\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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In more detail, these topics are pertaining to the geological characteristics and the production response of a reservoir located offshore the Niger Delta (Nigeria), the coastal lacustrine geo-archives with the example of the Lake Bafa (Turkey), the sedimentary processes in the riparian zone of the Ruxi Tributary Channel (Three Gorges Reservoir, China), the beach morphological changes studied by means of a contour-line change model and finally, the role of the mangroves in controlling the sedimentary accretion of coastal and marine environments with the regional example of the south-eastern Asia.",isbn:"978-1-78984-765-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-764-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-729-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77582",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sedimentary-processes-examples-from-asia-turkey-and-nigeria",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e66ff69a772c2913167e9987180d7279",bookSignature:"Gemma Aiello",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7768.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2266,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",middleName:null,surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/100661/images/system/100661.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gemma Aiello was born in Aversa (CE), Italy, on 24 October\n1964. In 1989, she graduated in Geological Sciences at the University of Naples 'Federico II”. In 1993, she earned a PhD degree\nin Sedimentary Geology at the University of Naples 'Federico II”,\nDepartment of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geological Sciences. She\ncompleted a 2-year postdoctoral fellowship at the University of\nNaples 'Federico II”, a CNR-CEE fellowship, and several contracts\nat the Research Institute 'Geomare Sud”, CNR, Naples, Italy. Since 1998, she has\nbeen a full-time researcher at the Italian CNR. Dr. Aiello has 25 years’ experience in\nthe field of sedimentary geology, marine geology, and geophysics, participating in\ndifferent research projects for the Italian National Research Council (CARG, Vector,\nCentri Regionali di Competenza). She was a contract professor of sedimentology and\nstratigraphy at the Parthenope University of Naples, Italy, and a teacher in formation\ncourses of technicians in marine science and engineering in Naples, Italy",institutionString:"Institute of Marine Sciences - National Research Council ISMAR-CNR",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Institute for Coastal Marine Environment",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"667",title:"Geomorphology",slug:"sedimentology-geomorphology"}],chapters:[{id:"70756",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Introduction to Sedimentary Processes - Examples from Asia, Turkey, and Nigeria",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-introduction-to-sedimentary-processes-examples-from-asia-turkey-and-nigeria",totalDownloads:134,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello"}]},{id:"67387",title:"Geologic Characteristics and Production Response of the N5.2 Reservoir, Shallow Offshore Niger Delta, Nigeria",slug:"geologic-characteristics-and-production-response-of-the-n5-2-reservoir-shallow-offshore-niger-delta-",totalDownloads:584,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"228567",title:"Dr.",name:"Prince Suka",surname:"Momta",slug:"prince-suka-momta",fullName:"Prince Suka Momta"}]},{id:"66556",title:"“Geo-archives of a Coastal Lacustrine Eco-system”: Lake Bafa (Mediterranean Sea)",slug:"-geo-archives-of-a-coastal-lacustrine-eco-system-lake-bafa-mediterranean-sea-",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"138405",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Namik",surname:"Çagatay",slug:"m.-namik-cagatay",fullName:"M. Namik Çagatay"},{id:"290307",title:"Dr.",name:"Özlem",surname:"Bulkan",slug:"ozlem-bulkan",fullName:"Özlem Bulkan"},{id:"290457",title:"MSc.",name:"Bilgehan",surname:"Toksoy",slug:"bilgehan-toksoy",fullName:"Bilgehan Toksoy"}]},{id:"66126",title:"Fingerprinting Sources of the Sediments Deposited in the Riparian Zone of the Ruxi Tributary Channel of the Three Gorges Reservoir (China)",slug:"fingerprinting-sources-of-the-sediments-deposited-in-the-riparian-zone-of-the-ruxi-tributary-channel",totalDownloads:236,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"290401",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhonglin",surname:"Shi",slug:"zhonglin-shi",fullName:"Zhonglin Shi"},{id:"292470",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongchun",surname:"Yan",slug:"dongchun-yan",fullName:"Dongchun Yan"},{id:"292825",title:"Prof.",name:"Anbang",surname:"Wen",slug:"anbang-wen",fullName:"Anbang Wen"},{id:"292827",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyan",surname:"Wang",slug:"yongyan-wang",fullName:"Yongyan Wang"}]},{id:"66184",title:"A Long-Term Prediction of Beach Changes around River Delta using Contour-Line-Change Model",slug:"a-long-term-prediction-of-beach-changes-around-river-delta-using-contour-line-change-model",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"},{id:"122917",title:"Dr.",name:"Masumi",surname:"Serizawa",slug:"masumi-serizawa",fullName:"Masumi Serizawa"},{id:"287386",title:"Ms.",name:"Shiho",surname:"Miyahara",slug:"shiho-miyahara",fullName:"Shiho Miyahara"},{id:"288256",title:"Mr.",name:"Toshiro",surname:"San-Nami",slug:"toshiro-san-nami",fullName:"Toshiro San-Nami"}]},{id:"67292",title:"The Role of Mangroves in Coastal and Estuarine Sedimentary Accretion in Southeast Asia",slug:"the-role-of-mangroves-in-coastal-and-estuarine-sedimentary-accretion-in-southeast-asia",totalDownloads:743,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"216896",title:"Dr.",name:"Punarbasu",surname:"Chaudhuri",slug:"punarbasu-chaudhuri",fullName:"Punarbasu Chaudhuri"},{id:"290438",title:"Ms.",name:"Raktima",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"raktima-ghosh",fullName:"Raktima Ghosh"},{id:"290966",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhamita",surname:"Chaudhuri",slug:"subhamita-chaudhuri",fullName:"Subhamita Chaudhuri"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"287827",firstName:"Gordan",lastName:"Tot",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287827/images/8493_n.png",email:"gordan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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In order to apply sustainable solutions to problems related to food production, the biotechnological potential of endophytic microorganisms has been prospected in the agronomic area. The use of beneficial microorganisms in agricultural production aims for pest control, improvement of productivity and plant development, and/or recovery of ecological systems. Endophytes play a role in evolution of plant and in resistance of stresses through the production of bioactive metabolites, changes in enzyme metabolism, and gene expression related to resistance [1], and those beneficial effects of various endophytic genera may be the combined [2].
Biological control of phytopathogens occurs when living microorganisms repress the development of the etiological agent in the plant [3]. Endophytes can act inducing resistance, promoting antibiosis and/or competition in consequence of the mutualistic relation with the plant [4]. These processes can occur independently, but the overlap of mechanisms may also happen [5], like is observed in the association of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium brunneum against the complex of Fusarium, the control ocurrs by competition and antibiosis [6].
The physiological definition of resistance is the delay or impediment of entry and/or subsequent activity of the pathogen in the plant [7]. Plants have numerous and efficient defense mechanisms naturally triggered when exposed to elicitors [8] that can be stimulated by the endophytes presence. The plant defense mechanisms are induced after the recognition of molecular patterns associated with pathogens/microbes (PAMPs/MAMPs), or plants’ molecular patterns associated with damage (DAMPs) and effectors, by proteins or by nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) [9]. Endophyte induces systemic resistance on plants providing an alert state, the priming [10, 11]. Priming plants exhibits faster and stronger responses against pathogen attacks because transcription factors and signaling proteins have already accumulated in cells. This defense induction is a consequence of molecular signaling during the establishment of plant-endophyte symbiosis [10]. An example of the host-induced resistance by endophytes is the frequent isolation of Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens in plants without symptoms of citrus variegated chlorosis, suggesting that this endophyte has a role in the resistance of the citrus plant [12].
A reprogrammed genetic transcription occurs in plants associated with endophytes. The Epichloë festucae symbiosis with ryegrass (Lolium perenne var. Lolii) enhances gene expression of jasmonic acid (JA) precursors [13], and the expression of the systemic defense genes HvPr17b and HvHsp70 in barley is associated with the presence of the endophyte Piriformospora indica [14]. Further, presence of endophytes may alter pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-proteins) concentration, as chitinase, peroxidase, glucanase and cellulase in cucumber inoculated with Trichoderma harzianum [15], lignin and cellulose in Theobroma cacao in symbiosis with Colletotrichum tropicale [16], and PR2, PR6, PR15, and PR16 in rice with Bacillus subtilis [17]. The resistance response induced by symbiosis of plant-endophyte is systemic. Studies have shown that gene expression or protein production related to host defense was evidenced in plant portions distant from those inoculated with Klebsiella pneumoniae [18], Rhizobium etli [19], and Pseudomonas fluorescens [20].
The resistance induction is also related with the activity of defense enzymes, such as phenylalanine ammonia lyase, polyphenol oxidase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase. Pseudomonas fluorescens induces resistance related to the activity of lipoxygenase, catalase, aminocyclopropane carboxylate oxidase, and phenylalanine ammonia lyase [20]. Pseudomonas fluorescens is also capable to induce systemic resistance in plants by producing 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol [21].
The vast majority of endophytes are biotrophic [22]. Therefore, it is important to consider that when colonization of the plant by biotrophic endophytes begins, the salicylic acid (SA) route activates defenses, so endophytes need to be able to suppress this defense by specific effectors. The expression of the Ca2+/calmodulin kinase enzyme is capable to suppress the pathway of SA [23]. In addition, the possibility of recruiting gibberellic acid (GA) reduces the proportion of DELLA proteins, altering the salicylic acid and jasmonic acid (JA) signaling [24]. The suppression of the SA stimulates JA route precursors and genes, which increases resistance to chewing insects and necrotrophic fungi and promotes susceptibility to biotrophics [10, 22]. To ensure plant protection against biotrophic fungi and sucking insects, endophytes have the ability to biosynthesize compounds responsible for antibiosis; besides they can also control these organisms through mycoparasitism and competition.
The endophytes are able to biosynthesize secondary metabolites, which are important for plant colonization processes [2] and are toxic to insects, pathogens [10], and algae [25]. These compounds are classified as alkaloids (amines and amides; indole derivatives), steroids, terpenoids (sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, monoterpenes), isocoumarin derivatives, quinones, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids and lignans, peptides, phenol and phenolic acids, aliphatic compounds, and chlorinated metabolites [25]. The antagonistic activity of endophytes associated with antibiosis is described for different cultures, like potato [26, 27] and turmeric rhizome [28].
Alkaloids are an important group of metabolites produced by endophytes; some characterized classes are ergot alkaloids, diterpene indole, pyrrolizidines, and peramine. These compounds have important biological activity (antitumor, antimicrobial), including the reduction of insect performance [10, 13]. The resistance of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) colonized by endophytic Streptomyces spp. against Sclerotium rolfsii is attributed to the production of phenols and flavonoids by the endophyte [29]. Nematicide compounds such as 4-vinylphenol, methionine, piperine, and palmitic acid were evidenced to have high concentrations in soybean colonized by Bacillus simplex [30].
The need for nutritional factors, like carbon, nitrogen, and iron, may also promote biological control. Direct parasitism is a fungus-fungus antagonism, in which one directly attacks another and utilizes its nutrients [31]. This kind of control, independent of a systemic defense response, was observed with the colonization of previously endophyte-free leaves of Theobroma cacao that significantly decreases necrosis in the local of inoculation when challenged with Phytophthora sp. [32]. Endophyte colonization can directly control a phytopathogen even without inducing defense mechanisms such as PR-proteins, like evidenced by the control of Trichoderma stromaticum over Moniliophthora perniciosa [33]. A scanning electron microscope showed that the Trichoderma endophytes cause deformities in the mycelia of Pythium aphanidermatum and Rhizoctonia solani, such as hyphal fragmentation, perforation, lysis, and mycelial degeneration [28]. A strain of Trichoderma harzianum showed in vitro growth contact points that suggest mycoparasitic activity against Fusarium solani [34]. Endophytic and epiphytic fungi isolated from fruits of organic Olea europaea were able to inhibit mycelial growth, germination, and sporulation and cause pathogenic hyphae abnormalities of Colletotrichum acutatum, particularly at mycelial contact [35]. In addition, endophytic fungi from Pachystachys lutea, mainly Diaporthe sp. perform antagonistic activity against Colletotrichum spp. and Fusarium oxysporum, in which contact interactions of the endophyte with the pathogen predominated [36].
Competition and direct parasitism require endophyte-pathogen contact, but those microorganisms have very little to no direct contact with the plant. Because of this, contact mechanisms are not the most important biological control pathway [4].
Endophytic bacteria promote plant growth directly or indirectly: directly, producing phytohormones or enzymes [37, 38] and indirectly, contributing to plant nutrient uptake through nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, or iron transformation [39, 40]. For this, the inoculant competes with an adapted indigenous microbiota; therefore, for the colonization of plant, some bacterial characteristics are important, such as motility and polysaccharide production [41, 42, 43, 44].
Ethylene and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) are phytohormones that are involved in almost all aspects of plant growth and development, from seed germination to shoot growth, and they control the response of the plant to stress [45, 46]. Plant growth is promoted by reducing ethylene levels and increasing IAA. Biotic and abiotic stresses result in increased ethylene production in plants, leading to inhibition of root elongation, lateral root development, and root hair formation. Plant-associated microorganisms can increase root growth and budding of plants by reducing ethylene levels [47]. The endophytic bacteria can produce an enzyme called 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, which hydrolyzes ACC, an ethylene immediate precursor, relieving stress and improving the growth of plants under disturbed conditions [42, 48, 49]. An inoculum from Burkholderia phytofirmans with the gene responsible for producing mutated ACC deaminase was unable to promote root growth of canola. The reintroduction of the ACC deaminase gene restored the microorganism’s ability to promote plant growth, highlighting the importance of the enzyme in promoting host plant growth [48]. On the other hand, the IAA is an auxin, a growth hormone that promotes differential cell elongation and functions as the plant growth regulator. Besides being produced by plants, IAA may also be produced by root-associated bacteria, such as Enterobacter spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Azospirillum spp. [50].
Endophytic bacteria can benefit the host by producing cytokines and gibberellins. Corn endophytic bacteria, Azospirillum lipoferum, produce gibberellin, which is important in relieving plant stress [51]. Similarly, extracts of two endophytic bacteria from Gynura procumbens, Pseudomonas resinovorans, and Paenibacillus polymyxa presented cytokines [52].
Nitrogen is the most important nutrient for plant growth and productivity. Although abundant in the atmosphere, it is not available to plants. For this, it requires to be transformed by a biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) process in which N2 is converted to NH3 by bacteria expressing nitrogenase, such as Burkholderia spp., Azoarcus sp., Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus, Herbaspirillum sp., Azospirillum brasilense, and Paenibacillus sp. [53, 54, 55]. Nitrogen-fixing endophytes outperform rhizosphere microorganisms in this process allowing plants to thrive even in nitrogen-limited soil environments, promoting plant health and growth [56]. Endophytic nitrogen-fixing bacteria can also increase the buildup and the nitrogen fixation rate in plants residing in soils with nitrogen limitation.
Phosphorus is an important micronutrient for the enzymatic reactions of plant physiological processes [57]. Although present in large quantities, most of the soil phosphorus is insoluble and therefore unavailable to the plant. In addition, almost 75% of phosphorus applied as fertilizer forms complexes in the soil, which prevents its absorption by the vegetable [58]. The endophytic bacteria can increase soil phosphorus availability to plants by solubilizing precipitated phosphates through mechanisms of acidification, chelation, ion exchange, and the production of organic acids [59]. They can also increase the availability of phosphorus in the soil by secreting acid phosphatase, which can mineralize organic phosphorus [60]. Furthermore, endophytic bacteria can prevent phosphate adsorption and fixation under phosphate-limiting conditions and assimilate solubilized phosphorus [61]. Studies show that endophytic populations of cactus, strawberry, sunflower, soybean, and other legumes have the ability to solubilize phosphate [62, 63, 64]. A study examined the role of phosphate-solubilizing endophytic bacteria in cactus cultivation and observed that inoculated plants grew well without added nutrients and that their growth was comparable to fertilized plants. This indicates that endophytic bacteria provide the limiting nutrient to seedlings [65].
Iron is a component of proteins that control physiological processes such as respiration and transpiration [66]. Generally, it occurs in the ferric insoluble form, unavailable to the plants. The endophytic bacteria produce iron chelators called siderophores that may bind to insoluble ferric ions allowing this nutrient uptake by plants [66, 67, 68]. The action of bacterial-produced siderophores has already been correlated with the growth of cultivars such as corn, including shoot and root biomass [69], and on tomato development in hydroponic crops [70].
The ability to promote plant growth by endophytic bacteria may be influenced by host genotype [71]. However, many endophytic bacteria can have a wide range of hosts, such as B. phytofirmans, which promote growth of Arabidopsis thaliana, grapes, corn, potatoes, grass, tomatoes, and wheat [72, 73, 74]. Similarly, the bacterial genotype also influences the capacity and potential of stimulatory effects over host plants. For example, the individual ability of different B. phytofirmans strains to promote growth of a single potato cultivar [75] and the plant colonization by different Salmonella enterica isolates were observed [76]. Therefore, colonization and growth promotion of plants by endophytic bacteria are active processes controlled by genetic factors of both partners.
The prompt development of agriculture has made it possible to increase the food supply all over the world. However, the intensification of agricultural activities brought serious environmental impacts, which not only affect food security but also have impacts on socioeconomic aspects. These impacts comprise contribution to air pollution, impacts on land, waste of water, loss of biological and ecological diversity, and perturbation of global biogeochemical cycles. The pollutants generated by agricultural activities can affect the global or local scale. An example of global-scale agro-environmental problem is the increase in atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gasses (GHG) and carbon dioxide (CO2) through deforestation and nitrous oxide (N2O) arising from crop production. Agriculture is the largest water consumer and the main source of nitrate, ammonia, and phosphate pollution. These pollutants affect the local scale; some examples are the salinization of irrigated lands and the buildup of nitrate fertilizer residues in groundwater and surface water [77, 78, 79, 80, 81].
Most of the negative environmental impacts generated by the intensification of agricultural activities can be reduced or prevented [77]. The use of new technological approaches, physicochemical- or biological-based, could remove pollutants from nature. Biological-based methods are preferred due to the low cost and because they are less harmful to the environment. Atlas and Pramer [82] defined the term bioremediation as “the use of biological agents to reclaim soils and waters polluted by substances hazardous to human health and/or the environment.” In other words, bioremediation is a biological-based method involving the use of living organisms, such as plants or microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae), to remove pollutants from the environment [83].
Degradation of pollutants by a microorganism demands favorable conditions of nutrients, temperature, pH, and oxygen. Bacteria and fungi are commonly used in bioremediation strategies, because they are ubiquitous and capable in withstanding different environmental conditions, so they can be used for a broader range of application. There are two main mechanisms of bioremediation: biosorption and bioaccumulation. Biosorption involves sequestration of pollutants thought binding onto surfaces, such as the cell wall. Bioaccumulation involves transport and accumulation of pollutants in the cells and, in some cases, the transformation of pollutants into less harmful compounds [78, 83]. The degradation of target pollutants can also be achieved by employing nonliving subcellular entities of biological origin as bioremediators [84]. To overcome the instability due to the rapid decline in the inoculated cell amount during its competition with indigenous microorganisms, some authors have proposed solutions. For example, a new strategy for the efficient removal of phenylurea herbicides from contaminated soil uses transgenic plants. Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants expressing a bacterial N-demethylase (PdmAB) that demethylated isoproturon were constructed. The synergistic relationship between the transgenic plant and Sphingobium sp., which is capable of mineralizing the intermediate of isoproturon excreted from the transgenic plant in the rhizosphere, is an innovative strategy of treatment [85].
Endophytes can remove pollutants by employing either the biosorption or the bioaccumulation mechanisms [83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90]. They have the ability of decreasing and/or removing contaminants from soil, water, sediments, and air. Endophytic fungi have a great potential to manage toxic pollutants; many studies report those fungi to clean up environmental pollutants, such as white rot fungi like Phanerochaete chrysosporium that can degrade pesticides, dyes, and xenobiotics [91, 92]. There are several examples of endophytic microorganisms with promising applications in bioremediation [93]. As an example, symbiotic fungal endophytes from agricultural, coastal, and geothermal native grasses colonized tomato plants and conferred disease, salt, and heat tolerance, respectively. Coastal plant endophyte colonized rice and conferred salt tolerance. In addition, coastal and geothermal plant endophytes conferred drought tolerance to monocot and eudicot hosts [88]. In leguminous plants including soybean, salinity is correlated with poor yield and reduction in plant growth [94]. Basidiomycetous endophytic fungus Porostereum spadiceum was reposted to produce six types of gibberellins that reduce the effects of salinity in soybean by modulating endogenous phytohormones of the seedlings [95].
Heavy metals are one example of pollutants generated by agricultural activity that bioremediators can remove. The use of some pesticides and fertilizers can introduce into the environment copper (Cu), and some insecticide and herbicides can contain lead (Pb). Fungi have emerged as potential biocatalysts to access heavy metals and transform them into less toxic compounds [92, 96]. Endophytic fungi isolated of Portulaca oleracea growing in metal-contaminated soils increased the biomass Brassica napus. The results indicated that the endophytic fungus strain had the potential to remove heavy metals from contaminated water and soils [97]. Bioremediation of Pb-contaminated soil occurs by cultivation of Solanum nigrum combined with Mucor circinelloides [22]. Endophyte isolates from Phragmites also showed potential to metal tolerance and absorption of Cu, Pb, and chromium (Cr) [98].
Phytoremediation is the process that uses plants associated with microorganisms to remediate contaminants from soil, sludge, sediments, wastewater, and groundwater [92, 96]. Plants naturally harbor endophytes that may have natural tolerance and adaptation toward the pollutants. Studies explored the potential of using endophytes associated with plants for removal of pollutants in this process of phytoremediation [86, 88, 96, 99]. Plants growing in metal-contaminated soils accumulate the pollutant consumed directly or indirectly by humans and animals [100, 101]. Besides the human risk, polluted soil slows plant growth and reduces the biomass accumulation, compromising some crop productivity [102, 103]. Endophytic fungi resistant to different metals, including cadmium, lead, zinc (Zn), chromium, manganese (Mn), and cobalt (Co), are associated with plant species present in contaminated sites, indicating that these microorganisms have metal bioremediation potential [83, 97, 98, 99, 104, 105]. Chromium toxicity influences a number of processes that can lead to low yield. The accumulation of Cr from industrial activities in soil is a serious threat to some crops [106, 107, 108]. To minimize the Cr effects from contaminated soils, it is possible to use plants that harbor endophytic fungi that act as bioremediators. In experiments, strains of Aspergillus fumigatus, Rhizopus sp., Penicillium radicum, and Fusarium proliferatum isolated from healthy plants were able to remove Cr from soil and culture media as well as biotransform it from highly toxic hexavalent to least toxic trivalent form, instead of simply storing it. Roots of Lactuca sativa colonized by those endophytes restored its normal growth into Cr-contaminated soil, making them potential candidates as biofertilizer in Cr-contaminated soil. Likewise, Rhizopus sp. and F. proliferatum reduced the translocation of Cr to the leaves, making it safer for human consumption [102]. Other biofertilizer candidates to be used in fields affected with heavy metals are the endophytic Mucor sp. MHR-7 that presented tolerance to chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, and zinc by biotransformation and/or accumulation of those metals in its hyphae. Co-cultivation of MHR-7 reduced in 90% the Cr absorption and promoted growth in mustard cultivation [103].
Studies reported the use of Mucor sp. in another remediation strategy called phytoextraction. Phytoextraction refers to the removal of heavy metal from the soil through their uptake by a metal-accumulating plant. One limitation is the long growth cycle of those plants. One strategy is to combine plants with endophytes that promote stress tolerance to toxicity and high biomass accumulation, increasing metal accumulation in plant tissues. Oilseed rape plants combined with Mucor sp. strains promoted stress tolerance to Cd and Pb, increasing biomass of plants and reducing the concentrations of those metals in the soil [109]. Similar results were found using the fungal endophyte Peyronellaea associated with maize under heavy metal stress [110], and the Microsphaeropsis sp. strain isolated from Solanum nigrum has also been studied for their biosorption capacity of cadmium [111]. Mercury volatilization and bioaccumulation of this metal in plant tissues mediated by endophytic fungi were demonstrated with Aspergillus sp. A31, Curvularia geniculata P1, Lindgomycetaceae P87, and Westerdykella sp. P71 on maize and Aeschynomene fluminensis [112].
Similar to metal pollutants, triphenylmethane (TPM) dyes are water-soluble organic compounds extensively used in industrial processes and have adverse effects on living organisms. TPM is phytotoxic for several cultivated plants, such as Sorghum bicolor, Triticum aestivum, Vigna radiata, Lemna minor, and Zea mays [83]. A Diaporthe sp. endophyte presented biosorption and biodegradation potential on TPM dyes. The microorganism removed TPM dyes through biodegradation and biosorption [113]. Other endophytes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Polyporus picipes, and Gloeophyllum odoratum, also demonstrate potential to remove TPM dye [114, 115].
Endophytic microorganisms are inestimable natural resources for solving problems in different areas such as human health, veterinary, industrial and ecological systems, and agronomy. In contrast to current agricultural practices that degrade systems and produce food with high concentrations of various contaminants, endophytes are a sustainable alternative to increase crop productivity. For this, they can be exploited by the ability to control pests, to promote plant growth, and by the bioremediation potential. This is possible because these microorganisms are able to induce resistance mechanisms in the host, release compounds with biological activity, compete for space and nutrients with pathogens, provide nutritional elements present in the soil, stimulate the production of phytohormones and cytokines, and neutralize the presence of pollutants in the system. Ultimately, bioprospecting and the use of endophytes in agriculture are a viable alternative to the need of increased food production with quality and sustainably.
The authors would like to acknowledge CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior), Brazil.
Atopy refers to a personal tendency to heightened immune responses to small doses of allergens and as a result producing IgE antibodies. As a consequence a patient develops certain types of diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis and asthma.
\nAtopic dermatitis (AD) is a dermatosis that occurs in 2–5% of the population and is one of the most common dermatoses. Nowadays in developed countries over the past three decades the number of cases of AD has almost tripled. The main symptoms of the disease are pruritis, abnormally dry skin and erythema. Atopic dermatitis is characterized by chronic or relapsing course. The onset of AD in most cases is observed during early childhood. In infants, lesions appear mostly on cheeks and extremities, whereas in children and adults – in flexural areas. The lesions are combined with hyperkeratosis and lichenification. Triggering factors such as stress, wool intolerance or sweating may worsen the course of AD. During therapy avoiding those is highly desirable. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the microorganisms which can be found on the skin of AD patients. It is present not only on erythematous lesions, but also on a “healthy” skin.
\nThe first line of AD therapy is a short-term regimen – when the patient uses medicines only when inflammatory lesions occur, but in recent years the therapy is more focused on proactive and long-term maintenance. Drugs should be applied continuously or one/two times a week. The basic rule in the therapy is to use emollients which restore epidermal barrier and create an occluding coating. Therefore, they protect the skin from triggering factors. In mild course of AD using topical corticosteroids and topical calcineurin inhibitors is recommended. In moderate to severe cases of AD phototherapy, cyclosporine, methotrexate, azathioprine or systemic corticosteroids may be administered. Phototherapy (using ultraviolet light) is also useful in other inflammatory skin diseases, like psoriasis. We distinguish the following types of phototherapy:
broadband UVB (290–320 nm),
narrowband UVB (311–313 nm),
UVA-1 therapy (340–400 nm),
UVA therapy plus 8-methoxypsoralens (PUVA),
308 nm excimer laser (EL),
blue light (BL).
Phototherapy (specifically broadband UVB) in atopic dermatitis has been used since 1970 and its effectiveness is clinically proven [1]. The mechanism of skin lesions development in atopic dermatitis is connected with activation of T-cell infiltration into the skin, which leads to increasing proliferation of keratinocytes and as a result thickening of the skin. Th2 cells accumulate and produce various cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-31, IL-13. Th1 cells, INF- γ, Th22 cells and IL-22 were also found in chronic atopic lesions [2]. Common type of drugs used in AD are immunosuppressants. We divide them into systemic (cyclosporine) and topical (tacrolimus, pimecrolimus) types. They act by inhibiting calcineurin which leads to a decrease in activation of T cells. It indicates that targeting T cells may be an effective approach in therapy of AD.
\nArtificial or natural ultraviolet radiation leads to deep immunosuppression which induces apoptic death in activated T cells. Many factors, such as wavelength, dosage of radiation, amount of UV sessions have an impact on the intensity of immunosuppressive effect of UV radiation. In general UV radiation could be dived into UVB (with wavelength between 280 and 320 nm) and UVA (with wavelength between 320 and 400 nm). Overall UVB light has a higher immunosuppressive impact than UVA. Psoralens in PUVA therapy are molecules whose purpose is intercalation of DNA. After UVA radiation psoralens are binding to the DNA. This results in stopping cells proliferation [3]. Nowadays more and more diseases are treated with biological therapy. Owing to good safety profile, accessibility, only topical immunosuppression and cost-effectiveness of UV radiation, phototherapy is still a very popular AD therapy. Biological effects of UV radiation are complex and could be classified into instantaneous and delayed [4]. Damage of DNA and cytoplasmic membrane, induction of cytoplasmic transcriptional factors and chromophore’s isomerization initiates immediate stunted growth and, as a consequence, apoptosis [5].
\nAfter UVB radiation, photon’s absorption causes changes of DNA molecular structures. As a result, transcription of DNA is paused and cell cycle in fibroblasts and epidermal cells stops (phototype I reaction) [6]. In PUVA phototherapy after psoralen application with following UVA radiation, reactive oxygen species are damaging DNA and cell membrane (phototype II reaction) [7]. After only one hour DNA starts to repair and the cells start to proliferate. As an effect in 48–72 hours after UV radiation short-term effects are reversing. Long term effects refer to inhibition of immune cells which causes immunosuppression. Induction of apoptosis in epidermal and dermal T cells is a crucial mechanism [8]. Apoptosis after UVB radiation concerns keratinocytes too, leading to lesions clearance. Moreover, UVB and PUVA activate T regulatory (Treg) cells and decrease the amount of presenting antigen in Langerhans cells [9].
\nAfter UV radiation cytokine secretion and number of macrophages are limited. Acting through reactive oxygen species, neutrophils and NK cells are suppressed [10]. As an effect cytokine balance is changed – decrease of inflammatory cytokines IL-2, IL-8, IL-9, IL-17, IL-22, IL-23, TNF-a and IFN- γ with simultaneous induction of immunosuppressive cytokine – IL-10 [11].
\nNB UV-B has been in use of AD treatment since 1990 [28]. It emits highly selective UV-B light wavelengths (from 311 to 313 nm, without shortwave length UVB) [12]. Sunburning potential of NB UV-B is evidently lower than broadband UV-B (BB UV-B) [13]. Due to the long list of advantages, like safety profile, effectiveness, accessibility NB UV-B could be pondered as a first-line treatment [14]. It has been established in many randomized trials that NB-UVB therapy improved the scores of AD and the necessity for applying potent topical corticosteroids was reduced [15]. These type of positive results remained up to six months after the scheme of NB-UVB was finished [16]. Contrary to UVA, NB UV-B does not penetrate the dermis, therefore it is limited to the epidermis [15]. Patient’s tolerance to UV radiation and pigmentation of the skin determines the dosage of UV-B. When it comes to the methods of adjusting UV-B dose which should be administered, the most popular is defining “Minimal Erythema Dose” (MED). MED refers to the smallest UV-B dose which is capable of provoking minimal erythema on the patient’s skin [17]. Skin phototype can play a role in determining UV-B dosage. Measuring skin reflectance is another way of UV-B dose calculation and it was derived from defining the skin pigmentation. It is called reflectance-guided UV-B and recently it has become highly popular [18]. Most physicians use NB UV-B treatment schedule which consists of three sessions of radiation every six weeks [19]. In early studies, researchers used nearly erythemogenic dose of NB UV-B, but recently it was proven, that reducing a dose by half can give similar outcome, higher tolerance and lower risk of carcinogenesis. Reports comparing UV-A1 and NB-UVB are ambivalent [15]. Some of them point to superiority of NB UV-B, other do not show statistically significant differences [20]. In some cases NB UV-B can be combined with UV-A1 in one therapy schedule with satisfying clinical effect [21].
\nIn literature there is strong evidence proving efficacy of AD therapy using NB-UVB. In a study with a test group of 21 adults with severe course of the disease, administering air-conditioned NB-UVB thrice a week for twelve weeks caused reduction of severity (68%) and reduction of topical corticosteroid application (88%). 15 of 21 patients showed positive result 24 weeks after therapy ended [12]. Brazzelli et al. in their study reported efficacy of treating AD with NB UV-B, proceeded by oral short-term cyclosporin A (four weeks) and four-six-week-long washout phase. Radiation was administered three times a week and lasted up to two months [22]. There were some studies concerning NB UV-B therapy of atopic dermatitis in children. Jury et al. in their retrospective trial on 25 children with AD showed almost total reduction of lesions in 17 patients [23]. NB-UVB is a recommended therapeutic option in pregnancy [24].
\nProspective clinical trial with 29 children (3–16 years old) pointed 61% reduction in SASSAD score (Six Area Six Sign Atopis Dermatitis) in a group exposed to NB UV-B radiation in comparison to untreated patients (P < 0.05). Moreover, children without therapy experienced a decrease in the quality of life with a rise of disease severity [25].
\nDevelopment of UVA1 (340-400 nm) lamps was a response to appearing side effects, such as long exposure time or risk of sunburn when using UVA-2 (320-340 nm) radiation. UVA-1 penetrates deeper into the dermis than UVA-2 and UVB [26]. We distinguish different types of doses:
\n\nIt should be mentioned that a huge inconvenience of UV-A1 in high dose is overheating of the device, which can be unsafe. Studies showed that UV-A1 is more efficient in AD therapy and has higher efficacy than UV-AB. Krutmann et all proved that UV-A1 phototherapy effectiveness is approximately the same as therapy with fluocortolone [28]. Medium doses of UVA-A1 have the advantage over high doses of UVA-A1 when it comes to reducing adverse drug events and enhancing tolerance. The effectiveness and relapse time do not differ strongly between these two options of therapy. Therefore the UVA-A1 radiation should be the preferable one [1]. UVA-A1 in low doses is practically ineffective, thereby it is not considered to be a therapeutic agent [28]. Common treatment schedules of UVA-A1 at medium dose (maximum 80 J/cm2) in atopic dermatitis therapy are 3–5 sessions every 3–8 weeks. Patient should spend 10 minutes to 1 hour in every phototherapy session [15, 29]. Speaking of acute cases of AD, using UV-A1 radiation is more suitable, comparing to UV-B [15]. Majoie et al. examined 13 adults (20–56 years old) suffering from chronic atopic dermatitis in a randomized investigator-blinded trial and proved that NB-UVB and medium dose of UVA1 are comparably efficient in the reduction of AD symptoms [20]. The disadvantage of UV-A1 therapy is the cost and the size of UV-A1 lamps. Moreover, they demand a presence of ventilation machines, what could be financially unachievable for some centers [30]. To meet the expectations of the patients engineers created a filter to eliminate wavelengths above 530 nm and disperse the excessive heat. It is called Cold-light UV-A1 and it is consider a more effective option than UV-AB and classic UV-A1 in treatment of AD flares [31].
\nPUVA (psoralen and ultraviolet A) is a combination of UVA light and psoralens – a substance causing photosensitizing effect. Nowadays in use there is an 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), which leads to permanent damage of DNA [13]. Psoralens are available in many various formulations, such as pills, cream or bath lotion [32]. In bath-PUVA, the patient is taking a bath in warm water with 8-MOP 20–30 minutes before UVA session. In case of choosing cream formulation, the regimen is conducted 30–60 minutes before radiation [32]. Using topical psoralens could be desired, for example in patients with strictly localized lesions. In literature it is proven that PUVA phototherapy could be a successful form of atopic dermatitis therapy [33]. Although, we should remember that in comparison with other inflammatory diseases treated by PUVA, in atopic dermatitis patients require more phototherapy sessions [15]. Der-Petrossian M. et al. in a randomized trial compared PUVA bath therapy with NB UV-B – there were no significant differences between these types of phototherapy [33]. In another study Tzaneva S. et al. showed that after PUVA therapy (using oral 5-methoxypsoralen, 5-MOP) patients had longer remission times and higher change in AD scoring compared to UV-A1 phototherapy [34]. Heinlin et al., in his randomized and placebo-controlled trial demonstrated superiority of balneophototherapy and NB-UVB combination over only NB-UVB. Patients’ complex therapy had higher reduction of SCORAD score not only at the end of treatment, but also after 6 months. (P respectively <0,004 and < 0,04) [16]. Because of mutagenic properties of PUVA therapy, it should be reminded that it could not be a chronic form of therapy and using it should be limited [30].
\nUVA and UVA combination (280-400 nm) can be conducted by using special machines emitting these UV spectrums or as two separate sessions. In clinical trial Valkova and Velkova proved that combination UVA/B phototherapy with topical corticosteroids reduced the treatment duration significantly in comparison to only UVA/B (P = 0.02) [35]. Grandulad et al. investigated reduction of SCORAD, days in remission and the improvement in quality of life using ciclosporin and UVA/B. Ciclosporin had statistically significantly better scores compared to UVA/B phototherapy sessions [36]. Jekler [37] and Larko [38] showed that using the combination of UVA/B radiation is more effective than monotherapy of UVA or UVB.
\nMonochromatic excimer laser (MEL) is a kind of single-wavelength light source of 308 nm. The advantage of this therapy is a frequency of sessions – every 7–15 days [39]. MEL could be used on the localized skin lesions. One study showed good ability of alleviation of prurigo in AD. However, further clinical trials are needed [40].
\nBlue light (400-495 nm) is a novel therapeutic option. Becker et al. in his observational study showed that using blue light devices could the suitable in treatment severe atopic dermatitis. In addition, it provided to long term improvement. Observed adverse effects were mild and transient – redness, warmth or itching the skin. [41] Kromer et al. is performing a multicenter, prospective randomized, placebo controlled, double blinded trial with 150 patients suffering from AD to investigate effectiveness of blue light devices. Currently there are no official results, but that investigation appears to be promising [42].
\nLike every therapeutic agent, phototherapy may cause some side effects. Most of them are mild and short-term, for example skin burning (connected with wrong dosage of UV or inadequate radiation schedule), pruritus, hyperpigmentation, dryness and tenderness. Induction of polymorphic light eruptions and viruses reinfection (such a herpes simplex) are also observed. When it comes to long-term adverse effects, photo-aging and induction of cutaneous malignancies can occur [14]. These cutaneous malignances can be caused by combing UV radiation with other therapeutic factors. There is a reported case of a melanoma diagnosis in a patient with mastocytosis who was treated with UVA1 and PUVA bath therapy previously [42]. In literature we can find two cases of Merkel cell carcinoma after UVA1 therapy in patients who were treated with immunosuppressants for blood dyscrasias [43].
\nLately new therapeutic options were presented. One of them is 308 nm monochromatic excimer light. It is dedicated for patients with localized and therapy-resistant lesions [44]. In comparison to other immunosuppressive agents, phototherapy has a better safety profile, adverse effects are milder and better-tolerated [23]. PUVA systemic therapy can cause hepatotoxicity, nausea, vomiting, cataract, long-term photosensitivity and probable skin cancer. Topical use of psoralens can limit or help avoid these inconveniences. [45]. However, please note that atopic dermatitis is a chronic and recurrent disease which implicates many phototherapy sessions and increases the risk of carcinogenesis [16]. Many clinical trials showed that phototherapy in children with AD is effective and, in most cases, well tolerated. There is, nonetheless, high risk of photocarcinogenesis. In younger patients long-term maintenance therapy should be conducted in as short time as possible [23]. In conclusion, this way of AD treatment is one of the last therapeutic options. Claustrophobia and lack of cooperation is typical for small children and it has to be taken into consideration as a challenge in this kind of therapy [15]. Despite this, in children with refractory or severe atopic dermatitis we may consider using phototherapy. Generally, in such cases, NB UV-B is a therapy of choice and PUVA should be avoided [23]. It should be also remembered that there are no randomized trials of phototherapy of AD in pregnancy [30]. UV treatment require specific amount of time and availability, which can be problematic for patients who are attending school or have strict work hours. To meet these demands, there are some home phototherapy devices accessible.
\nPhototherapy is considered as a safe and successful therapy in management of atopic dermatitis. When topical corticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors are ineffective, phototherapy could be considered as a second line treatment, whether in combination with systemic drugs or without them. The most effective types of phototherapy are UVA1 and NB-UVB; UVA1 should be pondered in acute flares whereas NB-UVB in recurrent atopic dermatitis. In children and pregnancy NB-UVB has a good safety profile. Using UVA1 medium dose of radiation has an advantage over others. Due to safety profile narrow-band UVB is favored over broad-band UVB. Potential adverse effects are usually mild and transient, although the risk of carcinogenesis should be always considered.
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