by the pulp tissues.
\nDuring the chemical-mechanical preparation, endodontic instruments promote the mechanical removal of microorganisms. The mechanical instruments remove products, and tissues aided by a chemical substance that, in addition to maximizing the removal of debris through the mechanical action of the flow and reflux, can also exert a significant chemical effect, as long as it has an antimicrobial action.
\nThe mechanical action of instrumentation and irrigation is able to reduce the amount of microorganisms and degenerate tissue within the root canal system. However, the use of irrigating solutions (auxiliary chemical) with antibacterial activity significantly increases the efficacy of the preparation in terms of infection control.
\nRemaining for a longer time inside the root canal, an intracanal medicament with antibacterial action has a greater chance of reaching areas not affected by instrumentation. Thus, by exerting its antibacterial action, it can contribute to the reduction of the endodontic microbiota.
\nRoot canals are usually sealed using a solid material (usually gutta-percha). Although gutta-percha presents antibacterial activity, attributed to the zinc oxide component of the cones, such activity is discrete and unlikely to have any value inside the root canal system [13].
\nIn fact, disinfected channels should be filled to eliminate void space that would have the potential to be infected or reinfected. Chemomechanical preparation of the root canal includes both mechanical instrumentation and antibacterial irrigation, and this is principally directed toward the elimination of microorganisms from the root canal system [15]. A variety of instruments and techniques have been developed and described for this critical stage of root canal treatment. Since their introduction in 1988, nickel-titanium rotary instruments have become a mainstay in clinical endodontics because of their exceptional ability to shape root canals with potentially fewer procedural complications. The safe clinical use of nickel-titanium instruments requires an understanding of the alloys as their mechanical properties and their correlation to canal anatomy [24].
\nPhotodynamic therapy is a treatment modality that was initiated in 1900. Recently, several papers advocated its use for root canal treatment. The concept of photodynamic inactivation requires microbial exposure to either exogenous or endogenous photosensitizer molecules, followed by visible light energy, typically wavelengths in the red-infrared region. This causes the excitation of the photosensitizers, resulting in the production of some reactive oxygen species that react with intracellular components and consequently produce cell inactivation and death. This therapy is suggested as effective to antimicrobial intracanal, being a clinical treatment for periapical lesions [14].
\nMicroorganisms play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of pulp and periapical infections. It is now known that more than 300 species of bacteria inhabit the oral cavity; however, the number of bacterial species present in the root canals ranges from 1 to 12, with a predominance of strict anaerobes. The use of irrigating solutions during biomechanical preparation is important for the cleaning and elimination of microorganisms present inside the root canal system [18, 20, 25].
\nIn the process of root canal preparation, irrigation of the root canal is an essential element. There are five main benefits to using these irrigation solutions during root canal cleaning:
Wetting of the walls of the canal
Elimination of microorganisms
Dissolution of organic matter
Removal and softening of the teeth
Cleaning of areas inaccessible by mechanical instruments
The ideal irrigating solution should exhibit potent antimicrobial action, have the ability to dissolve organic material, be lubrificating, have low surface tension, and have no cytotoxic effects on periradicular tissues. Sodium hypochlorite is a halogenated compound used as an irrigating solution. It is an effective antimicrobial agent and solvent of organic matter and has low surface tension, and its effectiveness becomes larger when its concentration increases; however, the higher the concentration, the higher the possibility of toxic effect on the periapical tissues. Chlorhexidine is also a halogenated compound and has broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, substance and low toxicity but does not have the property to dissolve organic matter. Although sodium hypochlorite is considered the best irrigating solution, it cannot dissolve inorganic particles and prevent smear layer formation during root canal instrumentation [6]. Demineralizing agents are recommended as adjuvants in the endodontic treatment of the root canal system. It is very important that the professional has the knowledge of the chemical properties of irrigating solutions to select and use them in the best possible way and in each particular case [10].
\nRoot canal obturation signals the complementary and expressive action of endodontic triad such as coronary opening, cleaning conformation of the radicular canal, and endodontic sealing. This underscores the concept of the elimination of gaps within the channels. Technically, the objectives of obturation consist in sealing root canal system with an inert and antiseptic material offering protection to the periapical tissues [1]. The radicular canal system has a very complex internal anatomy which should be considered with special attention during the treatment, since many studies reveal that there is a wide variety of accessory lateral channels, isthmuses, particularly in the third medium and apical root.
\nThe success of nonsurgical endodontic treatment is based on the complete elimination of all debris from the root canal system, sealing the root canal system with a suitable material. The action of the endodontic instruments, however, occurs only in the main channel not covering all the root canal system. The use of a chemical substance during the action of the instrumentation is very important, facilitating the instrumentation and the entry into the largest number of accessory channels.
\nAccording to some authors, about 60% of endodontic failures should be due to the improper sealing of radicular system [4, 5]. The obturation of the root canal promotes the apical repair process. The mechanical procedures of this step should provide biocompatibility for periapical tissues especially in the selection of sealing material. The purpose of endodontic filling is to seal all entry and exit of possible infiltrations into the root canals. It should promote hermetic apical sealing, and all the stages of endodontic treatment cannot cause damage for the periapical tissues [8].
\nThe success of endodontic treatment is related to several factors such as correct therapeutic indication, careful execution of the preparation technique, three-dimensional filling, and aseptic chain maintenance and preservation. Thus, the failure of conventional endodontic treatment usually stems from factors related to the technique, pre-existing pathology, and/or systemic factors. In many cases are observed that, even though the root canals are perfectly obturated, a persistent infection occurs. Such failures are probably related to resistant bacteria or to organic aspects of the patient. The main indicators of failure of conventional endodontic treatment are the presence of persistent apical lesion and painful post-symptomatic symptomatology. When the first intervention does not achieve the expected result, conventional endodontic retreatment should be the first option to correct any failures (such as microbial persistence in the root canal system as a consequence of inadequate aseptic control, insufficient access, and cleaning or inadequate sealing). If the infection persists, the surgical procedure may be indicated [23]. Parendodontic surgery is a therapeutic resource in the treatment of persistent conditions that affect the periapical tissues, being, for example, indicated for the resolution of cases not solved by conventional endodontic treatments. The technique used may vary according to the anatomical characteristics and local etiological factors. There are several modalities of parendodontic surgeries: urgency, exploratory and restorative, corrective, and apical. Periapical curettage is a very important procedure, since it provides the removal of infected, contaminated, and necrotic pathological tissues. The histopathological analysis of the biological material removed by curettage is fundamental for the definition of a correct diagnosis for the disease. Such procedure can promote drainage of secretions and pain relief, besides contemplating anatomical alterations, iatrogenic problems, traumatisms, endo-periodontal defects, and failures in the previous treatment. It also promotes the possibility of circumventing issues such as the need to provide material for biopsies. Modern endodontic surgery techniques incorporate ultrasonic tips and biocompatible root-end filling materials that are associated with the use of high-power magnification and illumination from an operative microscope [7, 9]. Modern techniques allow for easier identification of root apices, smaller osteotomies, and shallower resection angles that preserve cortical bone and root length [17]. Improved identification of anatomic structures allows dentists to better clean and seal the root surface, thus improving surgical therapy. This type of endodontic microsurgery has demonstrated a high success rate compared with traditional techniques [11, 22, 23].
\nThe lack of knowledge regarding morphological and anatomical variations of the root canal system can result in inadequate instrumentation and consequent failure of the endodontic treatment. The treatment of root canal is so important, together with irrigation to eliminate the microorganisms in the interior of the canals. The obturation is another very important stage in the endodontic treatment, sealing all spaces that could exist in the radicular system. All new options of rotatory instruments can improve the results of instrumentation and have to be known by the professionals.
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',metaTitle:"Editorial policies",metaDescription:"Editorial policies",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/editorial-policies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{mdrv:"www.intechopen.com"},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. 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Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"27687",doi:"10.5772/29869",title:"Heavy Metals and Human Health",slug:"heavy-metals-and-human-health",totalDownloads:18954,totalCrossrefCites:83,totalDimensionsCites:191,abstract:null,book:{id:"1012",slug:"environmental-health-emerging-issues-and-practice",title:"Environmental Health",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Emerging Issues and Practice"},signatures:"Simone Morais, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Maria de Lourdes Pereira",authors:[{id:"13875",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"simone-morais",fullName:"Simone Morais"},{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"87294",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14207,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10236,totalCrossrefCites:100,totalDimensionsCites:229,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:5965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81607",title:"Does Physical Activity Mediate the Effect of Loneliness on Inflammatory and Metabolic Processes?",slug:"does-physical-activity-mediate-the-effect-of-loneliness-on-inflammatory-and-metabolic-processes",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104915",abstract:"The study to be presented in the chapter explores one potential behavioral mechanism by which loneliness affects inflammatory and metabolic processes in old age. Specifically, it addresses whether physical activity mediates the loneliness—inflammatory/metabolic dysregulation association. Multivariate linear regressions were applied to data derived from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). The findings revealed that loneliness was prospectively associated with elevated values of log C-reactive protein (log-CRP) and with amplified levels of Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), Cystatin C (CysC), and Body Mass Index (BMI), after controlling for socio-demographics. Second, physical activity mediated the association between loneliness with prospective values of log-CRP and also mediated associations between loneliness and prospective levels of metabolic biomarkers. These findings affirm the contribution (i.e., the mediation), of physical activity to the associations between loneliness and immune and metabolic processes and provide insights concerning the mechanism by which this social—biological connection operates.",book:{id:"11226",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Healthy Aging",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11226.jpg"},signatures:"Sharon Shiovitz-Ezra, Ohad Parag and Howard Litwin"},{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",abstract:"It has been established that periodontal diseases are related with the hyperactivity of neutrophils. Reactive oxygen species are produced mainly by neutrophils. In order to maintain the balance with reactive oxygen species, the need for antioxidants is increasing. As for supplements to the conventional periodontal therapy, different antioxidants have been applied in an attempt to provide new possibilities in the periodontal treatment. This chapter focused on recent studies that used different antioxidants as adjuncts to conventional periodontal treatments.",book:{id:"11567",title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg"},signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem"},{id:"82345",title:"Cannabis Medicines: Guidance for the Selection, Purchase and Supply for Clinical Trials",slug:"cannabis-medicines-guidance-for-the-selection-purchase-and-supply-for-clinical-trials",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105682",abstract:"Cannabis medicines are in demand from the public for treating a range of diseases and symptoms; however, clinicians are reluctant to prescribe these products because of limited evidence and prescribing information. To generate this evidence, quality clinical trials of cannabis medicines must be undertaken, yet their design is a complex, often uncharted territory, and involves the cooperation and sharing of knowledge of multiple stakeholders. Before designing a clinical trial, researchers require a clear understanding of the potential therapeutic benefit cannabis medicines may have, the form and formulation of the product, and the dose to be investigated. Researchers must also be aware of the applicable pharmaceutical regulations in the country or jurisdiction where the research is to be undertaken, as well as manufacturing or licensing regulations that may be imposed at the source of the cannabis product. Importantly, collaborations with industry are a key to the successful outcome of cannabis medicines clinical trials. Without funding and sponsorship of clinical trials, the ability to generate quality data will be limited and the evidence for cannabis medicines to be registered as therapeutics lacking. Collaborations between researchers, industry, and regulators, working together in sharing knowledge, are therefore critical to generate high quality cannabis medicines research.",book:{id:"11714",title:"Cannabinoids - Recent Perspectives and Applications in Human Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11714.jpg"},signatures:"Peter Galettis, John Barlow, Jaroslav Boublik, Stefania Capra, Rachel Galettis, Myfanwy Graham, Courtney Hill, Paul Mavor, Jasminka Nikolajevic-Sarunac, Rosemary Richards, Janet Schloss, Melinda Thompson, Linda Truong, Berzenn Urbi, Katrina Weston-Green and Aaron K. Wong"},{id:"82444",title:"Epigenomics in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma",slug:"epigenomics-in-malignant-pleural-mesothelioma",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105408",abstract:"Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a tumor with a relatively low incidence, but whose carcinogenesis, for the most part, involves epigenetic factors that keep its heterogeneity and sometimes are a therapeutic target or an obstacle to the effectiveness of the newest treatments. This chapter summarizes the principal epigenetic dysregulation mechanisms involved in the MPM pathogenesis. The most studied mechanism is hypermethylation mediated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in different tumor suppressor genes, and the relation with asbestos fiber exposure, which represents the main risk factor. Physiopathology is related to chronic inflammation mediated by free radicals that produce chromosomal alterations, genomic instability, increased angiogenesis, and tumor invasion factors like EGFR, FGFR, TGF-B, and PDGF. Additionally, independent methylation pathways that produce gene silencing such as polycomb complex and SWI/SNF mutation are reviewed. Finally, other mechanisms are described such as hypomethylation with imprint loss and pro-oncogenic gene activation that induce immunological responses, as well as acetylation, deacetylation, and demethylation in the chromatin and histone context.",book:{id:"10831",title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10831.jpg"},signatures:"Aldo Manuel Alvarez Moran, Pablo Alejandro Ávila Sánchez, Jorge Alejandro Torres Ríos and Lorena Vega Castillo"},{id:"82383",title:"The Role of Immune Checkpoints in Cancer Progression",slug:"the-role-of-immune-checkpoints-in-cancer-progression",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105628",abstract:"Immune checkpoint proteins are like two-faced swords that first act as gatekeepers of the immune system to protect the host from tissue damage. In contrast, these proteins can corroborate cancer progression by inhibiting tumor-specific immune responses. Here, we summarized the regulation and signaling cascade of immune checkpoints molecules (PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM3, TIGIT, LAG3, and BTLA), including their role in providing co-inhibitory signals for regulating T-cell response. The involvement of immune checkpoint molecules to drive cancer growth is elaborated with explanations about various anticancer strategies, such as (1) the overexpression of immune checkpoints in cancer cells, immune cells, or the surrounding environment leading to incapabilities of the tumor-specific immune response, (2) immune checkpoints interference to metabolic pathways then deplete nutrients needed by immune cells, (3) the interaction between immune checkpoints and regulatory T cells. Lastly, future challenges of immune checkpoint inhibitors are discussed briefly to get insight into their applicability in the clinical setting.",book:{id:"11278",title:"Regulatory T Cells",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11278.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmad Aji Prasetya and Devyani Diah Wulansari"},{id:"82331",title:"Diseases of Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Karnataka and Their Management",slug:"diseases-of-medicinal-plants-cultivated-in-karnataka-and-their-management",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104632",abstract:"A broad spectrum of fungal diseases infecting selected 10 medicinal plants surveyed in Karnataka, India, was studied in the present research. We present a detailed review on previously reported as well as our present investigation’s details of fungal diseases, etiology, symptoms, and its management. Some of the commonly observed diseases are Anthracnose disease, Blight disease, Leaf spot, Root rot, Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, and Wilt disease. The detailed analysis of medicinal plants revealed that the medicinal plants are susceptible to diverse fungal phytopathogens. Therefore, sustainable management of the diseases is necessary for the successful cultivation of disease-free medicinal plants.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"P. Swetha and R. Sundararaj"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:797},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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