Post-gasification tar removal methods [15].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5892",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vaccines",title:"Vaccines",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Microbes that elude host's defenses and have developed resistance to the existing antibiotic arsenal continuously invade the human body. Cure for such diseases is inevitable as it may result in high morbidity and mortality, if not properly treated. Vaccination represents the most cost-effective way for disease prevention. Vaccines activate sentinels of the immune system including macrophages and T, B, and dendritic cells to release a battery of effector molecules and cytokines and ward off infection. For long-lasting protection, the memory cells also need to be evoked. This book encompasses biotechnological vaccines in clinical use, cocooning, disease resurgence postvaccination and other vaccine adverse effects, prospects of therapeutic versus prophylactic vaccines, and design of effective vaccines using bioinformatic tools and engineering molecular pattern interactions.",isbn:"978-953-51-3476-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3475-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4664-3",doi:"10.5772/65856",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vaccines",numberOfPages:192,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7e74624c8b1de1d2014376e45df2c8dc",bookSignature:"Farhat Afrin, Hassan Hemeg and Hani Ozbak",publishedDate:"September 6th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5892.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17806,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:34,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:74,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:139,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 19th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 5th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 6th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 5th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186948",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhat",middleName:null,surname:"Afrin",slug:"farhat-afrin",fullName:"Farhat Afrin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186948/images/5872_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farhat Afrin, an Assistant Professor in Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Madina, Saudi Arabia, received Ph.D. from Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India. Earlier, she served at the Department of Biotechnology, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India for 16 years. She also worked at the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA and Centre for Immunology and Infection, University of York, UK. She is a recipient of several honors including American Association of Immunologists Young Faculty Travel Grant, Commonwealth Academic Staff fellowship, Department of Biotechnology Overseas Associateship. Her research interest is parasite immunology with emphasis on Leishmania immunotherapeutics. She has published over 55 papers in Journals of International repute and is an Academic Editor, Editorial Board member and reviewer of several Journals and Editor of few books.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Taibah University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"187330",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Hemeg",slug:"hassan-hemeg",fullName:"Hassan Hemeg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187330/images/system/187330.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan A. Hemeg completed his Masters in Pathological Science at the Sheffield University, UK, and Ph.D. from King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has earned several honors such as a Fellow of the Institute of Biomedical Science, UK, and Certified Canadian Accreditation Specialist for Health Care Facilities. He acquired training in Microbiology from Sheffield and Bristol Universities, the U.K. and U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. He is a member, Secretary, and Chairman of several Committees. His research interest is in the field of antimicrobial resistance. He has published several papers in Journals of International repute and is co-editor of few books. Presently, he is an Associate Professor and consultant of medical microbiology in the Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Madina, Saudi Arabia where he also served as Vice Dean.",institutionString:"Taibah University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Taibah University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"187373",title:"Dr.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Ozbak",slug:"hani-ozbak",fullName:"Hani Ozbak",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187373/images/5965_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hani A. Ozbak pursued his Master of Science in Molecular Medical Microbiology and Ph.D. from University of Manchester, U.K. Earlier, he worked in several government and private organizations and participated in organizing courses and workshops for Saudi students at University of Manchester, where he also volunteered as chairman of Saudi Academics Society. He is a member of several National and International Societies. His research interest is in the field of molecular diagnosis of bacterial infections. He has published several papers in Journals of International repute and is co-editor of few books. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Madina, Saudi Arabia where he formerly served as Head of the Department and Vice Dean.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"892",title:"Reverse Vaccinology",slug:"reverse-vaccinology"}],chapters:[{id:"55384",title:"Cocoon Strategy of Vaccinations: Benefits and Limitations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68890",slug:"cocoon-strategy-of-vaccinations-benefits-and-limitations",totalDownloads:1650,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A cocoon vaccination strategy refers to vaccinations in persons from the immediate environment of those patients who might develop an illness (they are susceptible to illnesses) but cannot be vaccinated due to permanent or temporary medical contraindications to a vaccination (e.g. immunosuppressed patients) or are too young to have a vaccination. Most frequently, a cocoon vaccination strategy is associated with vaccinations in adults aimed at preventing the spread of an illness in children (e.g. pertussis vaccination or influenza vaccination), but it is worth considering whether this strategy should not be understood also as vaccinations in children with the view of protecting adults and the elderly against illnesses (e.g. influenza or pneumococcal diseases). The aim of the cocoon strategy is to minimize the risk of the transmission of pathogens in the environment of a patient who is susceptible to an infection. A vaccinated patient is not a source of infection any more for a non-vaccinated patient. The chapter presents a history, current implementation of the strategy in different countries, its benefits and limitations.",signatures:"Aneta Nitsch-Osuch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55384",authors:[{id:"199131",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aneta",surname:"Nitsch-Osuch",slug:"aneta-nitsch-osuch",fullName:"Aneta Nitsch-Osuch"}],corrections:null},{id:"55997",title:"Prophylactic and Therapeutic Vaccines against Human Papillomavirus Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69548",slug:"prophylactic-and-therapeutic-vaccines-against-human-papillomavirus-infections",totalDownloads:1818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are a large family of double-strand DNA viruses comprising more than 180 types. Infection with HPV is associated with benign and malignant proliferation of skin and mucosae. Low-risk HPVs produce warts, whereas high-risk viruses induce tumors. Because there are no anti-viral drugs for HPV infection, there is a lot of interest in vaccines that can prevent the infection and also in vaccines that can be used to treat established infections and HPV-related tumors. Two prophylactic vaccines have been approved for preventing HPV infection. They seem to be effective when very young people are vaccinated. Unfortunately, many older people are still at risk of infection, mainly in countries where vaccination coverage is not efficient and for those people, novel therapeutic vaccines are being developed. This chapter describes the properties of HPV vaccines used today and the current status of several therapeutic vaccines been developed to treat HPV-induced lesions.",signatures:"Carlos Rosales and Ricardo Rosales",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55997",authors:[{id:"199680",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Rosales",slug:"ricardo-rosales",fullName:"Ricardo Rosales"},{id:"205316",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"}],corrections:null},{id:"55528",title:"Anogenital Warts: New Opportunities for Prevention and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69263",slug:"anogenital-warts-new-opportunities-for-prevention-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1887,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study aims at evaluating the efficacy of combined administration of imiquimod 5% crème and human papillomavirus (HPV) quadrivalent recombinant vaccine in order to achieve a long‐term clinical remission in patients with chronic HPV infection manifested in condyloma accuminata (CA) of the anogenital area. The study enrolled 36 subjects aged 26.4 (4.1) years (including 22 men) with one to five condyloma accuminata of the anogenital area. Study participants were vaccinated with human papillomavirus quadrivalent recombinant vaccine using a 0–2–6‐month regimen with concomitant administration of imiquimod 5% crème applied three times per week for not more than 16 weeks. Patients were monitored over 2 years. Complete disappearance of condyloma accuminata was observed in 34 out of 36 subjects (94.4%) after 1 year from the start of treatment. Two patients still having condyloma accuminata of the anogenital area after 1 year of combination treatment underwent a successful course of treatment with Solcoderm (one patient for 1 year 3 months and the other for 1 year 4 months), which resulted in complete disappearance of condyloma accuminata. Within 2‐year period, no recurrence of condyloma accuminata of the anogenital area has been observed.",signatures:"Andrey Dmitrievich Protasov, Alexander Victorovich Zhestkov, Yuriy\nVladimirovich Tezikov, Igor Stanislavovich Lipatov, Mikhail Petrovich\nKostinov and Natal’ya Evgenievna Lavrent’eva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55528",authors:[{id:"182649",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Protasov",slug:"andrey-protasov",fullName:"Andrey Protasov"},{id:"186180",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Zhestkov",slug:"alexander-zhestkov",fullName:"Alexander Zhestkov"},{id:"186183",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",surname:"Tezikov",slug:"yuriy-tezikov",fullName:"Yuriy Tezikov"},{id:"186185",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Lipatov",slug:"igor-lipatov",fullName:"Igor Lipatov"},{id:"199984",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Kostinov",slug:"mikhail-kostinov",fullName:"Mikhail Kostinov"},{id:"209971",title:"Dr.",name:"Natal'Ya",surname:"Lavrent'Eva",slug:"natal'ya-lavrent'eva",fullName:"Natal'Ya Lavrent'Eva"}],corrections:null},{id:"55720",title:"The Efficacy of Immunoadjuvant-Containing Influenza Vaccines in Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69271",slug:"the-efficacy-of-immunoadjuvant-containing-influenza-vaccines-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:1267,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of the work was to determine the clinical safety and immunogenicity of immunoadjuvant vaccines against influenza (MonoGripol Plus and Grippol® Plus) in 182 pregnant women in the II and III trimesters of gestation, and further assessment of fetal conditions and infants of the first 6 months of life. Results: It was shown that immunoadjuvant vaccines do not have a negative effect on the physiological course of pregnancy and the functional state of the fetoplacental complex. In the early postpartum period, the rates of physical and neuro-psychological development and the nature of feeding of children did not differ from the control group. In pregnant women vaccinated with Grippol® plus, the levels of seroprotection to strains of A/H1N1/v are 82.0%, A/H3N2/—88.0%, B—88.3% that measure the CPMP criteria and last more than a year . After birth, transplacental antibodies in children in protective values were observed in 52.3–68.9% of cases, did not differ from the control group, and disappear after 6 months. Respiratory infections during the first 6 months of life of infants born from mothers vaccinated against influenza registered in 1.8 times less frequently.",signatures:"Kostinov Mikhail Petrovich, Cherdantsev Alexander Petrovich,\nShmitko Anna Dmitrievna, Akhmatova Nelly Kimovna, Kostinova\nAristitsa Mikhailovna, Praulova Darya Alexandrovna, Polyschuk\nValentina Borisovna, Protasov Andrey Dmitrievich, Zhestkov\nAlexander Victorovich and Tezikov Yuriy Vladimirovich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55720",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55720",authors:[{id:"182649",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Protasov",slug:"andrey-protasov",fullName:"Andrey Protasov"},{id:"186180",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Zhestkov",slug:"alexander-zhestkov",fullName:"Alexander Zhestkov"},{id:"199984",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Kostinov",slug:"mikhail-kostinov",fullName:"Mikhail Kostinov"},{id:"205310",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Cherdantsev",slug:"alexander-cherdantsev",fullName:"Alexander Cherdantsev"},{id:"205311",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Shmitko",slug:"anna-shmitko",fullName:"Anna Shmitko"},{id:"205312",title:"Prof.",name:"Nelly",surname:"Akhmatova",slug:"nelly-akhmatova",fullName:"Nelly Akhmatova"},{id:"205313",title:"Dr.",name:"Aristitsa",surname:"Kostinova",slug:"aristitsa-kostinova",fullName:"Aristitsa Kostinova"},{id:"205314",title:"Dr.",name:"Darya",surname:"Paraulova",slug:"darya-paraulova",fullName:"Darya Paraulova"},{id:"205315",title:"Prof.",name:"Valentina",surname:"Polyschuk",slug:"valentina-polyschuk",fullName:"Valentina Polyschuk"}],corrections:null},{id:"55860",title:"Biotechnologies Applied in Biomedical Vaccines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69547",slug:"biotechnologies-applied-in-biomedical-vaccines",totalDownloads:3169,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Vaccination, the administration of an antigenic material (vaccine), is considered to be the most effective method for disease prevention and control. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a diseases‐causing pathogen and is often made from inactivated microbes, live attenuated microbes, its toxins, or part of surface antigens (subunit). However, the modern biotechnological tools and genomics have opened a new era to develop novel vaccines and many products are successfully marketing around the world. It is important to formulate and deliver these vaccines appropriately to maximize the potential advances in prevention, therapy, and vaccinology. New vaccines employing biotechnological innovations are helping us to change the way for illness prevention. The clinical application of vaccines will be diversified along with the development of biotechnologies. In modern society, the outbreak of many infectious diseases has decreased through vaccination, but the burden of noninfectious diseases is growing. The new biotechnologies may result in not only the appreciation of vaccines which are critical in inducing protection against an infectious disease but also the production of therapeutic vaccines which are effective for alldiseases including infectious and noninfectious diseases.",signatures:"Yuan‐Chuan Chen, Hwei‐Fang Cheng, Yi‐Chen Yang and Ming‐\nKung Yeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55860",authors:[{id:"180299",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Kung",surname:"Yeh",slug:"ming-kung-yeh",fullName:"Ming-Kung Yeh"},{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"},{id:"185560",title:"Dr.",name:"Hwei-Fang",surname:"Cheng",slug:"hwei-fang-cheng",fullName:"Hwei-Fang Cheng"},{id:"185561",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chen",surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-chen-yang",fullName:"Yi-Chen Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"55895",title:"The Use of Planar Electromagnetic Fields in Effective Vaccine Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69546",slug:"the-use-of-planar-electromagnetic-fields-in-effective-vaccine-design",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Vaccines have not yet been able to address the combination of three major obstacles: molecular coupling failure between peptide and human leukocyte antigen protein (HLA‐II) molecule, failure to activate T‐cells, and the molecular polymorphism displayed by all pathogens. Planar electromagnetic fields found in protein systems may play a role in all three problems. These amino acid planes are universal, selective in nature, and able to generate long distance attraction toward their corresponding ligand. We propose three molecular mechanisms through which to engineer molecular pattern interaction toward the intelligent design of more effective vaccines.",signatures:"Adrián Cortés, Jonathan Coral, Colin McLachlan and Ricardo\nBenítez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55895",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55895",authors:[{id:"200549",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Benitez",slug:"ricardo-benitez",fullName:"Ricardo Benitez"},{id:"200553",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Cortes",slug:"adrian-cortes",fullName:"Adrian Cortes"},{id:"200554",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Coral",slug:"jonathan-coral",fullName:"Jonathan Coral"},{id:"200555",title:"Prof.",name:"Colin",surname:"McLachlan",slug:"colin-mclachlan",fullName:"Colin McLachlan"}],corrections:null},{id:"55711",title:"The Impact of Bioinformatics on Vaccine Design and Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69273",slug:"the-impact-of-bioinformatics-on-vaccine-design-and-development",totalDownloads:4223,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:58,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Vaccines are the pharmaceutical products that offer the best cost‐benefit ratio in the prevention or treatment of diseases. In that a vaccine is a pharmaceutical product, vaccine development and production are costly and it takes years for this to be accomplished. Several approaches have been applied to reduce the times and costs of vaccine development, mainly focusing on the selection of appropriate antigens or antigenic structures, carriers, and adjuvants. One of these approaches is the incorporation of bioinformatics methods and analyses into vaccine development. This chapter provides an overview of the application of bioinformatics strategies in vaccine design and development, supplying some successful examples of vaccines in which bioinformatics has furnished a cutting edge in their development. Reverse vaccinology, immunoinformatics, and structural vaccinology are described and addressed in the design and development of specific vaccines against infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. These include some emerging or re‐emerging infectious diseases, as well as therapeutic vaccines to fight cancer, allergies, and substance abuse, which have been facilitated and improved by using bioinformatics tools or which are under development based on bioinformatics strategies.",signatures:"Ribas‐Aparicio Rosa María, Castelán‐Vega Juan Arturo, Jiménez‐\nAlberto Alicia, Monterrubio‐López Gloria Paulina and Aparicio‐\nOzores Gerardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55711",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55711",authors:[{id:"193147",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",surname:"Ribas-Aparicio",slug:"rosa-maria-ribas-aparicio",fullName:"Rosa María Ribas-Aparicio"},{id:"201116",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Arturo",surname:"Castelán-Vega",slug:"juan-arturo-castelan-vega",fullName:"Juan Arturo Castelán-Vega"},{id:"201117",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",surname:"Jiménez-Alberto",slug:"alicia-jimenez-alberto",fullName:"Alicia Jiménez-Alberto"},{id:"201118",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria Paulina",surname:"Monterrubio-López",slug:"gloria-paulina-monterrubio-lopez",fullName:"Gloria Paulina Monterrubio-López"},{id:"201119",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Aparicio-Ozores",slug:"gerardo-aparicio-ozores",fullName:"Gerardo Aparicio-Ozores"}],corrections:null},{id:"55588",title:"Immunization against Pertussis: An Almost Solved Problem or a Headache in Public Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69283",slug:"immunization-against-pertussis-an-almost-solved-problem-or-a-headache-in-public-health",totalDownloads:1238,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Whooping cough or pertussis is a serious infectious disease of the human respiratory tract, caused by Gram-negative bacteria Bordetella pertussis and Bordetella parapertussisHU. The current pertussis vaccines may consist of dead cells of B. pertussis (whole cell pertussis vaccines—wPs) or purified antigens from the bacterium (acellular pertussis vaccines—aPs). The aPs are less reactogenic and have been widely used in developed countries for more than two decades, but their high cost of production makes them prohibitive for developing countries, and the accelerated rate of epidemic outbreaks has led to the hypothesis that aPs are less effective than the wP ones. Considering cost-effectiveness, some authors have pointed out questions about the possibility of reintroduction of wP vaccines into the primary doses of pertussis vaccination. The Butantan Institute in São Paulo, Brazil, developed a wP vaccine with low endotoxicity (Plow) obtained by chemical extraction of the lipooligosaccharide (LOS) fraction from the outer membrane of the bacterial cell, showing to be less reactogenic and equally immunogenic and protective as the traditional wP vaccine. The Plow may possibly be introduced into the vaccination schedule for immunization of adolescents and young adults in Brazil, an important epidemiological contribution to reducing the circulation of B. pertussis.",signatures:"Waldely de Oliveira Dias, Ana Fabíola R.O. Prestes, Priscila S.\nCunegundes, Eliane P. Silva and Isaias Raw",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55588",authors:[{id:"201066",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldely",surname:"Dias",slug:"waldely-dias",fullName:"Waldely Dias"},{id:"201072",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaias",surname:"Raw",slug:"isaias-raw",fullName:"Isaias Raw"},{id:"201100",title:"MSc.",name:"Priscila",surname:"Cunegundes",slug:"priscila-cunegundes",fullName:"Priscila Cunegundes"},{id:"201101",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana Fabíola",surname:"Prestes",slug:"ana-fabiola-prestes",fullName:"Ana Fabíola Prestes"},{id:"204803",title:"MSc.",name:"Eliane",surname:"Pessoa Da Silva",slug:"eliane-pessoa-da-silva",fullName:"Eliane Pessoa Da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"55782",title:"Adverse Events Related to Vaccination (VAEs): How to Manage the Further Doses of Immunization and Parents’ Hesitancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68697",slug:"adverse-events-related-to-vaccination-vaes-how-to-manage-the-further-doses-of-immunization-and-paren",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study supports the evidence that after vaccine‐related reactions, it is still possible to carry out the immunization protocol.",signatures:"Guido Castelli Gattinara, Elena Bellelli, Donatella F. 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Scientists and governments around world are looking for new energy resources which could be used safely and efficiently with enough amount for deployment and security. Bioenergy is a renewable energy, which is stored in the organic form in the chemical state and supports human beings’ daily life since our ancestor apes knew how to use fire to cook. In these millions of years, bioenergy was mostly used in small scale like household cooking. Now, people have realized that efficient exploitation of biomass resource can actually reduce their dependency over fossil fuel. Biomass gasification has been regarded as an effective pathway to utilization of bioresource. It takes biomass as raw materials and employs pyrolysis or thermal cracking under anoxic conditions. This is an energy conversion process including a group of complex chemical reactions that large organic molecules degrade into carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen and other flammable gases in accordance with chemical bonding theory. Biomass feedstock with the gasification agent is heated inside an integrated gasifier. With temperature increase, biomass goes through dehydration, volatilization and decomposition. Eventually, the produced gases are used for central gas supply and power generation. This technology has already been developed over several decades and progressively achieved commercialization all over the world, especially in Sweden, Germany, Canada, the United States, India and China. In the early stage, downdraft gasifier had been implemented at a large scale in China and India due to its relatively low tar production. Recently, the development of circulating fluidized bed (CFB) gasifier makes it adaptable for both biomass quality and the raw particle size. Besides, CFB is also easy for scale-up and ash cleaning.
\nChina, as a large agricultural country, produces a large number of crop straw, poultry manure, agricultural by-products and other plant biomass every year. Thus, research and development on key technologies and integrated peripherals of biomass gasification become very necessary. China has already developed various gasifiers, the size of which range from 400 KW to 10 MW. However, compared with fossil fuel, biomass has lower bulk density and energy density, which make it uneconomic for collection and transportation. Therefore, biomass gasification coupled with distributed power generation in small communities with abundant biomass resource would be the way out in future [1].
\nIn recent years in China, the yield of domestic waste has increased every year and exceeds 400 million tonnes per year. Chinese government’s 13th five-year plan proposed that the proportion of waste harmless treatment should be no less than 70% by 2020. But waste landfill is still the primary method used to deal with waste in rural areas. Compared with landfill, gasification has advantages of lower environmental impacts and does not consume land resource. When contrasting gasification with incineration, the gasification technology has better quality of gaseous emissions with much lower capital input, which makes gasification more suitable for distributed deployment in rural area. Therefore, there will be a great demand for deployment of waste gasification treatment plants in Chinese rural areas, and more and more people are now focusing on the development of more efficient small-scale gasifiers with capacity under 300 tonne/day. The relevant equipment has also been deployed in Iran, Thailand, Burma and Laos. However, several technical barriers are still there such as effective removal of tar with low cost, environmental influence, accuracy control of gasifier inner temperature, solidification of fly ash and so on.
\nTherefore, this chapter introduces both technological and logistics challenges of biomass gasification via introducing biomass characters and gasifier technologies. The details of tar minimization and socio-environmental impacts of biomass gasification are also presented as main contents to help understand the primary barriers for the deployment of biomass gasification.
\nBiomass includes all the living or recently living organisms, like land plants, grasses, water-based vegetation and manures [2], and these organisms consist of a number of major elements such as C, H, O, N, P and S. The classification of biomass into different categories is based on their properties. One feasible way is based on the appearances and the growth environment of biomass: woody plants, herbaceous plants/grasses, aquatic plants, manures and wastes [2]. Biomass could also be divided into two types: low moisture content and high moisture content. The low moisture content biomass can be used in thermo-chemical processes (i.e., gasification, combustion and pyrolysis), while the high moisture content plants are more suitable to be used in some wet processing technologies (i.e., fermentation and anaerobic digestion) [3]. Such high moisture contents would consume a large amount of energy for the drying process if employed as resources for thermo-chemical processing.
\nBiomass is derived from solar energy via photosynthesis. Under a good illumination condition, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can be converted into organic materials or, in another way, the solar energy is stored as chemical energy, which existed as chemical bonds in the organisms [4]. The said chemical energy is released when these bonds are broken either via thermo-chemical or wet processing. This is an ongoing energy transfer from the sun and hence the sustainability of biomass resource could be ensured. As we have known, the total energy captured annually in biomass is more than that of the annual energy consumption globally [5]. On the other hand, biomass is clean as it is carbon neutral. On the view of carbon network, the net emission of carbon dioxide into the environment during the harvesting of energy from biomass is zero. The final products of conversion of biomass (CO2 and H2O) are originally absorbed into the plants from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. The conversion of biomass also has less harmful releases such as NOx and SOx compared with fossil fuels [6].
\nHowever, the characters of biomass also create many barriers during its actual application. On the aspect of species diversity, biomass usually does not behave as steady as fossil fuels, which causes a lot of difficulty during project planning stage including gasifier type, plant size and the way of energy output. On the other hand, the varieties of biomass resource also lead to different heating values and moisture contents. Compared with other energy carriers, biomass has much lower heating values. Taking wood and wheat straw as examples, their lower heating values are only 18.6 and 17.3 MJ/kg, respectively, while the lower heating value of coal is as high as 23–28 MJ/kg [2, 7]. The reason for this disparity is that the oxygen content of biomass carbohydrates is very high while the combustible elements such as C and H are low. In addition, the intrinsic moisture content in biomass is also very high, which requires more energy for drying before further processes take place [3]. Hence, use of biomass requires the complexity in material handling, pre-treatment and the design of processing facilities [3]. For the purpose of transportation and collection, biomass is unlike any other renewable resources (solar, wind, hydropower) where it is able to be stored directly and transported somewhere else. However, biomass is highly dispersed in regional distribution and the low volumetric of biomass makes it a bit more difficult for the collection and transportation. Therefore, small-scale gasification unit operated in small communities with abundant biomass resource or domestic waste would be the way out in future.
\nFor the utilization purpose, the conversion technologies of biomass could be classified in three categories: mechanical extraction; thermo-chemical conversion; and biological conversion, as illustrated in Figure 1 [3, 8]. Among them, direct combustion, gasification and pyrolysis are considered as the thermo-chemical processes; fermentation and anaerobic digestion are regarded as biological conversion.
\nThe main processes for the biomass conversion technologies [
The direct combustion of biomass is widely applied in small-scale cooking and domestic heating by converting chemical energy stored in biomass into heat [9]. In modern industrial technology, combustion is also employed in large-scale applications to produce mechanical power and electricity with the aid of boilers, steam turbines and turbo-generators. The temperature range of biomass combustion is within 800–1000\n
Pyrolysis is a thermo-chemical process, in which biomass decomposes into fuel gas, bio-oil and solid char in the absence of oxygen. The selectivity leading to different types of products could be controlled by manipulating the operating conditions (temperature and residence time). Low temperatures (<500\n
Fermentation is a bio-chemical process which is used for the production of about 80% of the world’s ethanol [13]. The main process of fermentation involves using microorganisms to convert sugars into ethanol under a warm and wet environment. The sugar is typically obtained from the mechanical handling (crushing and mixing with water) of sugar-rich crops, such as sugar cane and sugar beet. However, the high cost of sugar-rich crops has diminished its proportion of utilization in fermentation. The starch-based biomass is also commonly used for ethanol production. However, it requires an extra step to convert starch into sugar by enzymatic reactions.
\nAnaerobic digestion involves using anaerobic microorganisms to convert biomass into bio-gas (CH4 and CO2 as the main gaseous products) by means of decomposition. Under the anaerobic environment, the organic material in biomass is decomposed into usable-sized molecules, such as sugar, as the first step. The sugar molecules is then converted into organic acids and further decomposed to CH4 gas. This process has been proven as a commercially feasible technology and is widely applied in the rural areas of China.
\nGasification process converts biomass, a low-energy density material, into a gaseous product (LHV at 4–11 MJ/N/m3), which is a mixture of CO, H2, CH4 and CO2 [10]. Gasification is a partial oxidation process and it is commonly operated at 800–900\n
The gasifier, as the principle component of a gasification plant, actually provides a space for biomass and gasification agent being mixed to a certain extent, in some cases with catalysts or additives [14]. The different selection of gasifiers is actually responsible for keeping steady the production of syngas regarding the variations of biomass. Literature shows that gasifiers could be categorized into three main types: fixed bed gasifiers, fluidized gasifiers and the entrained flow gasifiers [15].
\nFixed bed gasifiers is the traditional approach applied for biomass gasification and generally operated around 1000\n
In an updraft gasifier (shown in Figure 2), the biomass material is fed from the top of the reactor, while the gasification agent enters from the bottom. The gasification agent flows through the bed of ash and biomass. The gas generated is exhausted through the top. For the reaction, the gasification agent meets the bottom char at first and achieves a complete combustion and raises temperature to c.a. 1000\n
Schematic of updraft gasifier [
For the downdraft gasifier (shown in Figure 3), both biomass and gasification agent flow into the vessel from the top. At the “throated” area, where air or O2 is fed into system with homogeneously distribution. The temperature could rise to around 1200–1400\n
Schematic of downdraft gasifier [
In the fluidized gasifier, the gasification agent enters the bed at a relatively fast rate from the bottom of the vessel and exits from the top. This kind of gasification features uniform temperature distribution in the bed zone. The consistency of temperature is obtained by the application of air-fluidized bed material, which ensured the intimate mixing of fuel, hot combustion gas and bed material. Currently, three main types of fluidized gasifiers are widely used [15], bubbling fluidized bed (BFB), circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and dual fluidized bed (DFB).
\nBFB gasifier applies inlet from the bottom and moves the bed of fine-grained materials. The bed temperature is maintained at 700–900\n
The CFB gasifier consists of two principle units: the gasifier unit and the circulation unit, as shown in Figure 4. The bed material and char in this type of gasifier is circulated between the reaction chamber and the cyclone separator, where ash and hot gas could be separated. The bed material is fully fluidized and leaves from the first unit, and then it is sent back by the second unit. The solids are moving in the solid circulation loop in greater extent of fluidization with higher residence time. Moreover, its operation pressure is also relatively higher.
\nSchematic diagram of circulating fluidized bed gasifier (CFB) [
Dual fluidized bed (DFB) gasifiers consist of two separated fluidized beds which are used for pyrolysis process and combustion process [14]. The first bed is operated as a pyrolysis reactor and it is heated by the second reactor with hot circulated bed material. The second reactor provides heat by burning char provided from the first reactor. The bed material plays an important role as a heat transfer medium, which prevents the dilution of the hot gas product.
\nEntrained flow gasifiers are generally classified into two types: top-fed gasifier and side-fed gasifier (shown in Figure 5), which is according to how and where the fuel and gasification agent is fed. This type of gasifier is suitable for integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants. It is extensively applied in large-scale gasification and is widely employed for coal, biomass and refinery residues. The gasification temperature of this kind of gasifier could reach 1400\n
Schematic diagram of an entrained flow gasifier (side-fed) [
Tar is a major inherent problem in biomass gasification; it can cause a lot of issues such as equipment blockages, lower system efficiency, poor quality gas output and increased maintenance. Tar consists of a group of very complicated mixtures with more than 200 components. Several key components include benzene, toluene, single-ring aromatic hydrocarbon, naphthalene and so on. The formation of tar was due to lower temperature of gasification. It was confirmed that increased temperature of gasification could reduce the content of tar in the outflow and it was believed that higher temperature can promote the cracking of tar [18]. Currently, there are a lot of methods that could be employed for tar minimization, and they can be divided into two categories depending on where the removal technology is applied.
\nFirstly, tar could be removed inside the gasifier by choosing an appropriate operation parameter or using a catalyst. Previous research indicates that both particle size and surface area-volume ratio of loading feedstock have a significant effect on tar yields [19, 20]. It showed that the gasification of pine saw dust only produced 0.4 wt% of tar at 700\n
Secondly, in many processes, tar is removed as a downstream step after gasification, including mechanical method, thermal cracking and catalysis. The details of some common technologies have been listed in Table 1. Wet gas cleaning method has been accepted at an early stage. Its equipment investment is relatively low and the operation is also easy to handle. But this technology would also create a lot of waste water and bring serious environmental issues. Therefore, dry gas cleaning method becomes more widespread via various types of filters, rotating particle separators and dry cyclones. Although the dry method avoids waste water issues, its efficiency of tar removal is not good enough if compared with wet method. On the other hand, the replacement, renewal or disposal of filter materials reduces the financial effectiveness of the entire gasification system. This similar situation could also be applied to thermal cracking method and higher operation temperature requires much more energy input.
\nMethod | \nTechnique used | \nDetails/examples | \n
---|---|---|
Wet gas cleaning [21] | \nUsage of mechanical device or equipment | \nElectrostatic precipitator, wet cyclone, wet scrubber | \n
Dry gas cleaning [21] | \nUsage of mechanical device or equipment | \nCyclone, rotary partial separator, fabric filter, ceramic filter, activated carbon adsorber, sand filter | \n
Thermal cracking [21, 22] | \nApplication of high temperature with long residence time | \nMaximum tar destruction was found at 1250\n | \n
Catalytic cracking [21] | \nUsage of appropriate catalyst | \nTar cracking catalysts are divided into five major groups, namely Ni-based, non-Ni-based, alkali metal-based, acid catalysts, basic catalysts and activated carbon-based catalysts | \n
Post-gasification tar removal methods [15].
In the recent two decades, catalytic cracking has attracted more and more attention and has already become the central branch of research. Catalytic cracking is more like a downstream catalytic reforming unit and could easily degrade comparative stable tar to a significant extent. The previous research indicated that the catalytic cracking unit could promote gas yield by 10: 20 vol% and increase the heating value by c.a. 15% [23]. Ni-based catalyst is applied most widely and especially preferred for hydrogen or syngas production. Nickel has a very good catalytic activity and a preferable price advantage. While the application of Ni catalysts needs to avoid extremely high heavy-tar content flue gas, which will form a serious carbon deposition over the catalyst surface and lead to a quick deactivation. The other transition metal-based catalysts, such as co, Fe and cu, also have similar issues. Thus, some applications used the two-stage catalytic reforming process: the first stage used dolomite to reduce the concentration of tar to a certain level and then the second stage employed transition metal-based catalysts bed for near-completed removal of tar. But this kind of two-stage reforming process would increase operational cost clearly. In the research scale, some people applied noble metal catalysts and achieved highly catalytic activity as well as better carbon-resistant ability. However, high cost and low accessibility still restrain the wide utilization of noble metal-based catalysts before the technical breakthrough of catalyst regeneration. Alkali metal catalyst is an alternative with good catalytic performance and also exhibits outstanding coke resistance. It is due to this that alkali metal could suppress directly decomposition of hydrocarbon by avoiding quick adsorption of tar components. But alkali metal evaporates under high temperature gasification condition. In many practical process, biomass ash has been reused as an alkali catalyst because most biomass contains abundant alkali metal elements and it is believed that this type of natural catalyst with properties of low cost and disposability should attract special attention
\nIn the future, the development of novel and economic catalysts is still a promising option for tar elimination. At this stage, the biggest barrier for the catalyst development is the unclear mechanism of complex tar reformation. Therefore, employing model tar components for the study of coke formation mechanism is still very important and will be an effective way out. For the catalyst synthesis, composite catalysts with different components should be considered. It is also favored that if the developed catalyst could be applied under a low temperature condition (400–600\n
Biomass gasification could exploit an abundant variety of waste materials as feedstock such as agricultural residues and food waste. It actually achieves resource recovery and mitigates CO2 emission as an environmental benefit. However, power generation from biomass gasification poses several key hazards and socio-environmental impacts.
\nOne of the major risks is the potential emission of toxic producer gas and particulates. The production of CO, SOx, NOx and volatile organics involves incomplete combustion and oxidation of trace elements in feedstock [24]. As one of the most dangerous constituent, CO can permeate into human blood system and combine with hemoglobin to stop oxygen adsorption and distribution. Long-term exposure to CO causes asthma, lung inflammation, schizophrenia and cardiac defects. Toxic gases like SOx, NOx and volatile organics could also destruct inhalation, ingestion and dermal system of human [25]. Hence, the entire gasification process should prevent leakage and an efficient gas clean-up system is essential. In recent years, the hazard of particles emission (PM2.5) attracts public attention increasingly, due to its carcinogenicity. PM2.5 particles can adsorb many soluble organic compounds including alkanes, carboxylic acid and aromatic compounds, which will damage human organs like lung and liver [26]. For control of these particles’ emission, an efficient gas clean-up system with conditioning unit is necessary, as well as avoiding insufficient combustion and gasification. In addition, ashes and condensate from biomass gasification also contribute to environmental problems if they are not disposed properly. Especially the toxic condensate with high content of tar is very difficult to deal with and has higher risk of hazards.
\nBesides the risk of health hazards and environment, gasification is also confronted with risk of fire and explosion. Because the gasification system is normally operated at relatively high temperature and pressure, it also produces flammable gas mixture with a great portion of hydrogen gas. However, explosion is not easy to be created even air leakage into the gasification system, which could raise a partial combustion. This will only lead to lower quality and higher temperature of producer gas [1], unless there is a large amount of air which enters with feedstock from the feeding system or massive leakage of flammable outlet gas occurs.
\nThe development of bioenergy will need a lot of land for energy-growing crops. This requirement will clash with other applications of farmland, like food and other cash crops. The competition with food agriculture must be intensive. The food shortage is still a big global issue nowadays. According to the data of World Hunger Education Service, the world’s hungry population was 925 million in 2010. Besides this, the world population is still growing by rate of 1.2%. The natural disasters and climate change also affect agriculture. These three factors will decide that the demand of the farmland in the future will expand. Thus, transferring farmland for energy crop planting in a large scale would be difficult, especially in Europe.
\nThe bioethics report by Nuffield council points out that deployment of bioenergy should not violate the human right which is reflected in the Universal Declaration of Human Right (UDHR). In the UDHR, it states that every people can share and enjoy the protection of the moral and the any product from any scientific, literary or artistic which is owed by them. There are a lot of ethical issues referring bioenergy, like human rights, solidarity and sustainability. Biofuel production application will require land use, water supply and labor from local community. Destruction to the land and local ecosystem cannot be avoided. Also, land displaced for energy crops will not only bring food price increases; some local residents may face migration. All these could be regarded as the actions, which violate the human rights of citizens and non-citizens.
\nThe commercialization of biomass gasification is still at the early stage of development and leaves a lot to be desired on the technology aspect. In particular, large-scale utilization of biomass still needs to overcome the challenge of biomass collection and transportation, due to its low energy density. However, in some small communities, with large amount of local biomass materials, using biomass to replace polluting fossil fuels is a competitive way for providing reliable and clean power and heat.
\nThis chapter provides the current technique status and development condition in China. It concludes that the gasification of biomass waste with distributed power generation would be a potential market. The properties of biomass feedstock have been analyzed and both advantage and disadvantage of biomass utilization were pointed out. Consequently, highly dispersed property and the low volumetric of biomass limit its large-scale application. Apart from that, this chapter also detailed some common types of gasifiers, except some emerging technologies, for meeting special requirements such as supercritical water gasification (SCWG) for wet biomass and plasma gasification for toxic organic waste. The tar issue, one of the most baffling problems in biomass gasification, is introduced briefly as well as its removal technologies. In our view, the socio-environmental impact is not the primary factor for restriction of biomass gasification development, while an objective financial return can actually attract investors and accelerate commercialization; in the meantime, it will also contribute to other technical breakthroughs.
\nObject tracking is defined as a problem of estimating the object’s trajectory, done by means of a video image. There are several tools for tracking objects and are used in various fields of research, such as computer vision, digital video processing, and autonomous vehicle navigation [1]. With the emergence of high-performance computers, high-resolution cameras, and the growing use of so-called autonomous systems that, in addition to these items, require specialized tracking algorithms, increasingly accurate and robust for automatic video analysis, has currently been the target of numerous research on the development of new object tracking techniques [2, 3].
Object tracking techniques are applicable to motion-based reconnaissance cases [4], automatic surveillance systems [5], pedestrian flow monitoring in crosswalks [6], traffic control [7], and autonomous vehicular navigation [8]. Problems of this type are highly complex due to the characteristics of the object and the environment, generating many variables, which impairs performance and makes the application of tracking algorithms unfeasible to real-world situations. Some approaches seek to resolve this impasse by simplifying the problem, reducing the number of variables [9]. This process, in most cases, does not generate good results [10, 11], making it even more difficult to identify the main attributes to be selected to perform a task [12, 13].
Most of the object tracking problems occur in open environments, so-called uncontrolled [14]. The complexity of these problems has attracted the interest of the scientific community and generated numerous applied research in various fields of research. Current approaches, such as the ones that use convolutional neural networks—CNN, deal well with the high number of variables of these types of problems, providing space–temporal information of the tracked objects, through three-dimensional convolutions [15, 16, 17]. This ends up creating an enormous number of learnable parameters, which ends up generating an overfitting [11]. A solution to reduce this number of learnable parameters was combining space–time data, extracted using the optical flow algorithm, used in the Two-Stream technique [18, 19, 20]. However, this technique presents good results only for large datasets, showing itself to be inefficient for small datasets [15, 21].
In recent years, research using machine learning has been applied to tracking problems, gaining notoriety due to the excellent results obtained in complex environments and attribute extraction [21, 22, 23]. Deep learning stands out among these techniques for presenting excellent results to unsupervised learning problems, [24], object identification [25], semantic segmentation [26]. Random trees are also examples of machine learning techniques, and their excellent results, due to their precision and great capacity to handle a large volume of data and low overfitting tendency [27, 28], and widely used in research areas such as medicine, in the prediction of hereditary diseases [29], agriculture to increase the productivity of a given plantation crop and in astronomy, acting on the improvement of images captured by telescopes, in the spectrum electromagnetic radiation not visible to the human eye [30]. The possibilities of applications, and new trends and research related to machine learning techniques, with particular attention to random trees, allow the development of algorithms that can be combined with existing ones, in the case of optical flow algorithms, (belonging to computational field of view) taken advantage of in this way, the advantages of each [31, 32, 33].
Developing an algorithm whose objective is to track objects, using the particular advantages of these techniques in a combined way, justifies creating a tracking algorithm that combines the optical flow technique, adapted in this work in terms of the Gaussian curvature associated with a minimal surface, with a random trees waiting for it to capture on this surface a minimum number of optical flow vectors that characterize the moving object, accurately and with low computational cost, contributing not only in the fields of computational vision but in other branches of science, such as in medicine, it can help in the early identification of infarctions.
Due to the large number of studies related to the technique of object tracking, only a small number surrounding this theme will be addressed. The focus of this project is not to make a thorough study on the state of the art. With this in this item, the main works in the literature, associated with the tracking of objects, will be presented. Among the various approaches used for this context, we highlight those focused on the techniques of optical flow, and others belonging to machine learning, such as those that use identifications of patterns, which allow relating, framing, and justifying the development of this proposal and its importance, through its contribution, to the state of the art.
Object tracking is defined as a process that allows you to uniquely estimate and associate the movements of objects with consecutive image frames. The objects considered can be from one, the set of pixels belonging to a region of the image. The detection of pixels is done by a motion detector or objects, which allows to locate objects with similar characteristics that move, between consecutive frames.
These characteristics of the object to be tracked are compared with the characteristics of a reference object modeled by a classifier over a limited region of the so-called region of interest frame, where the probability of detection of the object is greater. Thus, according to [33], the detector of traced objects, locate several objects on the different parts of the region of interest and performs the comparison of these objects with the reference object. This process is performed for each frame and each object detected, candidate to be recognized as the greatest possible similarity, to the reference object can be represented, through a set of fixed-size characteristics, extracted from this region containing a set of pixels, which can be represented by a numerical array of data.
Thus, mathematically, the region containing a set of pixels belonging to the regions of the object of interest, where the characteristics that allow to test whether the region of the frame, in which the object to be traced is, is given by:
where,
According to the works of [34, 35], learning methods are used to adapt the changes of movement and other characteristics such as geometric aspect and appearance of the tracked object. These methods are usually used adaptive tracked object trackers and detectors. The following will be presented other types of object trackers, found in the literature.
According to [36], a classifier can be defined with a
The classifier aims to determine the best way to discriminate the data classes, on the space of characteristics. The test data form a set containing the characteristics of the candidate objects, which have not yet been classified. The position of the object to be tracked in the frame is defined as the position corresponding to the highest response of the detector of the object to be tracked on the
where the variable
Offline-trained classifiers are generally employed in object detectors designed to detect all new objects of interest that enter the camera’s field of view [37]. The training set
In [38], trackers that use the detection tracking technique deal with object tracking, as a binary classification problem whose goal is to find the best function
In [39], were developed trackers that used detectors of objects to be tracked, formed by classifiers in committee formed by binary classifiers said weak. For [40], a binary classifier is defined as a classifier, used in problems where the class
A classifier is said to be weak, when it has a probability of “hitting” a given data class, only slightly higher than a random classifier. The detector of the object to be tracked must separate the crawled object from the other objects and the environment. Its purpose and determine the position of the tracked object, according to the equations (1)–(3)
For [43], the term monitoring system, refers to the process of monitoring and autonomous control, without human intervention. This type of system has the function of detecting, classifying, tracking, analyzing, and interpreting the behavior of objects of interest. In [44, 45], this technique was used combined with statistical techniques for controlling people’s access to a specific location. It was also observed the use of intelligent monitoring systems, applied to building, port, or ship security [46, 47].
The functions comprised by a monitoring system are so-called low- and high-level tasks. Among some high-level tasks, we highlight the analysis, interpretation and description of behavior, the recognition of gestures, and the decision between the occurrence or not of a threat. Performing high-level tasks require that for each frame, the system needs to perform low-level tasks, which involve direct manipulation of the image pixels [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. As an example, we highlight the processes of noise elimination, detection of connected components, and obtain information on the location and geometric aspect of the object of interest.
A monitoring system consists of five main components, which are presented in Figures 9. Some monitoring systems may not contain all components. The initial detector aims to detect the pixel regions of each frame that have a significant probability of containing an object to be tracked. This detector can be formed by a motion detector that detects all moving objects based on models of objects previously recorded in a database or based on characteristics extracted offline [40, 41]. The information obtained by the initial detector is processed by an image processor], which will have the function of eliminating noise, segmenting, and detecting the connected components.
The regions containing the most relevant pixels are analyzed and then classified as objects of interest by the classifier [50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. Objects of interest are modeled and are now called reference objects so that the tracker determines its position frame by frame [55, 56]. The information obtained by the initial detector is processed by an image processor], which will have the function of eliminating noise, segmenting, and detecting the connected components.
A tracker, an integral part of a detector, is defined as a function that allows estimating the position of objects at each consecutive frame, through and defines the region of the object of interest, for each
Main component of a monitoring.
Several techniques that allow the calculation to have been developed in recent years to calculate the optical flow vector [57]. These methods are grouped according to their main characteristics and the approach used for the calculation of the optical flow. Thus, the differential methods performed in the studies in [56], the methods d and calculation of the optical flow through the frequency domain [46] the phase correlation methods [58], and the method of association between regions [59].
The method proposed in [56], allows the calculation of the optical flow for each point around a neighborhood of pixels. In [60], it is also considered a neighborhood of pixels, but in this case, the calculation of the optical flow is performed geometrically. In the work presented by [61] it is adding of the restrictions of regularization. In [62] turn active compare performance analyses were performed between the various algorithms and optical flow present in the literature.
This technique is considered robust for detaining and tracking moving objects from your images, both those captured by fixed or mobile cameras. This gives this technique, but high computational cost makes most practical applications unfeasible. Thus, to reduce this complexity, techniques of increasing resolutions were adopted in [63]. Also, for the same purpose, we used the techniques of subsampling on some of the pixels belonging to the object of interest to obtain optical flow [52].
Other authors also use a point of interest detector to select the best pixels for tracking and calculate the optical flow on these points [52, 64]. The reduction in the number of points to be tracked is associated with a decrease in computational complexity, so in [52] the points of interest were selected using the FAST algorithm [64].
The method developed by Lucas-Kanade [56], it is a differential method and widely used in the literature and having variations modifications. It allows you to estimate the optical flow for each point
where
New variations of the techniques were being proposed to make the calculation of the optical flow faster and faster. In [65] a tracker was proposed based on the algorithm of [56]. The translation of a point represented by a grid of rectangular sized pixels 25 × 25, was calculated and its validity is evaluated by calculating the SSD1 in the grid pixels in
In [51] objects were detected by subtracting the image from the environment and removed the movement of the camera with the calculation algorithm of the optical flow vector proposed by [56]. In the studies carried out in [66, 67], they showed that the reliability of the estimated optical flow reduced the case of some points of the object of interest whose optical flow cannot be represented by the same matrix given by the related transformation
In [67] they also modified Lucas - Kanade’s algorithm [56] by inserting the Hessian matrix in the calculation of the value of the variation of the related transformation
Already in the proposal presented in [68] was the development of algorithm to detect people in infrared images that combines the information of the value of pixels with a method of motion detection. The algorithm forms a relevant pixel map by applying thresholding segmentation. While the camera is still, an image
The method for tracking swimmers presented in [46], uses the information of the movement pattern by the optical flow and the appearance of the water that is modeled by a MoG.2 This allows you to calculate an optical flow vector for each pixel of the video independently of the other, through
In [69], a method was presented that incorporated physical restrictions to the calculation of optical flow. The tracker uses the constraints to extract the moving pixels with a lower failure rate. The calculation can be impaired when occlusions occur or when the environment has low light. The operator defines the physical constraints and selects the points of the
In [70], the points that are tracked with the optical flow are defined by applying the Canny edge detector on the pixels of the reference pixel map. Pixels that produce a high response to the Canny detector are the selected points.
In [43], optical flow is used as a characteristic for tracking the contour of the object. The contour is shifted in small steps until the position in which the optical flow vectors are homogeneous is found.
In [64], they performed an estimate of the translation and orientation of the reference object by calculating the optical flow of the pixels belonging to its silhouette. The coordinates of the centroid position are defined by minimizing the Hausdorff distance between the mean of the optical flow vectors of the reference object and the candidate object to be chosen as the object of interest.
Optical flow is defined as a dense vector field associated with the movement and apparent velocity of an object, given by the translation of pixels from consecutive frames in an image region. It can be calculated from the brightness restriction, considered constant, from the corresponding pixels in consecutive frames.
Mathematically be a pixel
So that equation (7) is called optical flow restriction and where the terms
The number of variables in equation (6) is greater than that of equations, which does not allow estimating components and vector, and determining a single solution for the optical flow restriction equation. With this, Lucas and Kanade proposed a solution to solve this problem. The solution method proposed by them considers the constant flow in a region formed by a set of pixels
Passing the set of equations given by equation (8) to the matrix form we have:
Using the least squares method, in the system of equations (9) in the form of matricial, the same can be solved. Therefore, the optical flow
Where:
Therefore, one has that:
Thus:
This method has a reduced computational cost to determine optical flow estimation when compared to other methods because it is simple, that is, it is since the region in which the variation of light intensity between pixels is minimal has a size
To calculate the optical flow over the size region
Where the terms
In view of the small variations present and accumulated along the vector field associated with the optic flow, which cause an additional error in equation (13), a regularization adjustment was made, given by equation (14):
Thus, combining equations (13) and (14), the error
where
where
and replacing the coefficients
whereas
It is possible to reduce the data system by (17), such as:
where the term
Where
Therefore, isolating terms
The Algorithm 1 is a pseudocode to generate the proposed optical flow vector, through equations (24) and (25) and that allow estimating the speed and position of an object, through a sequence of video images.
Begin
For I = 1…N do
Convert images to a gray tone
Calculate the partial derivatives of 1°and 2°orders of
Calculate constants
Calculate the discretized Laplacians of
Calculating Gaussian curvature
Calculate flow components (
End For
End
Developed by Breiman [63] in the mid-2000s, and later revised in [71] random trees are considered one of the best-supervised learning methods used in data prediction and classification. Due to its simplicity, low computational cost, great potential to deal with a large volume of data, and still present great accuracy of results, currently this method has become very popular being applied in various fields of science as data science [72]. Bioinformatics, Ecology, in real-life systems and recognition of 3D objects. In recent years, several studies have been conducted with the objective of making the technique more elaborate and seeking new practical applications [73, 74, 75].
Many studies were carried out with the aim of narrowing the existing gap between theory and practice can be seen in [58, 76, 77, 78]. Among the main components of random tree forests, one can highlight the bagging method [63], and the criterion of classification and regression called cart
Bagging (a bootstrap-aggregating contraction) is an aggregation scheme, which generates samples through the bootstrap method, from the original dataset. These methods are nonparametric and belong to the Monte Carlos method class [80], treating the sample as a finite population. Still, these methods are used when the distribution of the target population is not specified, and the sample is the only information available. How in this way a predictor of each sample is constructed, so that the decision is made through an average, and is more effective computational procedures to improve the indexable estimates, especially for large sets of high-dimensional data, where finding a good model in one step is impossible due to the complexity and scale of the problem. As for the cart-split criterion, it originates from the CART program [63], and is used in the construction of individual trees to choose the best cuts perpendicular to the Axes. However, while bagging and the CART division scheme are key elements in the random forest, both are difficult to mathematically analyze and are a very promising field for both theoretical and practical research.
In general, the set of trees is organized in the form of {
The methodology employed consisted of combining the optical flow algorithm in terms of Gaussian curvature, developed in this work together with the technique of random forest. The language used for the development of this algorithm was the MATLAB programming language, executed on a 64-bit 8th generation notebook, CORE i7. The input data is a video extension Avi, lasting 5 min of a vehicle and two cyclists, circulating in the vicinity of the beach of Costa Nova, in the locality of Ilhavo, in Aveiro, Portugal. The video was fragmented into a set of frames, analyzed two by two by the algorithm for the generation of the vector field of optical flow. After that, the resulting image associated with the flow and a minimal surface region, given by the Gaussian curvature. Next on this surface, the random trees analyzed which vectors presented important characteristics to characterize in an “optimal” way, the movement of the object (see Figure 2).
Representative model of operation of a random forest.
After finishing the process of analysis of the movement of the objects, the execution times and accuracy of the results obtained by the proposed algorithm were compared in relation to the algorithms of Lucas Kanade, Horn and Shunck, Farneback and Lucas Kanade with or without Gaussian filter, allowing to validate the results obtained. After that, the implementation of the developed algorimo began.
Figure 3 shows the vehicle and the two cyclists that were used to collect the image to which the results proposed in this work were obtained so that the choice was random on the right side. A graphical representation of the vector field of optical flow generated by the sequence of two consecutive frames, over 5 minutes of video is shown.
(a) Left side: vehicle shift between moments
On the right side of Figure 3, the optical flow associated with the movement of the vehicle between the time intervals from
The region with the highest horizontal vector density in Figure 3 is located on the left side, in blue. It is also observed that the number of vectors in this region, despite being spaced, starting from the center to the left, is greater in relation to the number of vectors on the right side. It is also possible, through it, to visually evaluate the movement behavior of the considered objects. This region, containing a higher vector density, corresponds to the current direction in which the object is heading and its predicted displacement. It is also possible to observe that this vector density increases towards the left side, passing through the central part, coming from the right, clearly indicating the direction of movement of the object, that is, the object moves to the left. In Figure 4, this process can be understood more clearly.
Prediction and actual displacement of the object obtained through the optical flow.
In a similar way to the one mentioned in Figure 3, on the right side of Figure 5, the optical flow generated by the displacement of the moving vehicle is represented, between the instants
Object remains on the right side, but with a medium offset to the right and displacement estimate still to the left.
It is possible to observe a small increase in the vector density to the left, but that has a great influence on the determination of the real and predicted position of the object in the considered time intervals. The Object continues with its actual movement to the left, as well as the predicted movement of the object to the left. However, he showed a slight movement to the left (direction where the cyclists are).
In Figure 6, a small variation of the optical flow is observed again in the associated movement between the instants
Object remains on the right side, but with a slight shift to the right and offset estimate to the left.
In Figure 7, there was no optical flow variation in the associated movement between the time intervals
Object moving and keeping on the left for consecutive frames.
In Figure 8, the vehicle can be seen completely overtaking the two cyclists and approaching another vehicle in the opposite direction in the upper part of the image (left). The variation of the optical flow vector field remains the same. This indicates that the vehicle continues its trajectory, on the left side to the cyclists, however without posing a danger of collision for the other vehicle in the opposite direction.
Object with unchanged offset pattern.
This item will show how the performance evaluation of the proposed algorithm and accuracy was performed in relation to the Algorithms of Luca and Kanade, with or without Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunck, and Farneback.
The algorithm allowed to show on the display in real-time the displacement of the object on the right side and the set of vectors capable of representing the movement of the real-time or accumulated indicating the tendency, in this case, of the direction that the object should perform. This process was carried out in a similar way, using the other algorithms to make it possible to compare them. The behavior of the proposed algorithm and the other will be graphically shown.
The technique developed in this work allowed to generate an optical flow considering important geometric properties allowing to identify similar categories of moving objects and same characteristics. These geometric properties are intrinsically associated with the curvature of the object’s surface in three-dimensional space, called Gaussian curvature, in this case in a 2D image.
The modified optical flow, considering these properties, generated a dense optical flow, allowing the generation of a band, describing a track on the 2D plane. This allowed tracking the movement of the considered object. In the same Figure 8, it is possible to observe that at each time interval in which the object was monitored, the dispositions of the vectors for the left and right sides, as shown in Figures 3–7 were responsible for drawing the track associated with the displaced and that allowed tracking the object as it moves.
Figure 9 shows the vehicle that, when moving, generated the optical flow. In Figures 10 and 11, the variations of the optical flow between two-time intervals,
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
In the following items, the implementations of the Lucas and Kanade algorithms without or with a Gaussian filter, Horn and Schunck, and Farneback will be shown, using as input data the same sequence of video images used in the algorithm developed in this work. For each, the performance and accuracy obtained will be verified.
For each of the 5 algorithms, 1 frame is shown containing 4 figures, with 2 upper and 2 lower. In each frame, the figure at the top left shows the variation of the vector field between two frames. The right frame, on the other hand, corresponds to the variation of the object’s movement in real-time. The lower ones, except for the proposed algorithm, correspond to the number of points on the right or the left, and with this, the movement will occur to the side that has the greatest number of points. In the case of the proposed algorithm, the process will take place through the analysis of vector density. So, to the side where there is greater vector density, this is the side to which the movement will be occurring (see Figures 12–20).
Object moving to the right side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the right side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the right side.
Comparing the results presented by the algorithms, it is observed that in the developed model, it was possible to see a dense vector trail of the object, with a slight tendency of displacement to the left, as it continues its movement. In the other models, this was not possible, and it is necessary to resort to a score of points, in the lower table. This process is also possible in the proposed model, but not necessary, which means a reduction in computational cost (see Figures 21–28).
Variation of the optical flow of the moving object.
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the right side.
Object moving to the left side.
Variation of the optical flow of the moving
Vehicle movement.
Object moving to the left side.
Object moving to the left side.
Comparing the results, it is observed that the Farneback algorithm also presents high vector density. But the proposed model, as previously said, presents a well-defined vector trail which suggests the non-use of the point count in the lower frame, which does not occur for the Farneback algorithm, indicating higher computational cost, which can affect the accuracy of this algorithm when compared to the proposed algorithm.
Comparing the Horn and Schunck algorithm, a low vector density is observed when compared to the proposed algorithm, which indicates lower accuracy when compared to the proposed algorithm.
Although the two techniques of Lucas and Kanade, are faster applications, indicating low computational cost when compared to the proposed algorithm, the factor of low vector density results in low precision in relation to the proposed method.
The proposed method presented good results, showing to be accurate and reasonable speed. This allows this application to be used in critical problems, i.e., to real-world problems. However, it presented limitations that could be verified when compared to the model with Lucas and Kanade, with a Gaussian filter, which is faster and presents good accuracy.
The proposed Method reached only approximately 50% execution speed in relation to the Lucas and Kanade Method, which motivates further improvements to the Method. The technique presented can be applied to other fields of research as in cardiology due to presenting great precision when submitted to small region, which is important because it can be applied with the objective of predicting infarctions and as a current contribution, for the state of the art is to characterize the optical flow in terms of Gaussian curvature, that makes it possible to highlight fields of research such as computational vision and differential geometry.
The authors of this work would like to thank the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro, the Telecommunications Institute of Aveiro, and the University of Aveiro for the financial, technical-administrative, and structural support provided that allowed the accomplishment of this work.
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Statements regarding global forces of international best practices and their diffusion into local contexts, the translated western-centric CSR logics in the context of local political and socio-economic realities are extracted to form conclusions in relation to the adaptation of CSR in the global business environment of the GCC.",book:{id:"6605",slug:"globalization",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization"},signatures:"Dima Jamali and Walaa El Safadi",authors:[{id:"179628",title:"Prof.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Jamali",slug:"dima-jamali",fullName:"Dima Jamali"},{id:"241412",title:"BSc.",name:"Walaa",middleName:null,surname:"El Safadi",slug:"walaa-el-safadi",fullName:"Walaa El Safadi"}]},{id:"17529",doi:"10.5772/21231",title:"Sport in Asia: Globalization, Glocalization, Asianization",slug:"sport-in-asia-globalization-glocalization-asianization",totalDownloads:5812,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"470",slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Peter Horton",authors:[{id:"42366",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Horton",slug:"peter-horton",fullName:"Peter Horton"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"38348",title:"Globalization and Culture: The Three H Scenarios",slug:"globalization-and-culture-the-three-h-scenarios",totalDownloads:16812,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3009",slug:"globalization-approaches-to-diversity",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Approaches to Diversity"},signatures:"Abderrahman Hassi and Giovanna Storti",authors:[{id:"148330",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Hassi",slug:"abderrahman-hassi",fullName:"Abderrahman Hassi"},{id:"152537",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Storti",slug:"giovanna-storti",fullName:"Giovanna Storti"}]},{id:"73290",title:"Indian Education: Ancient, Medieval and Modern",slug:"indian-education-ancient-medieval-and-modern",totalDownloads:1836,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Education is a platform in which young generations are trained and make them future-ready. 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The mentioned points are used to differentiate ancient, medieval, and modern education with advantages and disadvantages. Through this chapter, students, teachers will get to know the difference in the education system and what else to be adapted in the future to overcome all the problems.",book:{id:"9536",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",fullTitle:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology"},signatures:"Mangesh M. 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Academic reflection on the matter led to the development of the international business ethics field, which seeks to answer a key question: how should a company behave when the standards followed in the host country are lower than those followed in the home country? This chapter will fulfill three goals. Firstly, it will present the new moral dilemmas that economic globalization and technological change are posing to multinational corporations. Secondly, it will introduce a number of answers developed by practitioners in civil society, government and business. Finally, it will review a number of theoretical answers developed by normative researchers by adapting traditional moral theories such as utilitarianism, kantian deontology and virtue ethics. The chapter will conclude that traditional moral theories have mostly failed at providing guidance for a number of new cross-cultural moral dilemmas in the global economy.",book:{id:"6605",slug:"globalization",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization"},signatures:"Federico Ast",authors:[{id:"230355",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Ast",slug:"federico-ast",fullName:"Federico Ast"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"69",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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