Selected features of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [7].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"901",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Transgenic Plants - Advances and Limitations",title:"Transgenic Plants",subtitle:"Advances and Limitations",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Development of efficient transformation protocols is becoming a complementary strategy to conventional breeding techniques for the improvement of crops. 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She received her BSc in İstanbul University in 1993, and MSc and PhD from Gebze Institute of Technology in 2000 and 2005, respectively. She carried out her Post-Doc study on plant cryopreservation at CNR, IVALSA, Florence, Italy. She has published more than 75 scientific papers, conference proceedings and book chapters in the field of plant biotechnology including molecular markers, micropropagation, medium and long-term conservation, transgenic research, and somaclonal variation assessment. She is the author of the book entitled ‘Transgenic Plants: Advances and Limitations’. 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\r\n\t“Gastritis” is the more discussed and ambiguous diagnostic definition of the gastric clinicopathological conditions. There are no connections between symptoms, endoscopic and histological features. The clinical and instrumental exams provide data that are difficult to correlate with each other. The symptoms referred to esophagogastroduodenal tract are the epigastric pain, heartburn, dyspepsia; the endoscopy can identify various hemorrhagic and erosive mucosal lesions, hypertrophy, etc. with the subsequent histobioptic ascertainment. Moreover, poor correlations between the endoscopic abnormalities and histological features of the same lesions: gastric mucosa endoscopically as normal should show histologically severe signs of inflammation; the evident endoscopic damage by drugs might turn out as mild phlogistic lesions with histology.
\r\n\r\n\tThe term gastritis should be used in case of histological phlogistic characteristics. However, the endoscopy has a fundamental role in the gastritis diagnosis, because the microscopic evaluation is made on the mucosal biopsies of abnormalities.
\r\n\r\n\tThe classifications of gastritis are based on histology; unfortunately, also within the histological field, it’s difficult to present a classification of gastritis, because there are various criteria: first, histological features of inflammation subdivide acute and chronic gastritis; more detailed histological characteristics do list gastritis due to drugs, chemicals, infection agents, trauma, foreign body, tumors, autoimmune gastritis, vascular gastropathy, granulomatous gastritis, etc.; finally others histological characteristics of development of inflammation differentiate chronic atrophic and hypertrophic gastritis. Finally, the gastritis is an inflammatory lesion of the gastric mucosa with various and numerous etiologic factors and histological features of inflammation; consequently, the gastritis is a pathological state, but not a defined disease.
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He was previously Assistant Professor (1974–1982)\nand Associate Professor (1982–2001) at the School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Bari, Italy. He graduated in Medicine and Surgery(1970) and completed postgraduate training in General Surgery (1975)\nand Emergency Surgery (1979) at University of Bari, Italy. He received\na diploma of 'Maitrise Universitaire en Pedagogie des Sciences de la\nSantè” from the University Paris-Nord Bobigny (1995). His main research\ninterest is hepatobiliarypancreatic surgery, specifically the management\nof acute pancreatitis and treatment of pancreatic and liver tumors. He\nhas published research papers, reviews, congress proceedings, and book\nchapters. He attended, in the period 1991–2016, for short periods every\nyear, the Hepatobiliarypancreatic Surgery Service of Beaujon Hospital,\nUniversitè de Paris, Clichy. He developed a seminar on 'Cystic Tumours\nof the Pancreas” for the Erasmus Program at Ghent University, Belgium, in2010–2011. 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Dental plaque is a biofilm structure and consists of complex microbial communities. This structure resides on both hard tissues and soft tissues of the oral cavity and not easily or sufficiently removed from the surfaces by natural cleaning process (natural physiologic forces, tongue, or saliva). There are two main strategies to control or damage the biofilm structure. The first one is removing the matrix-enclosed microbial microcolonies by using shear forces that cope with the adhesion forces without damaging the cleaning material surface, meaning the mechanical biofilm removal from the surface. The second is using chemicals to kill the bacteria and thus, later needs to clean residuals by mechanical forces. The most effective way to control the growth of biofilm is the mechanical removal of the biofilm [2].
\nBacterial products of dental plaque biofilm are known to initiate host defense mechanisms, resulting hard and soft tissue destruction. Mechanical control of the dental plaque biofilm is prerequisite for the prevention and control of dental caries and periodontal diseases [3]. Regularly performed optimal oral hygiene measures alter the composition of the pocket microbiota by lowering the amount of periodontopathogens. Therefore, to obtain oral health or to control disease progression, mechanical plaque control measures must be undertaken not only in adult population or patients with periodontal disease but also in younger generation which should be educated about the prevention strategies profoundly. Long-term success of the periodontal therapy is closely related with the plaque removal efficacy of the patients [4]. Longitudinal studies reveal that sites with inadequate plaque removal present deeper probing depths and attachment loss after periodontal therapy [4, 5].
\nThe historical background of mechanical plaque control stands the dates of ancient Egyptians who made brushes by thin wooden sticks called miswak. Today still the most widely known self-performed mechanical plaque biofilm removal/control method at home is toothbrushing. The buccal, palatinal or lingual, and occlusal surfaces of the teeth are easy to clean well with toothbrushes but do not reach the interdental region of teeth efficiently [6]. Toothbrushing when applied with a proper technique can clean only 65% of the total tooth surface. Due to limitations of the toothbrushes in the penetration of the proximal areas, interdental cleaning gains attention as a separate title. Interdental plaque biofilm control measures should be used as adjunctive to toothbrushing to complement the mechanical cleaning [7, 8, 9]. For the maintenance of the periodontal health and caries prevention, toothbrushing should be combined with interdental cleaning once every 24 hours [10, 11].
\nNumerous devices and methods have been introduced over the counter for interdental cleaning with different levels of efficacy. Interdental cleaning device selection should be primarily based on the contour of the papilla, size of the embrasures, tooth alignment, and patients’ attitude toward oral health. When evaluating the existing products, ease of use, plaque removal efficacy, and possible tissue trauma should be considered before prescription. Since patients have different types of dentitions and interdental spaces, dental professionals should recommend the suitable devices to each individual patient and guide them according to their needs [9].
\nThe remaining of this chapter will focus on the interdental cleaning products currently available over the counter.
\nAt the beginning of the nineteenth century, Levi Spear Parmly, a dentist from New Orleans, first introduced the idea of tooth flossing with a piece of silk thread. Within years, commercial production of unwaxed silk floss enabled the home use, and in 1898, dental floss was patented by the Johnson & Johnson Company of Brunswick, New Jersey. During the 1940s, nylon replaced silk as the material for dental floss due to its consistent texture and resistance to shredding. Nylon usage also yielded the development of dental tape, broader type of dental floss, in the 1950s [12].
\nToday several types of flosses are available. While waxed floss is generally recommended to individuals with tight interproximal contacts, unwaxed floss is suitable for the normal tooth contacts since it slides through the contact area easily. Different materials and floss designs also make it possible to clean around braces and fixed partial dentures. The American Dental Association (ADA) reported that up to 80% of plaque can be removed by flossing [13]. However, most of the people find flossing difficult and time-consuming. To make flossing easier, disposable floss holders or powered flossing devices have been introduced. Comparing the use of powered devices with manual flossing, no significant differences were detected in terms of plaque and gingivitis reduction [14].
\nIn individuals with intact papilla which only allows the penetration of dental floss, flossing is the best option for interdental cleaning [9]. However, dental professional should spend time to motivate and properly instruct the patient about the flossing since the effectiveness is technique sensitive. Studies mainly attributed the lack of efficacy of flossing to manual complexity of the technique and/or to the lack of patients’ compliance [15]. On the other hand, in a recent study which conducted in young subjects without interdental attachment loss, toothbrushing in combination with flossing was reported to be capable of both plaque and gingival inflammation reduction [16].
\nBerchier et al. [17] conducted a meta-analysis including 11 randomized clinical trials (RCTs) comparing toothbrushing and flossing (test) to toothbrushing alone (control). Results of this meta-analysis revealed no significant differences between test and control groups in terms of plaque and gingival indices. In 2011, Sambunjak et al. [18] investigated the added benefit of flossing to toothbrushing with a systematic review. This review included 12 RCTs with a total of 582 participants. As a result, authors concluded that toothbrushing combined with flossing reduced gingivitis compared to toothbrushing alone. Regarding to plaque reduction, weak and inconsistent statements were associated with toothbrushing and flossing combination at 1- and 3-month periods. No information was available in terms of dental caries prevention because of the short trial periods and difficulties of the early-stage caries detection.
\nCurrent literature unfortunately does not support dental floss usage on a routine basis. However, absence of an evidence does not mean absence of an effect [19]. The presence of a weak evidence regarding to the use of dental floss in combination with toothbrushing is mainly related to study designs and small sample size of the studies. Long-term RCTs with higher sample size populations and retrospective studies are needed to increase the strength of data [20].
\nThe use of dental woodsticks is usually advised by dental professionals to massage the inflamed gingiva, to reduce the inflammation of interdental area, and to increase the keratinization. Woodsticks, made of soft wood, have a wedge-like triangular design suitable for the interdental anatomy. When inserted, the base of the triangle should rest on the gingival side, whereas the tip should point occlusally or incisally [21, 22]. Triangular-shaped woodsticks with low surface hardness and high strength values were shown to be more suitable for interdental cleaning than rounded toothpicks [23]. Previous in vitro studies revealed that triangular-shaped woodsticks which are inserted interdentally could maintain 2–3 mm subgingival plaque-free zone. The resilience of the gingival papilla allows cleaning of the subgingival margins of the restorations which also reduces the risk of the recurrent caries development [21, 23].
\nWoodsticks have an advantage of the ease of use; therefore, they can be recommended in the cases of poor manual dexterity. If interdental spaces are sufficient, woodsticks may be an appropriate substitute to dental floss, especially for the secondary prevention of periodontal diseases. Although woodsticks have a good cleaning capacity on the buccal part of the interproximal area, their efficacy is reduced on the lingual side and the posterior area. The main disadvantage of the woodsticks is, when used in the healthy dentition, they depress the gingival margin and may cause the permanent loss of papilla [3].
\nHoenderdos et al. [21] performed a systematic review to evaluate the efficacy of the adjunctive usage of woodsticks to toothbrushing compared to daily toothbrushing alone or other adjunctively used interdental cleaning devices on periodontal clinical parameters. Results of this systematic review failed to reveal any additional effect of woodsticks on plaque index. On the other hand, their additional use provided a significant improvement in interdental gingival inflammation by the reduction of the bleeding tendency. These results were explained by the physical action of the woodsticks that can mostly remove the subgingival plaque in the interdental area by depressing the papilla, which is not visible and evaluated by the plaque indices. Therefore, subgingival elimination of the plaque might induce a beneficial effect on interdental gingival inflammation without inducing a chance in plaque index values.
\nThe evidence for the efficacy of woodsticks as adjunct to toothbrushing is weak. Within the limitations of the available data, woodsticks have the benefit on bleeding scores without significant impact on plaque reduction [9, 24].
\nFor the last 50 years, since its development, the interdental brush (IDB) has taken its place in the market of oral hygiene products. Simply the architecture of the IDB is seen that a thin brush is composed of soft nylon filaments wrapped around by a fine stainless steel wire. The thickness of this metal wire and the length of the nylon filaments differ from brand to brand and vary according to the size of the desired brush. The handle of the IDB may be made of a metal or plastic material. Considering the comfort and ease of use of the patient, the handle of the brushes is designed in different lengths. The shape of the IDB depends on the forms of the nylon filament arrangement. The most common forms of the nylon filament IDB are cylindrical or tapered shapes [3, 25]. The IDB can be inserted through the interdental space, and cleaning is performed with back and forth motion with several times.
\nA systematic review concluded that interdental plaque removal with IDB is the most efficient method for interproximal cleaning [17]. The choosing of the IDB size is the key point of the interdental clinical efficacy. The 11th European Workshop in Periodontology on the primary prevention of periodontal diseases published a report and recommended that if gingival inflammation exists, professionals should teach their patients the use of IDBs [26]. When the interdental space is stuffed with the papilla, especially in young individuals, dental floss is the best choice that can reach into this area [27]. IDBs should be the first choice for larger interdental spaces where the gingival recession, attachment loss, and root exposure exist [26, 27]. IDBs have superiority of reaching interdental grooves or fissures than other interdental cleaning devices [9, 28]. Regarding the determination of the suitable size, IDB needs to fit the interdental area and moves without inducing any hard tissue abrasion or soft tissue trauma. Improper use or inappropriate size selection may result dentin hypersensitivity as well as the soft tissue damage.
\nChristou et al. [29] designed a split-mouth RCT that aimed to compare the clinical efficacy of dental floss and IDB, adjunct to toothbrushing. After 6 week period, in combination with a manual toothbrush, the use of IDB was found more effective in plaque removal and probing depth (PD) reduction compared to dental floss. Since no difference was detected between IDB and dental floss in terms of bleeding scores, higher PD reduction was speculated to be due to marginal gingival recession induced by IDB. Tu et al. [30] reanalyzed the data of this RCT by structural equation modeling to test whether the greater PD reduction of IDBs compared to dental floss was due to plaque removal or to mechanical depression of the interdental papilla. Results of the structural equation modeling revealed that the greater reduction in PD with IDB than that of dental floss was mainly due to the greater efficiency in plaque removal rather than to the compression of the papilla. In another split-mouth trial, IDB and dental floss showed similar effects on subgingival plaque and gingival inflammation. However, patients preferred IDB to dental floss due to ease of use [25].
\nSlot et al. [31] conducted a systematic review to evaluate the efficacy of IDBs and other interdental cleaning devices on plaque and parameters of periodontal inflammation. Regarding plaque, additional use of IDBs resulted significantly more plaque reduction compared to toothbrushing alone. Comparing IDB to dental floss, most of the studies revealed significant difference on plaque index parameter in favor of the IDB. Also, IDBs were detected to remove more plaque than woodsticks. Collective data of the studies included in this systematic review made a meta-analysis possible for the comparison of IDBs to dental floss as adjuncts to toothbrushing. End scores revealed significant difference in favor of the IDB group only according to Silness and Löe [32] plaque index. However, no statistically significant differences were observed with other indices as Quigley and Hein [33] plaque index and bleeding on probing (BoP).
\nTo enhance the ease of use especially in the premolar and molar regions, angled IDBs have been introduced. Jordan et al. [34] reported better plaque removal efficacy of straight IDB compared to the angled one. However, no systematic reviews are available regarding the evaluation of the efficacy of an angled or straight IDBs and their filament hardness.
\nResults of the meta-analysis reveal moderate evidence regarding the efficacy of IDB usage as adjunct to toothbrushing. With standardizing the results retrieved from different periodontal indices, adjunctive usage of IDB yields 34 and 32% gingivitis and plaque score reductions, respectively [35].
\nA rubber bristles interdental cleaner (RBIC) visually resembles an IDB, but does not have a metal-core or nylon filaments. Instead, it has small elastomeric fingers protruding perpendicularly from a plastic core.
\nRubber interdental bristles (RIBs) are recently introduced interdental cleaners with small elastomeric finger-like extensions perpendicular to the plastic core. Unlike interdental brushes (IB), they do not have a metal-core and nylon filaments. Therefore, induction of the dentin hypersensitivity and the risk of soft tissue damage are limited [36].
\nYost et al. [36] compared the performance of RIB, IDB, and flosser to dental floss for plaque removal efficacy and gingivitis reduction. As a result, authors reported that RIBs had similar efficacy in plaque and gingivitis reduction compared to conventional IDBs. Abouassi et al. [37] conducted a single-blind, prospective RCT with a crossover design to compare RIB with a standard metal-core IDB for their efficacy on gingival bleeding, plaque removal, and patient experience in 39 subjects. After 4 weeks of usage of the products, both groups showed significant decreases in plaque accumulation and bleeding with no significant differences between them. However, RIBs were found significantly more comfortable for participants than IDBs. In a recent RCT, RIB was compared to IDB in terms of gingivitis reduction and patient perception. For this purpose, parallel, split-mouth, and examiner-blind study was performed in 42 systemically healthy individuals with experimentally induced gingivitis. After prophylaxis, participants refrained from plaque biofilm control measures for 21 day period, followed by 4 week usage of the assigned interdental cleaning device as an adjunct to toothbrushing. Results of this trial revealed that RIB usage in addition to toothbrushing was more effective in gingival inflammation reduction compared to IDBs after 4 weeks. Also, RIB was more appreciated by participants and caused less abrasion of the gingiva [38].
\nTo evaluate the cleaning efficacy of IDBs, RIBs, and woodsticks in vitro, our research group performed a study on 72 extracted human teeth without approximal caries and restorations. Teeth were grouped as incisors, premolars, and molars and embedded to acrylic resin. Artificial contacts were designed to be separable from the interproximal parts. Interproximal surfaces of the teeth were dyed with contact spray. Three groups of approximately same sized interdental cleaning devices, RIB (Tepe Easypick™ XS/ S), IDB (TePe® 0.45) and woodsticks (TePe® Dental Stick Slim) were selected. After the application of interdental devices, the teeth were separated from the interproximal surfaces. The teeth were digitally photographed and by using AutoCAD™ software, the dye removal was calculated (Figures 1 and 2). Results of this study revealed that IDB’s relative cleaning efficacy was better than that of RIBs and woodsticks [39].
\nInterdental cleaning devices used in the study. From left to right; Interdental brush (TePe® 0.45), Rubber Interdental Bristle (Tepe Easypick™ XS/S), C) Woodsticks (TePe® Dental Stick Slim).
After application of the interdental cleaning devices. From left to right; Interdental brush, Rubber Interdental Bristle, Woodstick.
Recently, Graziani et al. [16] conducted a RCT to evaluate the efficacy of different adjunctively used interdental cleaning devices in unsupervised participants with intact interdental papilla. Sixty subjects were randomized to four groups with different oral hygiene regimens as manual toothbrushing alone; manual toothbrushing plus dental floss; manual toothbrushing plus IDB; and manual toothbrushing plus RIB. At the end of the 28 day trial period, toothbrushing or toothbrushing and adjunctive use of interdental cleaning devices such as dental floss, IDBs, or RIBs significantly reduced both plaque and gingival inflammation. Interdental plaque scores decreased in groups using IDBs and RIBs as adjuncts compared to toothbrushing alone. Interdental inflammation was significantly reduced in RIB group compared to dental floss.
\nDue to the limited number of the published data regarding RIBs, a detailed systematic evaluation of these devices is yet impossible.
\nThe oral irrigator, also called dental water jet or water flosser or waterpik device, was first introduced in the 1960s by a hydraulic engineer and a dentist from the USA. Oral irrigator is designed to remove plaque and soft debris by the mechanical action of a stream of water which can also be used with antimicrobial agents. Contrary to popular belief, studies have shown that this device has no negative effect on the junctional epithelium and demonstrated to be safe. Early studies showed the efficacy of oral irrigator on clinical parameters such as plaque, bleeding, and PD [40, 41, 42]. Although pulsating and hydrodynamic forces produced by irrigators can rinse away food debris from interdental and plaque-retentive areas, irrigation cannot be a monotherapy to remove the plaque biofilm but an adjunct to supplement other mechanical plaque control measures. Fluid flow may be either pulsated or continuous. It has been reported that a pulsating stream of water is better than a continuous flow [43, 44]. An ex vivo SEM study demonstrated that the hydraulic forces and pulsation of a dental water jet can remove the biofilm above or below the cemento-enamel junction [45].
\nCutler et al. [43] conducted a study on 52 otherwise healthy, mild to moderate chronic periodontitis patients and randomly allocated them into 3 groups. In group A, no oral hygiene was performed for 14 days. Group B continued their daily oral hygiene routine, and group C performed routine oral hygiene (ROH) plus water irrigator for 14 days. Results of the study revealed that in 14 day period, oral irrigation plus ROH resulted significant reductions in PD, BoP, gingival, and plaque indices as well as IL-1 beta and PGE2 levels, compared to ROH or no oral hygiene. They concluded that oral irrigator improved the therapeutic benefit for periodontitis patients. In a 6 month, multicenter, single-blinded study, added benefit of daily oral irrigation to regular oral hygiene in clinical parameters was demonstrated in periodontitis patients under supportive periodontal treatment [46].
\nHusseini et al. [44] performed a systematic review to evaluate the effectiveness of oral irrigation in addition to toothbrushing on plaque and clinical parameters of periodontal inflammation compared to toothbrushing alone. As a result, authors concluded that the additional use of oral irrigator to toothbrushing had no significant effect on plaque reduction compared to toothbrushing alone. Regarding gingival inflammation, a positive trend in favor of the oral irrigation was observed for the improvement of gingival health over toothbrushing only. To explain the discrepancy of the obtained results, authors hypothesized that with the oral irrigation, populations of the key periodontopathogens are altered, thereby reducing gingival inflammation. There is also a possibility that the beneficial activity of an oral irrigator is at least due to partial removal of food deposits and debris, flushing away of loosely adherent plaque, removal of bacterial cells, stimulation of immune responses, and interference with plaque maturation [47]. Other possibilities include mechanical stimulation of the gingiva or a combination of previously hypothesized factors. Oral irrigators may reduce plaque thickness, which may not be detected by two-dimensional scoring systems. This fact could also explain the absence of an effect on plaque reduction but a positive effect on gingival inflammation [3].
\nRegarding oral irrigators, exact mechanisms of action for abovementioned findings are unclear. Further RCTs are warranted to investigate the effectiveness of oral irrigators with different irrigation tips as adjuncts to regular oral hygiene measures for the long-term maintenance of periodontal health.
\nThe goal of the mechanical plaque control is to prevent and arrest plaque biofilm-associated disease development. Therefore, oral hygiene instructions including toothbrushing techniques and interdental cleaning should be tailored to each patient based on their individual needs. New developments in interdental cleaning products and oral irrigation devices will be the topic of the future systematic reviews to guide the dental professionals for an evidence-based decision-making. When applying the evidence to clinical practice, dental professionals should choose the best oral hygiene methods according to patients’ skill levels and preferences, since the patient acceptance is crucial for the long-term use of interdental cleaning devices. Today, scientific evidence regarding to the efficacy of the self-performed interdental cleaning products is only available for the dentitions that include natural teeth. With the aging of the population and new technological developments, dental implants become more and more popular treatment alternatives. Since the anatomic structures of the peri-implant tissues differ from periodontal tissues and there are different implant-supported prosthetic designs, clinical trials are required in terms of different aspects of oral hygiene around implants.
\nAuthors declare no conflict of interest.
In 1869, the first synthetic polymer was invented in response to a commercial $10,000 prize to provide a suitable replacement to ivory. A continuous string of discoveries and inventions contributed new polymers to meet the various requirements of society. Polymers are constructed of long chains of atoms, organized in repeating components or units often exceeding those found in nature. Plastic can refer to matter that is pliable and easily shaped. Recent usage finds it to be a name for materials called polymers. High molecular weight organic polymers derived from various hydrocarbon and petroleum materials are now referred to as plastics [1].
\nSynthetic polymers are constructed of long chains of smaller molecules connected by strong chemical bonds and arranged in repeating units which provide desirable properties. The chain length of the polymers and patterns of polymeric assembly provide properties such as strength, flexibility, and a lightweight feature that identify them as plastics. The properties have demonstrated the general utility of polymers and their manipulation for construction of a multitude of widely useful items leading to a world saturation and recognition of their unattractive properties too. A major trend of ever increasing consumption of plastics has been seen in the areas of industrial and domestic applications. Much of this polymer production is composed of plastic materials that are generally non-biodegradable. This widespread use of plastics raises a significant threat to the environment due to the lack of proper waste management and a until recently cavalier community behavior to maintain proper control of this waste stream. Response to these conditions has elicited an effort to devise innovative strategies for plastic waste management, invention of biodegradable polymers, and education to promote proper disposal. Technologies available for current polymer degradation strategies are chemical, thermal, photo, and biological techniques [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The physical properties displayed in Table 1 show little differences in density but remarkable differences in crystallinity and lifespan. Crystallinity has been shown to play a very directing role in certain biodegradation processes on select polymers.
\nPolymer | \nAbbreviation | \nDensity (23/4°C) | \nCrystallinity (%) | \nLifespan (year) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Polyethylene | \nPE | \n0.91–0.925 | \n50 | \n10–600 | \n
Polypropylene | \nPP | \n0.94–0.97 | \n50 | \n10–600 | \n
Polystyrene | \nPS | \n0.902–0.909 | \n0 | \n50–80 | \n
Polyethylene glycol terephthalate | \nPET | \n1.03–1.09 | \n0–50 | \n450 | \n
Polyvinyl chloride | \nPVC | \n1.35–1.45 | \n0 | \n50–100+ | \n
Selected features of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [7].
Polymers are generally carbon-based commercialized polymeric materials that have been found to have desirable physical and chemical properties in a wide range of applications. A recent assessment attests to the broad range of commercial materials that entered to global economy since 1950 as plastics. The mass production of virgin polymers has been assessed to be 8300 million metric tons for the period of 1950 through 2015 [8]. Globally consumed at a pace of some 311 million tons per year with 90% having a petroleum origin, plastic materials have become a major worldwide solid waste problem. Plastic composition of solid waste has increased for less than 1% in 1960 to greater than 10% in 2005 which was attributed largely to packaging. Packaging plastics are recycled in remarkably low quantities. Should current production and waste management trends continue, landfill plastic waste and that in the natural environment could exceed 12,000 Mt of plastic waste by 2050 [9].
\nA polymer is easily recognized as a valuable chemical made of many repeating units [10]. The basic repeating unit of a polymer is referred to as the “-mer” with “poly-mer” denoting a chemical composed of many repeating units. Polymers can be chemically synthesized in a variety of ways depending on the chemical characteristics of the monomers thus forming a desired product. Nature affords many examples of polymers which can be used directly or transformed to form materials required by society serving specific needs. The polymers of concern are generally composed of carbon and hydrogen with extension to oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine functionalities (see Figure 1 for examples). Chemical resistance, thermal and electrical insulation, strong and light-weight, and myriad applications where no alternative exists are polymer characteristics that continue to make polymers attractive. Significant polymer application can be found in the automotive, building and construction, and packaging industries [12].
\nStructures of major commercial thermoplastic polymers [11].
The environmental behavior of polymers can be only discerned through an understanding of the interaction between polymers and environment under ambient conditions. This interaction can be observed from surface properties changes that lead to new chemical functionality formation in the polymer matrix. New functional groups contribute to continued deterioration of the polymeric structure in conditions such as weathering. Discoloration and mechanical stiffness of the polymeric mass are often hallmarks of the degradative cycle in which heat, mechanical energy, radiation, and ozone are contributing factors [13].
\nPolyolefins (PO) are the front-runners of the global industrial polymer market where a broad range of commercial products contribute to our daily lives in the form o packaging, bottles, automobile parts and piping. The PO class family is comprised of saturated hydrocarbon polymers such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), propylene and higher terminal olefins or monomer combinations as copolymers. The sources of these polymers are low-cost petrochemicals and natural gas with monomers production dependent on cracking or refining of petroleum. This class of polymers has a unique advantage derived from their basic composition of carbon and hydrogen in contrast to other available polymers such as polyurethanes, poly(vinyl chloride) and polyamides [14].
\nThe copolymers of ethylene and propylene are produced in quantities that exceed 40% of plastics produced per annum with no production leveling in sight. This continuous increase suggests that as material use broadens yearly, the amount of waste will also increase and present waste disposal problems. Polyolefin biological and chemical inertness continues to be recognized as an advantage. However, this remarkable stability found at many environmental conditions and the degradation resistance leads to environmental accumulation and an obvious increase to visible pollution and ancillary contributing problems. Desired environmental properties impact the polyolefin market on the production side as well as product recyclability [15].
\nBiodegradation utilizes the functions of microbial species to convert organic substrates (polymers) to small molecular weight fragments that can be further degraded to carbon dioxide and water [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The physical and chemical properties of a polymer are important to biodegradation. Biodegradation efficiency achieved by the microorganisms is directly related to the key properties such as molecular weight and crystallinity of the polymers. Enzymes engaged in polymer degradation initially are outside the cell and are referred to as exo-enzymes having a wide reactivity ranging from oxidative to hydrolytic functionality. Their action on the polymer can be generally described as depolymerization. The exo-enzymes generally degrade complex polymer structure to smaller, simple units that can take in the microbial cell to complete the process of degradation.
\nPolymer degradation proceeds to form new products during the degradation path leading to mineralization which results in the formation of process end-products such as, e.g., CO2, H2O or CH4 [22]. Oxygen is the required terminal electron acceptor for the aerobic degradation process. Aerobic conditions lead to the formation of CO2 and H2O in addition to the cellular biomass of microorganisms during the degradation of the plastic forms. Where sulfidogenic conditions are found, polymer biodegradation leads to the formation of CO2 and H2O. Polymer degradation accomplished under anaerobic conditions produces organic acids, H2O, CO2, and CH4. Contrasting aerobic degradation with anaerobic conditions, the aerobic process is found to be more efficient. When considering energy production the anaerobic process produces less energy due to the absence of O2, serving the electron acceptor which is more efficient in comparison to CO2 and SO4−2 [23].
\nAs solid materials, plastics encounter the effects of biodegradation at the exposed surface. In the unweathered polymeric structure, the surface is affected by biodegradation whereas the inner part is generally unavailable to the effects of biodegradation. Weathering may mechanically affect the structural integrity of the plastic to permit intrusion of bacteria or fungal hyphae to initiate biodegradation at inner loci of the plastic. The rate of biodegradation is functionally dependent on the surface area of the plastic. As the microbial-colonized surface area increases, a faster biodegradation rate will be observed assuming all other environmental conditions to be equal [24].
\nMicroorganisms can break organic chemicals into simpler chemical forms through biochemical transformation. Polymer biodegradation is a process in which any change in the polymer structure occurs as a result of polymer properties alteration resulting from the transformative action of microbial enzymes, molecular weight reduction, and changes to mechanical strength and surface properties attributable to microbial action. The biodegradation reaction for a carbon-based polymer under aerobic conditions can be formulated as follows:
\n\n
Assimilation of the carbon comprising the polymer (Cpolymer) by microorganisms results in conversion to CO2 and H2O with production of more microbial biomass (Cbiomass). In turn, Cbiomass is mineralized across time by the microbial community or held in reserve as storage polymers [25].
\nThe following set of equations is a more complete description of the aerobic plastic biodegradation process:
\n\n
where Cpolymer and newly formed oligomers are converted into Cbiomass but Cbiomass converts to CO2 under a different kinetics scheme. The conversion to CO2 is referred to as microbial mineralization. Each oligomeric fragment is expected to proceed through of sequential steps in which the chemical and physical properties are altered leading to the desired benign result. A technology for monitoring aerobic biodegradation has been developed and optimized for small organic pollutants using oxygen respirometry where the pollutant degrades at a sufficiently rapid rate for respirometry to provide expected rates of biodegradation. When polymers are considered, a variety of analytical approaches relating to physical and chemical changes are employed such as differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry, and atomic force microscopy [26].
\nSince most polymer disposal occurs in our oxygen atmosphere, it is important to recognize that aerobic biodegradation will be our focus but environmental anaerobic conditions do exist that may be useful to polymer degradation. The distinction between aerobic and anaerobic degradation is quite important since it has been observed that anaerobic conditions support slower biodegradation kinetics. Anaerobic biodegradation can occur in the environment in a variety of situations. Burial of polymeric materials initiates a complex series of chemical and biological reactions. Oxygen entrained in the buried materials is initially depleted by aerobic bacteria. The following oxygen depleted conditions provide conditions for the initiation of anaerobic biodegradation. The buried strata are generally covered by 3-m-thick layers which prevent oxygen replenishment. The alternate electron acceptors such as nitrate, sulfate, or methanogenic conditions enable the initiation of anaerobic biodegradation. Any introduction of oxygen will halt an established anaerobic degradation process.
\nThis formulation for the aerobic biodegradation of polymers can be improved due to the complexity of the processes involved in polymer biodegradation [27]. Biodegradation, defined as a decomposition of substances by the action of microorganisms, leading to mineralization and the formation of new biomass is not conveniently summarized. A new analysis is necessary to assist the formulation of comparative protocols to estimate biodegradability. In this context, polymer biodegradation is defined as a complex process composed of the stages of biodeterioration, biofragmentation, and assimilation [28].
\nThe biological activity inferred in the term biodegradation is predominantly composed of, biological effects but within nature biotic and abiotic features act synergistically in the organic matter degradation process. Degradation modifying mechanical, physical and chemical properties of a material is generally referred to as deterioration. Abiotic and biotic effects combine to exert changes to these properties. This biological action occurs from the growth of microorganisms on the polymer surface or inside polymer material. Mechanical, chemical, and enzymatic means are exerted by microorganisms, thereby modifying the gross polymer material properties. Environmental conditions such as atmospheric pollutants, humidity, and weather strongly contribute to the overall process. The adsorbed pollutants can assist the material colonization by microbial species. A diverse collection of bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi are expected participants involved in biodeterioration. The development of different biota can increase biodeterioration by facilitating the production of simple molecules.
\nFragmentation is a material breaking phenomenon required to meet the constraints for the subsequent event called assimilation. Polymeric material has a high molecular weight which is restricted by its size in its transit across the cell wall or cytoplasmic membrane. Reduction of polymeric molecule size is indispensable to this process. Changes to molecular size can occur through the involvement of abiotic and biotic processes which are expected to reduce molecular weight and size. The utility of enzymes derived from the microbial biomass could provide the required molecular weight reductions. Mixtures of oligomers and/or monomers are the expected products of the biological fragmentation.
\nAssimilation describes the integration of atoms from fragments of polymeric materials inside microbial cells. The microorganisms benefit from the input of energy, electrons and elements (i.e., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and so forth) required for the cell growth. Assimilated substrates are expected to be derived from biodeterioration and biofragmentation effects. Non-assimilated materials, impermeable to cellular membranes, are subject to biotransformation reactions yielding products that may be assimilated. Molecules transported across the cell membrane can be oxidized through catabolic pathways for energy storage and structural cell elements. Assimilation supports microbial growth and reproduction as nutrient substrates (e.g., polymeric materials) are consumed from the environment.
\nThe polymer substrate properties are highly important to any colonization of the surface by either bacteria or fungi [29]. The topology of the surface may also be important to the colonization process. The polymer properties of molecular weight, shape, size and additives are each unique features which can limit biodegradability. The molecular weight of a polymer can be very limiting since the microbial colonization depends on surface features that enable the microorganisms to establish a locus from which to expand growth. Polymer crystallinity can play a strong role since it has been observed that microbial attachment to the polymer surface occurs and utilizes polymer material in amorphous sections of the polymer surface. Polymer additives are generally low molecular weight organic chemicals that can provide a starting point for microbial colonization due to their ease of biodegradation (Figure 2).
\nFactors controlling polymer biodegradation [30].
Weather is responsible for the deterioration of most exposed materials. Abiotic contributors to these conditions are moisture in its variety of forms, non-ionizing radiation, and atmospheric temperature. When combined with wind effects, pollution, and atmospheric gases, the overall process of deterioration can be quite formable. The ultraviolet (UV) component of the solar spectrum contributes ionizing radiation which plays a significant role in initiating weathering effects. Visible and near-infrared radiation can also contribute to the weathering process. Other factors couple with solar radiation synergistically to significantly influence the weathering processes. The quality and quantity of solar radiation, geographic location changes, time of day and year, and climatological conditions contribute to the overall effects. Effects of ozone and atmospheric pollutants are also important since each can interact with atmospheric radiation to result in mechanical stress such as stiffening and cracking. Moisture when combined with temperature effects can assist microbial colonization. The biotic contributors can strongly assist the colonization by providing the necessary nutrients for microbial growth. Hydrophilic surfaces may provide a more suitable place for colonization to ensue. Readily available exoenzymes from the colonized area can initiate the degradation process.
\nCommunities of microorganisms attached to a surface are referred to as biofilms [31]. The microorganisms forming a biofilm undergo remarkable changes during the transition from planktonic (free-swimming) biota to components of a complex, surface-attached community (Figure 3). The process is quite simple with planktonic microorganism encountering a surface where some adsorb followed by surface release to final attachment by the secretion of exopolysaccharides which act as an adhesive for the growing biofilm [33]. New phenotypic characteristics are exhibited by the bacteria of a biofilm in response to environmental signals. Initial cell-polymer surface interactions, biofilm maturation, and the return to planktonic mode of growth have regulatory circuits and genetic elements controlling these diverse functions. Studies have been conducted to explore the genetic basis of biofilm development with the development of new insights. Compositionally, these films have been found to be a single microbial species or multiple microbial species with attachment to a range of biotic and abiotic surfaces [34, 35]. Mixed-species biofilms are generally encountered in most environments. Under the proper nutrient and carbon substrate supply, biofilms can grow to massive sizes. With growth, the biofilm can achieve large film structures that may be sensitive to physical forces such as agitation. Under such energy regimes, the biofilm can detach. An example of biofilm attachment and utility can be found in the waste water treatment sector where large polypropylene disks are rotated through industrial or agriculture waste water and then exposed to the atmosphere to treat pollutants through the intermediacy of cultured biofilms attached to the rotating polypropylene disk.
\nMicrobial attachment processes to a polymer surface [32].
Biofilm formation and activity to polymer biodegradation are complex and dynamic [36]. The physical attachment offers a unique scenario for the attached microorganism and its participation in the biodegradation. After attachment as a biofilm component, individual microorganisms can excrete exoenzymes which can provide a range of functions. Due to the mixed-species composition found in most environments, a broad spectrum of enzymatic activity is generally possible with wide functionalities. Biofilm formation can be assisted by the presence of pollutant chemical available at the polymer surface. The converse is also possible where surfaces contaminated with certain chemicals can prohibit biofilm formation. Biofilms continue to grow with the input of fresh nutrients, but when nutrients are deprived, the films will detach from the surface and return to a planktonic mode of growth. Overall hydrophobicity of the polymer surface and the surface charge of a bacterium may provide a reasonable prediction of surfaces to which a microorganism might colonize [37]. These initial cell-surface and cell-cell interactions are very useful to biofilm formation but incomplete (Figure 4). Microbial surfaces are heterogeneous, and can change widely in response to environmental changes. Five stages of biofilm development: have been identified as (1) initial attachment, (2) irreversible attachment, (3) maturation I, (4) maturation II, and (5) dispersion. Further research is required to provide the understanding of microbial components involved in biofilm development and regulation of their production to assemble to various facets of this complex microbial phenomenon [38].
\nBiofilm formation and processes [34].
The activities envisioned in this scenario (depicted in Figure 4) are the reversible adsorption of bacteria occurring at the later time scale, irreversible attachment of bacteria occurring at the second-minute time scale, growth and division of bacteria in hours-days, exopolymer production and biofilm formation in hours-days, and attachment and other organisms to biofilm in days-months.
\nThe evaluation of the extent of polymer biodegradation is made difficult by the dependence on polymer surface and the departure of degradation kinetics from the techniques available for small pollutant molecule techniques [39]. For applications for polymer biodegradation a variety of techniques have been applied. Visual observations, weight loss measurements, molar mass and mechanical properties, carbon dioxide evolution and/or oxygen consumption, radiolabeling, clear-zone formation, enzymatic degradation, and compost test under controlled conditions have been cited for their utility [27]. The testing regime must be explicitly described within a protocol of steps that can be collected for various polymers and compared on an equal basis. National and international efforts have developed such protocols to enable the desired comparisons using rigorous data collecting techniques and interpretation [40].
\nThe conventional polymers such as (PE), (PP), (PS), (PUR), and (PET) are recognized for their persistence in the environment [41]. Each of these polymers is subject to very slow fragmentation to form small particles in a process expected to require centuries of exposure to photo-, physical, and biological degradation processes. Until recently, the commercial polymers were not expected to biodegrade. The current perspective supports polymer biodegradation with hopeful expectation that these newly encountered biodegradation processes can be transformed into technologies capable of providing major assistance to the ongoing task of waste polymer management.
\nThe polyolefins such as polyethylene (PE) have been recognized as a polymer remarkably resistant to degradation [42]. Products made with PE are very diverse and a testament to its chemical and biological inertness. The biodegradation of the polyolefins is complex and incompletely understood. Pure strains elicited from the environment have been used to investigate metabolic pathways or to gain a better understanding of the effect that environmental conditions have on polyolefin degradation. This strategy ignores the importance of different microbial species that could participate in a cooperative process. Treatment of the complex environments associated with polymeric solid waste could be difficult with information based on pure strain analysis. Mixed and complex microbial communities have been used and encountered in different bioremediation environments [43].
\nA variety of common PE types, low-density PE (LDPE), high-density PE (HDPE), linear low-density PE (LLDPE) and cross-linked PE (XLPE), differ in their density, degree of branching and availability of functional groups at the surface. The type of polymer used as the substrate can strongly influence the microbial community structure colonizing PE surface. A significant number of microbial strains have been identified for the deterioration caused by their interaction with the polymer surface [44]. Microorganisms have been categorized for their involvement in PE colonization and biodegradation or the combination. Some research studies did not conduct all the tests required to verify PE biodegradation. A more inclusive approach to assessing community composition, including the non-culturable fraction of microorganisms invisible by traditional microbiology methods is required in future assessments. The diversity of microorganisms capable of degrading PE extends beyond 17 genera of bacteria and nine genera of fungi [45]. These numbers are expected to increase with the use of more sensitive isolation and characterization techniques using rDNA sequencing. Polymer additives can affect the kinds of microorganisms colonizing the surfaces of these polymers. The ability of microorganisms to colonize the PE surfaces exhibits a variety of effects on polymer properties. Seven different characteristics have been identified and are used to monitor the extent of polymer surface change resulting from biodegradation of the polymer. The characteristics are hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, crystallinity, surface topography, functional groups on the surface, mechanical properties, and molecular weight distribution. The use of surfactants has become important to PE biodegradation. Complete solubilization of PE in water by a Pseudomonas fluorescens treated for a month followed by biosurfactant treatment for a subsequent month in the second month and finally a 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment at 60°C for a third month led to complete polymer degradation. A combination of P. fluorescens, surfactant and biosurfactant treatments as a single treatment significantly exhibited polymer oxidation and biodegradation [46]. The metabolically diverse genus Pseudomonas has been investigated for its capabilities to degrade and metabolize synthetic plastics. Pseudomonas species found in environmental matrices have been identified to degrade a variety of polymers including PE, and PP [47]. The unique capabilities of Pseudomonas species related to degradation and metabolism of synthetic polymers requires a focus on: the interactions controlling cell surface attachment of biofilms to polymer surfaces, extracellular polymer oxidation and/or hydrolytic enzyme activity, metabolic pathways mediating polymer uptake and degradation of polymer fragments within the microbial cell through catabolism, and the importance of development of the implementation of enhancing factors such as pretreatments, microbial consortia and nutrient availability while minimizing the effects of constraining factors such as alternative carbon sources and inhibitory by-products. In an ancillary study, thermophilic consortia of Brevibacillus sps. and Aneurinibacillus sp. from waste management landfills and sewage treatment plants exhibited enhanced PE and PP degradation [48].
\nThe larval stage of two waxworm species, Galleria mellonella and Plodia interpunctella, has been observed to degrade LDPE without pretreatment [49, 50]. The worms could macerate PE as thin film shopping bags and metabolize the film to ethylene glycol which in turn biodegrades rapidly. The remarkable ability to digest a polymer considered non-edible may parallel the worm’s ability utilize beeswax as a food source. From the guts of Plodia interpunctella waxworms two strains of bacteria, Enterobacter asburiae YP1 and Bacillus sp. YP1, were isolated and found to degrade PE in laboratory conditions. The two strains of bacteria were shown to reduce the polymer film hydrophobicity during a 28-day incubation. Changes to the film surface as cavities and pits were observed using scanning electron microscopy and atomic-force microscopy. Simple contact of ~100 Galleria mellonella worms with a commercial PE shopping bag for 12 hours resulted in a mass loss of 92 mg. The waxworm research has been scrutinized and found to be lacking the necessary information to support the claims of the original Galleria mellonella report [51].
\nPolypropylene (PP) is very similar to PE, in solution behavior and electrical properties. Mechanical properties and thermal resistance are improved with the addition of the methyl group but chemical resistance decreases. There are three forms of propylene selectively formed from the monomer isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic due to the different geometric relationships achievable through polymerization technology. PP properties are strongly directed by tacticity or the methyl group orientation as related the methyl groups in neighboring monomer units. Isotactic PP has a greater degree of crystallinity than atactic and syndiotactic PP and therefore more difficult to biodegrade. The high molar mass of PP prohibits permeation through the microbial cell membrane which thwarts metabolism by living organisms. It is generally recognized that abiotic degradation provides a foothold for microorganisms to form a biofilm. With partial destruction of the polymer surface by abiotic effects the microbes can then start breaking the damaged polymer chains [52].
\nPS is a sturdy thermoplastic commonly used in short-lifetime items that contribute broadly to the mass of poorly controlled polymers [53]. Various forms of PS such as general purpose (GPPS)/oriented polystyrene (OPS), polystyrene foam, and expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam are available for different commercial leading to a broad solid waste composition. PS has been thought to be non-biodegradable. The rate of biodegradation encountered in the environment is very slow leading to prolonged persistence as solid waste. In the past, PS was recycled through mechanical, chemical, and thermal technologies yielding gaseous and liquid daughter products [54]. A rather large collection of studies has shown that PS is subject to biodegradation but at a very slow rate in the environment. A sheet of PS buried for 32 years. in soil showed no indication of biotic or abiotic degradation [55]. The hydrophobicity of the polymer surface, a function of molecular structure and composition, detracts from the effectiveness of microbial attachment [56, 57]. The general lack of water solubility of PS prohibits the transport into microbial cells for metabolism.
\nA narrow range of microorganisms have been elicited for the environment and found to degrade PS [53]. Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains isolated from soil samples have been shown to degrade brominated high impact PS. The activity was seen in weight loss and surface changes to the PS film. Soil invertebrates such as the larvae of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus) have been shown to chew and eat Styrofoam [57]. Samples of the larvae were fed Styrofoam as the sole diet for 30 days and compared with worms fed a conventional diet. The worms feeding Styrofoam survived for 1 month after which they stopped eating as they entered the pupae stage and emerged as adults after a subsequent 2 weeks. It appears that Styrofoam feeding did not lead to any lethality for the mealworms. The ingested PS mass was efficiently depolymerized within the larval gut during the retention time of 24 hours and converted to CO2 [51]. This remarkable behavior by the mealworm can be considered the action of an efficient bioreactor. The mealworm can provide all the necessary components for PS treatment starting with chewing, ingesting, mixing, reacting with gut contents, and microbial degradation by gut microbial consortia. A PS-degrading bacterial strain Exiguobacterium sp. strain YT2 was isolated from the gut of mealworms and found to degrade PS films outside the mealworm gut. Superworms (Zophobas morio) were found to exhibit similar activity toward Styrofoam. Brominated high impact polystyrene (blend of polystyrene and polybutadiene) has been found to be degraded by Pseudomonas and Bacillus strains [58]. In a complementary study, four non-pathogenic cultures (Enterobacter sp., Citrobacter sedlakii, Alcaligenes sp. and Brevundimonas diminuta) were isolated from partially degraded polymer samples from a rural market setting and each were found to degrade high impact polystyrene [59].
\nPVC is manufactured in two forms rigid and flexible. The rigid form can be found in the construction industry as pipe or in structural applications. The soft and flexible form can be made through the incorporation of plasticizers such as phthalates. Credit cards, bottles, and non-food packaging are notable products with a PVC composition. PVC has been known from its inception as a polymer with remarkable resistance to degradation [60]. Thermal and photodegradation processes are widely recognized for their role in the weathering processes found with PVC [61, 62]. The recalcitrant feature of polyvinyl chloride resistance to biodegradation becomes a matter of environmental concern across the all processes extending from manufacturing to waste disposal. Few reports are available relating the extent of PVC biodegradation. Early studies investigated the biodegradation of low-molecular weight PVC by white rot fungi [63]. Plasticized PVC was found to be degraded by fungi such as As. fumigatus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, As. niger, and Aspergillus sydowii [64].
\nModifying the PVC film composition with adjuvants such as cellulose and starch provided a substrate that fungi could also degrade [65]. Several investigations of soil bacteria for the ability to degrade PVC from enrichment cultures were conducted on different locations [66]. Mixed cultures containing bacteria and fungi were isolated and found to grow on plasticized PVC [67]. Significant differences were observed for the colonization by the various components of the mixed isolates during very long exposure times [68]. Significant drift in isolate activity was averted through the use of talc. Consortia composed of a combination of different bacterial strains of Pseudomonas otitidis, Bacillus cereus, and Acanthopleurobacter pedis have the ability to degrade PVC in the environment [64]. These results offer the opportunity to optimization conditions for consortia growth in PVC and use as a treatment technology to degrade large collections of PVC. PVC film blends were shown to degrade by partnering biodegradable polymers with PVC [69].
\nPUR encompass a broad field of polymer synthesis where a di- or polyisocyanate is chemically linked through carbamate (urethane) formation. These thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers have been utilized to form microcellular foams, high performance adhesives, synthetic fibers, surface coatings, and automobile parts along with a myriad of other applications. The carbamate linkage can be severed by chemical and biological processes [70].
\nAromatic esters and the extent of the crystalline fraction of the polymer have been identified as important factors affecting the biodegradation of PUR [71, 72]. Acid and base hydrolysis strategies can sever the carbamate bond of the polymer. Microbial ureases, esterases and proteases can enable the hydrolysis the carbamate and ester bonds of a PUR polymer [71, 73, 74]. Bacteria have been found to be good sources for enzymes capable of degrading PUR polymers [75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]. Fungi are also quite capable of degrading PUR polymers [83, 84, 85]. Each of the enzyme systems has their preferential targets: ureases attack the urea linkages [86, 87, 88] with esterases and proteases hydrolyzing the ester bonds of the polyester PUR as a major mechanism for its enzymatic depolymerization [89, 90, 91, 92]. PUR polymers appear to be more amenable to enzymatic depolymerization or degradation but further searches and inquiry into hitherto unrecognized microbial PUR degrading activities is expected to offer significant PUR degrading activities.
\nPET is a polyester commonly marketed as a thermoplastic polymer resin finding use as synthetic fibers in clothing and carpeting, food and liquid containers, manufactured objects made through thermoforming, and engineering resins with glass fiber. Composed of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol through the formation of ester bonds, PET has found a substantial role in packaging materials, beverage bottles and the textile industry. Characterized as a recalcitrant polymer of remarkable durability, the polymer’s properties are reflective of its aromatic units in its backbone and a limited polymer chain mobility [91]. In many of its commercial forms, PET is semicrystalline having crystalline and amorphous phases which has a major effect on PET biodegradability. The environmental accumulation of PET is a testament of its versatility and the apparent lack of chemical/physical mechanisms capable of attacking its structural integrity show it to be a major environmental pollution problem.
\nThe durability and the resulting low biodegradability of PET are due to the presence of repeating aromatic terephthalate units in its backbone and the corresponding limited mobility of the polymer chains [92]. The semicrystalline PET polymer also contains both amorphous and crystalline fractions with a strong effect on its biodegradability. Crystallinity exceeding 30% in PET beverage bottles and fibers having even higher crystalline compositions presents major hurdles to enzyme-induced degradation [93, 94]. At higher temperatures, the amorphous fraction of PET becomes more flexible and available to enzymatic degradation [95, 96]. The hydrolysis of PET by enzymes has been identified as a surface erosion process [97, 98, 99, 100]. The hydrophobic surface significantly limits biodegradation due to the limited ability for microbial attachment. The hydrophobic nature of PET poses a significant barrier to microbial colonization of the polymer surface thus attenuating effective adsorption and access by hydrolytic enzymes to accomplish the polymer degradation [101].
\nA wide array of hydrolytic enzymes including hydrolases, lipases, esterases, and cutinases has been shown to have the ability to hydrolyze amorphous PET polymers and modify PET film surfaces. Microbes from a vast collection of waste sites and dumping situations have been studied for their ability to degrade PET. A subunit of PET, diethylene glycol phthalate has been found to be a source of carbon and energy necessary to the sustenance of microbial life. Enzyme modification may be effectively employed to improve the efficiency and specificity of the polyester degrading enzymes acknowledged to be active degraders of PET [102]. Significant efforts have been extended to developing an understanding of the enzymatic activity of high-performing candidate enzymes through selection processes, mechanistic probes, and enzyme engineering. In addition to hydrolytic enzymes already identified, enzymes found in thermophilic anaerobic sludge were found to degrade PET copolymers formed into beverage bottles [103].
\nRecently, the discovery of microbial activity capable of complete degradation of widely used beverage bottle plastic expands the range of technology options available for PET treatment. A microorganism isolated from the area adjacent to a plastic bottle-recycling facility was shown to aerobically degrade PET to small molecular daughter products and eventually to CO2 and H2O. This new research shows that a newly isolated microbial species, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, degrades PET through hydrolytic transformations by the action of two enzymes, which are extracellular and intracellular hydrolases. A primary hydrolysis reaction intermediate, mono (hydroxy-2-ethyl) terephthalate is formed and can be subsequently degraded to ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid which can be utilized by the microorganism for growth [104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109].
\nThis discovery could be a candidate as a single vessel system that could competently accomplish PET hydrolysis as an enzyme reactor. This may be the beginning of viable technology development applicable to the solution of the global plastic problem recognized for its terrestrial component as well as the water contamination problem found in the sea. These remarkable discoveries offer a new perspective on the recalcitrant nature of PET and how future environmental management of PET waste may be conducted using the power of enzymes. The recognition of current limiting steps in the biological depolymerization of PET are expected to enable the design of a enzymes-based process to reutilized the natural assets contained in scrap PET [110] (Figure 5).
\nMicrobial depolymerization of poly(ethylene terephthalate).
The major commercial polymers have been shown to be biodegradable in a variety of circumstances despite a strong predisposition suggesting that many of these polymers were recalcitrant to the effects of biodegradation. The question of whether bioremediation can play a significant role in the necessary management of polymer waste remains to be determined. Treatment technology for massive waste polymer treatment must be sufficiently robust to be reliable at large scale use and adaptable to conditions throughout the environment where this treatment is required. The status of information relating to the application of biodegradation treatment to existing and future polymer solid waste is at early stages of development for several waste polymers. The discovery of that invertebrate species (insect larvae) can reduce the size of the waste polymer by ingesting and degradation in the gut via enzymes which aid or complete degradation is rather amazing and requires additional scrutiny. There is an outside change that a polymer recycling technology based on these findings is a future possibility.
\nThe views expressed in this book chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
\nNo “conflict of interest” is known or expected.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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