Experimental values obtained from the equivalent circuit fitting for the nanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol-based electrolytes at the different Re = 0, 200, 400 and 600.
\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-945-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-944-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-946-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0b1e679fcacdec2448603a66df71ccc7",bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan and Dr. Sevcan Aydin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg",keywords:"PCR Based Methods, Protein Based Methods, Sequencing, Conservation of Genetic Resources, Natural Variation, Molecular Markers, Genetic Manipulation in Animals, Resistance to Disease, Genetic Manipulation in Plants, Use of Microorganisms in Biotechnology, Genetic Differentiation, Gene Therapy and Gene Editing",numberOfDownloads:17,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of genetics and molecular biology and Head of Biotechnology division at İstanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include plant molecular genetics, microbial biotechnology and characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaeal strains.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include genetics, environmental biotechnology and bioengineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"462767",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevcan",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"sevcan-aydin",fullName:"Sevcan Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003QRfRpQAL/Profile_Picture_2022-03-24T08:49:06.jpg",biography:"Sevcan Aydın is an Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Türkiye. She obtained her bachelor's degree from Biology Department of Ege University. She obtained her Ph.D. in Biotechnology Programme of Istanbul Technical University. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The most interesting part of PEC is related to the absorption of incident light in a semiconductor valence band. If the incident light energy is high enough (higher than the band-gap of the semiconductor,
Schematic representation of a photoelectrochemical process.
In that scheme, a common PEC cell with an n-type semiconductor photoanode and a metallic cathode (typically Pt) is presented. Upon illumination, electrons are promoted from the valence band to the conduction band and are subsequently driven toward the metallic back contact through the semiconductor bulk and, from there, to the cathode through the external circuit. Once in the cathode, these electrons can be used to reduce the oxidized redox species present in the electrolyte, such as water to form gaseous hydrogen. Photogenerated holes, which remain in the semiconductor valence band, are transported toward the semiconductor/electrolyte interface, where they can oxidize the reduced redox species present in the electrolyte, such as water to form gaseous oxygen or oxygen compounds, for example, hydroxyl radical, which could, in turn, directly oxidize recalcitrant organic pollutants (R in Figure 1) present in the aqueous solution. The movement of photogenerated charge carriers (
The semiconducting photoanode is the central part of a PEC cell. Consequently, it is essential to develop strategies to fabricate efficient photoanodes, which is a materials science issue. Hence, the development of PEC is closely related to the advances achieved in the design and synthesis of materials used as photoanodes, in which the understanding of their properties and characteristics is fundamental. Among the most important characteristics, an efficient photoanode must satisfy the following [1, 5, 6]:
In recent years, increasing attention is being paid to the design and synthesis of nanostructured metal oxides due to their exceptional properties. Photocurrent density obtained in PEC systems has two main contributions, one coming from the electrocatalytic process and other arising from the photon absorption process. The electrocatalytic process consumes the photogenerated charge carriers and it can become the rate-determining step of the PEC process (the charge transfer at the semiconductor/electrolyte interface) [4]. Current densities in electrochemistry are directly influenced by the real surface active area, since increasing surface area enhances the number of electroactive sites; therefore, nanostructuring the photoelectrode can improve its electrocatalytic performance. Moreover, in nanostructured photoelectrodes, the diffusion path of photogenerated holes toward the semiconductor/electrolyte interface is significantly shorter, which reduces electron-hole recombination. On the other hand, by roughening the semiconductor surface, direct light reflection is reduced due to the scattering of reflected photons, enhancing thus the chance of light absorption by the semiconductor and the possibility of further photoexcitation. Consequently, creating nanostructured photoanodes has immediate benefits on both their electrocatalytic activity and photoactivity [4].
\nDuring the last decades, several n-type semiconductor metal oxides, such as TiO2, WO3, Fe2O3 and ZnO, have been investigated as potential candidates for photoanode materials in PEC cells due to their different characteristics.
\nTitanium oxide (TiO2) is a wide bandgap semiconductor (
Tungsten oxide (WO3) is another attractive photoanode material owing to its high electron mobility and moderate hole diffusion length (≈150 nm). Besides, WO3 can also absorb a part of the visible rays of the solar spectrum (its
Hematite (
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is also a wide bandgap semiconductor (
In order to prepare nanostructures of the oxides described above, various methodologies have been reported, such as sol-gel processes, hydrothermal and solvothermal methods, deposition processes or anodization. Of these, anodization is a fast and simple method to synthesize metal oxide nanostructures [12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. With anodization, surface morphology can be designed by adequately controlling several parameters, such as the anodization potential, duration, electrolyte composition, temperature, and so on. Hence, the morphology and dimensions of nanostructures fabricated by anodization, as well as their PEC behavior, can be controlled by adjusting the aforementioned parameters. Moreover, nanostructures formed by anodization can be grown directly on the substrate (the back metal collector), thus avoiding compaction or sintering of nanostructures. This fact significantly reduces the contact resistance between the nanostructure and the metallic substrate, providing the basis for efficient charge collection. Therefore, anodization offers a robust and economical way to fabricate nanostructured metallic oxides.
\nAmong the parameters that can be controlled to design and fabricate high-performance oxide nanostructures by anodization, hydrodynamic conditions during the synthesis process can be of great importance. Indeed, depending on the used material and the operation conditions, the mechanisms of nanostructures formation by anodization may involve one or more stages where mass transfer becomes the rate-determining step [8, 23]. Therefore, hydrodynamic conditions can play a central role in the synthesis of nanostructures by anodization. This chapter presents a review of the innovative high-performance nanostructures that have been fabricated by anodization under different hydrodynamic conditions. Although various fabrication conditions have been used, depending on the material, in all cases, hydrodynamic conditions have been controlled by connecting rods of the different metals to a rotating disk electrode (RDE) to assure reproducible mechanical convection of the electrolyte near the electrode surface. Figure 2 shows an illustration of the electrode configuration used during all the anodization processes. The specific synthesis conditions for the different materials are detailed in the following sections.
\nExperimental setup used during all the anodization processes, showing the electrode configuration.
Influence of hydrodynamic conditions for nanostructures formed from titanium (Ti) anodization is presented for samples synthesized in two different electrolytes and anodization conditions: ethylene glycol +1 M H2O containing 0.05 M NH4F and glycerol/water (60:40 vol.%) containing 0.27 M NH4F. When anodization was performed in ethylene glycol based electrolytes 55 V for 30 min were directly applied to anodize the Ti. Nevertheless, in glycerol based electrolytes the potential was increased from 0 to 30 V at a rate of 200 mV s−1, applying subsequently the potential of 30 V for 3 h. The active anode area exposed to the electrolyte was 0.5 cm2.
\nSince the morphology of the nanostructures is highly dependent on the electrolyte used for anodization, the discussion of the influence of Reynolds number on the morphological properties of the TiO2 nanostructures will be discussed for each particular anodization media. A field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) was used to characterize the morphology of the nanostructures.
\nNanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol based electrolytes present an initiation layer which blocks the mouth of the nanotubes, preventing part of the solar radiation from being absorbed at the photoelectrode (Figure 3a). It was observed that rotating the electrode during anodization, part of the initiation layer was removed, and this elimination was more important as Reynolds number (Re) was increased (Figure 3b).
\nFESEM images of the nanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol-based electrolytes at a Re 600 (a and b). Current density versus time profiles of the nanostructures during anodization in ethylene glycol based electrolytes at the different hydrodynamic conditions (Re from 0 to 600) (c). Raman spectrum of a nanostructure anodized at re = 600 in ethylene glycol-based electrolytes and annealed in air at 450°C for 1 h (d).
On the other hand, the hydrodynamic conditions completely changed the morphology of the formed nanostructures when anodization was carried out in glycerol based electrolytes, that is from nanotubes (at Re = 0, Figure 4a) to nanosponges (at Re > 0, Figure 4b). Nanosponge morphology is characterized by a connected and highly porous TiO2 structure.
\nFESEM images of the nanostructures anodized in glycerol based electrolytes at a re = 0 (a) and re = 300 (b). Current density vs. time profiles of the nanostructures during anodization in ethylene glycol based electrolytes at the different hydrodynamic conditions (re from 0 to 400) (c). Raman spectra of the nanostructures anodized in glycerol based electrolytes, at re = 0 and re = 300 and annealed in air at 450°C for 1 h (d).
The formation and growth of the TiO2 nanostructures was monitored by recording the current density-time behavior (Figure 3c and 4c). The current density profile follows a similar trend regardless the electrolyte used for anodization.
\nIn the first stage (I), current density decreases with time due to a compact TiO2 oxide layer formation [9, 24]. Then, in the second stage (stage II), an increase in current density indicates the onset of TiO2 dissolution due to the presence of fluoride ions in the electrolyte (stage II), according to the reaction shown in Eq. 1 [25, 26, 27].
\nAfter that, in the third stage (stage III), current density remains almost constant due to the formation and growth of regular nanotubes or nanosponges [9, 28].
\nIn general, Figures 3c and 4c show that current densities increase with increasing Re in all the stages, which indicates that hydrodynamic conditions enhance the electrochemical processes taking place during anodization.
\nIn order to obtain a crystalline structure, samples were annealed in air at 450°C for 1 h. After the annealing treatment, all the samples possessed the Raman peaks of the TiO2 anatase phase shown in Figures 3d and 4d (peaks at roughly 141.7, 197.0, 396.2, 515.1 and 639.3 cm−1 [28, 29, 30]).
\nElectrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements at open circuit potential (OCP) and Mott-Schottky plots were performed in 0.1 M Na2SO4 in order to evaluate the electrochemical properties of the samples. Figure 5 shows the Nyquist (Figure 5a), Bode-phase (Figure 5b) and Bode-modulus (Figure 5c) plots for the nanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol-based electrolytes.
\nExperimental Nyquist (a), bode-phase (b) and bode-modulus (c) plots for the nanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol based electrolytes at Reynolds numbers = 0, 200, 400 and 600. Experiments performed in 0.1 M Na2SO4.
Figure 6 shows the electrical equivalent circuit used to fit EIS data, where Rs is the electrolyte resistance, and the two groups of resistances and constant phase elements (R-CPE) correspond to the nanotubular layer (R1-CPE1) and the compact TiO2 underlayer (R2-CPE2) [8, 31, 32].
\nElectrical equivalent circuit used to simulate the experimental data obtained from EIS experiments shown in
The different parameters obtained from the fitting of the EIS data in the electrical equivalent circuit are shown in Table 1. From Table 1, it is important to highlight that the resistance of the compact layer is always higher than the one obtained for the nanotubes (R2 > R1), due to the higher conductivity of the nanostructures. On the other hand, R1 decreases as Reynolds number increases, that is, the conductivity of the nanotubes increases at higher hydrodynamic conditions.
\nExperimental values obtained from the equivalent circuit fitting for the nanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol-based electrolytes at the different Re = 0, 200, 400 and 600.
In order to observe the electrochemical behavior of nanostructures formed in glycerol-based electrolytes, Figure 7 shows the Mott-Schottky (MS) plots at a frequency of 10 kHz (to eliminate the capacitance dependence on frequency) for nanotubes (Re = 0) and nanosponges (Re > 0).
\nMott-Schottky plots of the different nanostructures (nanotubes at Re = 0 and nanosponges at Re > 0) anodized in glycerol based electrolytes. Experiments performed in 0.1 M Na2SO4.
In Figure 7, positive slopes of the MS plots are characteristic of
Values of ND and EFB for the different nanostructures synthetized in glycerol-based electrolytes under static (Re = 0) and under hydrodynamic conditions (Re = 100, 200, 300 and 400).
The donor density can be determined from the positive slopes of the straight lines in the MS plots using the Mott-Schottky equation for an
where
Table 2 shows that
Table 2 also shows the flat band potentials for the different nanostructures obtained in glycerol-based electrolytes. These values were determined from the intercept of the straight line in MS plots with the potential axis. To reduce the recombination probability, flat band potentials should be high and negative [6, 42]. It can be observed in Table 2 that flat band potentials are more negative with increasing Re, that is, nanosponges formed under hydrodynamic conditions possess more negative flat band potentials than nanotubes formed under static conditions. Thus, the charge recombination probability is lower in the case of the nanosponges.
\nFigure 8 shows the photoelectrochemical water splitting performance under simulated sunlight AM 1.5 conditions in 1 M KOH for the different nanostructures anodized in ethylene glycol (Figure 8a) and glycerol (Figure 8b)-based electrolytes.
\nCurrent density versus applied potential profiles under dark and illumination conditions for the different nanostructures anodized under static (Re = 0) and at different hydrodynamic conditions (Re > 0) in ethylene glycol (a) and glycerol (b)-based electrolytes. Experiments were performed in 1 M KOH.
It can be observed in terms of the photocurrent transient vs. potential curves that the nanostructures obtained under hydrodynamic conditions present a higher performance in comparison with the nanostructures anodized at the same potential, time and electrolyte but at Re = 0. These results are in agreement with the morphology of the samples (high surface area for the nanostructures anodized under hydrodynamic conditions), EIS measurements (low resistance values, i.e., high conductivity for nanostructures synthetized at Re > 0) and MS plots (appropriate donor density values and more negative flat band potentials).
\nTherefore, on the one hand, hydrodynamic conditions are beneficial in ethylene glycol-based electrolytes because of the removal of the initiation layer which offers a high surface area for photoelectrochemical water splitting. On the other hand, nanosponges formed in glycerol based electrolytes under dynamic conditions enhance the rate of the photoelectrochemical reaction over the photoelectrode due to their surface-active sites.
\nDifferent WO3 nanostructures synthesized by anodization have been presented in the literature in the past few years. Several morphologies have been obtained, such as nanopores [19, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52], nanoplatelets [53, 54, 55], nanoparticles [56], flower-shape nanostructures [57], and so on. Recently, we have presented novel WO3 nanostructures fabricated by anodization under different controlled hydrodynamic conditions and, in general, photoresponses significantly higher than those for nanostructures synthesized under static conditions were obtained.
\nThese nanostructures were produced by anodization of tungsten rods in sulfuric acid media in the presence of small amounts of complexing agents (NaF and H2O2). For example, tree-like globular clusters of WO3 nanoplatelets were obtained in a 1.5 M H2SO4 + 0.1 M NaF electrolyte and at different rotation velocities of the RDE. Figure 9 shows the FE-SEM images of the samples anodized in that electrolyte at different rotation velocities (0 and 375 rpm) [23, 58]. It can be observed that in both cases, the nanostructures formed on the tungsten surface presented nanoplatelet morphology, as other authors reported when anodizing in similar acid electrolytes [53, 54, 55, 57, 58]. Nevertheless, the morphology and dimensions of these nanoplatelets varied noticeably with rotation speed. At 0 rpm (Figure 9a), nanoplatelets grew quite orthogonal to the electrode surface, in a more or less ordered way. At 375 rpm (Figure 9b), nanoplatelets formed globular clusters that grew in a tree-like manner, forming a multilevel WO3 layer resembling a forest seen from above. It is perceptible that the new nanostructure obtained under controlled hydrodynamic conditions exposed more surface area to the electrolyte than the one synthesized at 0 rpm.
\nFE-SEM images of the samples anodized in the 1.5 M H2SO4 + 0.1 M NaF electrolyte at 0 rpm (a) and 375 rpm (b).
In the presence of other well-known complexing agent of tungsten—hydrogen peroxide—and under controlled hydrodynamic conditions, a different nanostructure was obtained [59]. In this case, anodization of tungsten in a 1.5 M H2SO4 + 0.05 M H2O2 and at 375 rpm (the same rotation speed as in the example shown above for the NaF electrolyte), resulted in very small nanoplatelets or nanosheets forming a kind of spongy layer
FE-SEM images of the samples anodized in the 1.5 M H2SO4 + 0.05 M H2O2 electrolyte at 375 rpm and at different magnifications.
The three nanostructures shown in Figures 9 and 10 shared a common formation mechanism, that is, a dissolution/precipitation mechanism, although it was greatly influenced by hydrodynamic conditions. In order to study the influence of rotation speed of the electrode on the formation and growth of WO3 nanoplatelets, current density transients were recorded during the anodization processes. Figure 11 shows, by way of illustration, current density transients recorded for the WO3 nanostructures anodized in the 1.5 M H2SO4 + 0.1 M NaF electrolyte, under static (0 rpm) and hydrodynamic conditions (375 rpm).
\nCurrent density transients recorded during anodization for the WO3 nanostructures fabricated in the 1.5 M H2SO4 + 0.1 M NaF electrolyte, under static (0 rpm) and hydrodynamic conditions (375 rpm).
During the first seconds of anodization, a notable decrease in current density can be observed for both cases. This decrease has been associated with the formation of a compact WO3 layer on the electrode surface [19, 23, 58, 60]. Subsequently, current density started increasing, indicating the dissolution of the WO3 layer due to the effect of H+ and F− [23, 58, 61]. This dissolution process resulted in the release of soluble cationic species, such as WO22+ (or [W(OH)4(H2O)4]2+ in its hydrated form) or [WFn](6−n), from the electrode surface. Afterward, current density gradually decreased again, eventually reaching a steady-state value. This decrease and the later stabilization of current density can be explained by the precipitation of soluble species upon reaching supersaturation conditions near the electrode surface. In fact, as the dissolution of the WO3 layer proceeded, increasing amounts of tungsten cationic species were formed and they reacted to produce polycondensed tungstates [62]. These species finally precipitated on the electrode surface in the form of insoluble and highly polymeric tungstic acids (WO3•H2O and WO3•2H2O) due to strongly acidic pH of the electrolyte [59, 62]. The particular morphologies of nanoplatelets were a consequence of the interaction between soluble tungsten species and fluoride anions during the precipitation process [59], being hydrodynamic conditions especially important [23].
\nUnder static conditions (0 rpm), current densities recorded during the whole anodization process were notably lower than under hydrodynamic conditions. Moreover, steady-state values were attained much earlier than with rotation, indicating that the WO3 nanoplatelet layer completely covered the electrode surface after ~2000 s from the beginning of the anodization process. These facts imply that the electrode rotation permitted the ions in the electrolyte (F− and H+) to transport to the electrode more rapidly, resulting in higher current densities being measured at the working electrode due to the enhancement of the WO3 compact layer dissolution. Consequently, an increase in the rotation speed increased the release of soluble species from the electrode surface, which would result in a higher precipitation rate of hydrated WO3 in the form of nanoplatelets.
\nPhotoelectrochemical characterization of the nanostructures was performed under simulated sunlight illumination AM 1.5 (100 mW cm−2) imposing an external polarization of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl). Photocurrent density-potential curves for the three different WO3 nanostructures presented in Figures 9 and 10 are shown in Figure 12. It can be observed that nanoplatelets anodized under static conditions (0 rpm) provided the lowest photocurrent density (~0.41 mA cm−2 at 1 V). Nanostructures anodized under hydrodynamic conditions (in the different electrolytes) showed a large enhancement of their photoelectrocatalytic activity (~1.51 mA cm−2 at 1 V and ~1.86 mA cm−2 at 1 V for nanostructures anodized in the presence of NaF and H2O2, respectively). This clear improvement is directly related to the increase of the electrochemically active surface area in nanostructures synthesized under hydrodynamic conditions. As explained earlier, nanoplatelets formed in the presence of NaF and with rotation grew in a tree-like manner forming globular clusters, which made this new nanoplatelet configuration expose much more active area than normal nanoplatelets fabricated at 0 rpm. In the presence of 0.05 M H2O2, the obtained nanoplatelets were very small and they aggregated forming very thin layers, also resulting in an increase in the surface area with respect to other WO3 nanoplatelets and in higher photoelectrochemical efficiencies.
\nPhotocurrent density-potential curves for the three different WO3 nanostructures presented in
Iron oxide nanostructures were made by electrochemical anodization in order to evaluate the effect of hydrodynamic conditions on the formed nanostructures. Prior to anodization, iron rods were abraded with SiC papers of 220, 500 and 4000, sonicated in ethanol, rinsed with distilled water and dried in nitrogen stream. Electrochemical anodization was carried out at room temperature with an ethylene glycol-based solution with 0.1 M NH4F and 3% vol. H2O for 15 min at 50 V with iron rod as working electrode and a platinum foil as counter electrode [63]. Different rotation speeds: 0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm, corresponding to Reynolds numbers of 0, 165, 325 and 490, respectively, were applied. Once synthesized, samples were annealed in argon atmosphere for 1 h at 500°C at a heating rate of 15°C · min−1, and cooled within the furnace by natural convection [21].
\nFigure 13 shows the different obtained curves during anodization where three stages can be seen for all the cases (scheme in Figure 13). In the first stage, an abrupt drop in the current density from 80 mA · cm−2 to less than 15 mA·cm−2 (in the case of 0 rpm) and less than 25 mA · cm−2 (in the case of hydrodynamic conditions), indicated a formation of an insulating compact oxide layer (Fe2O3) on the iron substrate according to Eq. (3).
\nCurrent density vs. time curves during electrochemical anodization of iron under different electrode rotation speeds. Inset shows a scheme of the process occurring in the electrode during anodization.
In the second stage, a slight increase in current density indicated that tiny pits occur in the surface of the compact layer, followed by the formation of the nanostructures resulting in a decrease in resistance. This process occurs because of the fluoride ions (F−) and the applied potential which lead to partial dissolution of the compact layer forming the nanoporous structure as Eq. (4) indicates.
\nFinally, in the third stage, further dissolution and cation-cation repulsion occurs and the nanoporous structure leads to a nanotubular one. This occurs until equilibrium between the formation of the oxide layer and its chemical dissolution by F− is reached. In this way, current density remains almost constant and the formation of nanotubular structure stops [64, 65].
\nAccording to Figure 13, the formation of the nanostructure under stagnant conditions (0 rpm) leads to lower values of the current density in comparison to the ones synthesized under hydrodynamic conditions. In fact, the higher the rotation speed the higher the current density, achieving the maximum value for the samples anodized at 3000 rpm. This is because steady-state current density is controlled by diffusion processes, hence stirring the iron rods during anodization increases the diffusion and then, current density increases [66, 67].
\nA field emission scanning electron microscope was used in order to evaluate the morphology of the synthesized nanostructures. Moreover, crystalline structure of the samples was evaluated by a confocal Raman microscope with the aim to determine crystalline phases present in the nanostructures.
\nFigure 14a shows the morphology obtained for the samples under stagnant conditions. In this case, a cracked porous initiation layer appears over the nanotubes, partially covering the entrances of the tubes. This initiation layer results in a decrease in the efficiency of the nanostructures since they might be less accessible to light. On the contrary, Figure 14b shows that the initiation layer is etched and the nanotubes are accessible to light irradiation, which leads to higher photoactivity. Nanotubular morphology is advantageous for photoelectrochemical water splitting since it improves electron transport behavior with the tubular orientation. Furthermore, nanotubes avoid short hole diffusion lengths problem since tubes walls make shorter the route from the places where the holes are generated to the surfaces where oxidation reactions are occurring [68].
\nFE-SEM images of the nanostructures synthesized under different electrode rotation speeds: (a) 0 rpm, (b) 1000 rpm, (c) 2000 rpm and (d) 3000 rpm, and (e) Raman spectrum of the nanostructures.
Figure 14c illustrates the morphology of the samples synthesized at 2000 rpm, and at this rotation speed, the nanotubes collapse and seem to be stacked, so the nanotubes are unseen and the top morphology seems to be chaotic. This morphology results in less photoactivity since light irradiation cannot go deep into the nanotubes. On the other hand, when rotation speed is 3000 rpm (see Figure 14d), the morphology is a mixture between what occurs at 0 and 2000 rpm, that is, the nanotubes are collapsed and stacked and an initiation layer appears in some parts of the nanostructure covering the tubes [69]. Hence, illumination is not effective in this case, and the photoactivity is affected. This could be due to the fact that at 3000 rpm, some vortex could be formed and then the conditions are non-homogeneous during anodization.
\nOn the other hand, thickness of the nanostructures were measured, and they were comprised between 810 and 870 nm in all cases, which indicated that rotation speed does not affect the thickness of the synthesized nanostructures [69].
\nRaman spectroscopy was measured with a neon laser 632 nm with ~700 μW. Raman spectra of all the samples were the same, suggesting that rotation speed does not change the crystalline structure of the formed nanostructures. Figure 14e shows a Raman spectrum as an example. The Raman shift at which appear the peaks indicates that the nanostructures are mainly composed of hematite with peaks at roughly 229 cm−1 (A1g), 249 cm−1 (Eg), 295 cm−1 (Eg), 414 cm−1 (Eg), 500 cm−1 (A1g), 615 cm−1 (Eg) and 1317 cm−1 (2nd order). However, some peaks appearing at approximately 554 cm−1, 672 cm−1 and 820 cm−1 also indicated the presence of some amount of magnetite [70, 71].
\nFor the photocurrent density versus potential measurements the potential was varied from −0.4 to +0.6 VAg/AgCl at a scan rate of 2 mVs−1.
\nFigure 15 shows that the highest photocurrent density values were achieved for the nanostructure synthesized at 1000 rpm (reaching 0.130 mA · cm−2 at 0.54 VAg/AgCl), which indicated its suitability as photocatalyst for water splitting [69]. This is in agreement with FE-SEM images since they revealed that the morphology of the nanostructures synthesized at 1000 rpm was the most adequate for being illuminated in photoelectrochemical measurements.
\nWater splitting tests in 1 M KOH of the nanostructures synthesized at the different electrode rotation speeds. Inset shows stability tests of the synthesized nanostructures under illumination at 0.35 VAg/AgCl for 1 h in 1 M KOH. Simulated AM 1.5 (100 mW · cm−2) illumination was used for the light conditions.
Furthermore, inset of Figure 15 indicates that all synthesized nanostructures were stable against photocorrosion at the indicated conditions.
\nFor the Mott-Schottky analysis, the potential was swept from the OCP value (~ −0.3 V) in the negative direction at 28 mV s−1 with an amplitude signal of 0.01 V at a frequency value of 5 kHz.
\nFigure 16 shows MS plots for all the synthesized nanostructures under dark (A) and light (B) conditions, indicating a positive slope corresponding to an n-type semiconductor. Note that the higher the slopes of the linear region in MS plots, the lower the electron donor density according to Mott-Schottky equation used for an n-type semiconductor (Eq. (2)), with an assumed ɛr of 80 for the nanostructures [72, 73].
\nMS analysis of the nanostructures synthesized at the different electrode rotation speeds under dark (a) and 1.5 AM (100 mW · cm−2) illumination (b) conditions in 1 M KOH.
Table 3 shows the results for the different nanostructures and all the values are in the order of 1019 cm−3, regardless the rotation speed during anodization. However, the samples anodized at 0 and 3000 rpm achieved donor density values too high which is detrimental for the photoelectrochemical water splitting since the defects could act as carrier traps (trapping the electrons or holes) [42]. Hence, the efficiency of the water splitting is lower as shown in Figure 16. On the contrast, lower donor density values, as in the case of the nanostructure synthesized at 1000 rpm, achieved better photoelectrochemical results (see Figure 16) since it avoids recombination processes. This indicates that donor density is a parameter that considerably affects the efficiency of the water splitting.
\nRotation speed/rpm | \nConditions | \nND (1019)/cm−3 | \nEFB/VAg/AgCl | \n
---|---|---|---|
0 rpm | \nDark | \n4.0 ± 1.0 | \n−0.64 ± 0.05 | \n
Light | \n14.3 ± 3.5 | \n−0.63 ± 0.05 | \n|
1000 rpm | \nDark | \n1.0 ± 0.2 | \n−0.76 ± 0.04 | \n
Light | \n2.2 ± 0.7 | \n−0.78 ± 0.03 | \n|
2000 rpm | \nDark | \n1.6 ± 0.6 | \n−0.80 ± 0.08 | \n
Light | \n2.4 ± 0.3 | \n−0.85 ± 0.09 | \n|
3000 rpm | \nDark | \n2.5 ± 1.0 | \n−0.80 ± 0.03 | \n
Light | \n5.8 ± 0.7 | \n−0.82 ± 0.03 | \n
Values of donor density (ND) and flat band potential (EFB) for the samples synthesized at the different electrode rotation speeds.
On the other hand, flat band potential (EFB) is related to the potential drop at the depletion space charge layer (Δ
Table 3 shows that the flat band potential does not vary for the different nanostructures, which in fact demonstrates that electrode rotation speed during anodization does not affect flat band potential of the synthesized nanostructures.
\nThe influence of hydrodynamic conditions was studied for ZnO/ZnS heterostructures obtained from anodization of zinc (0.5 cm2 area exposed to the electrolyte) in glycerol/water (60:40 vol%) media with 0.025 M NH4F and 0.2 M Na2S. Nanostructures were synthesized at different voltages: 20, 30 and 40 V. The advantage of this type of heterostructure is the good photocatalytic behavior of ZnS, which in combination with ZnO could reduce the recombination rate of the charge carriers due to their separated band gaps.
\nAs an example of the nanostructures of ZnO/ZnS obtained from anodization of zinc, Figure 17 shows the FESEM images of top and cross-sectional views of the samples anodized at different voltages and hydrodynamic conditions. It has been demonstrated [22, 74] that anodization of zinc in aqueous electrolytes containing both sulfide and fluoride generates a top compact layer and an underneath nanostructure. The former mainly consists of ZnS and the latter of ZnO. That is, the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures grow under the compact ZnS layer. In this way, Figure 17a zinc shows the top surface of the nanostructure obtained at 20 V and under static conditions, there, it can be clearly observed the rough ZnS top layer surface. Under stagnant conditions (0 rpm) the anodization of zinc is not homogeneous, since bubbles are formed at the anode surface, and consequently, the formation of precipitates takes place. On the other hand, Figure 17b and c shows that, when anodization is performed stirring the zinc road (under hydrodynamic conditions), a smooth ZnS top layer is formed. If we compare the heterostructures synthetized at 1000 and at 3000 rpm (Figure 17b and c, both at 20 V), there is a change in the morphology of the ZnO/ZnS samples from a porous sponge type (Figure 17b) to a porous tubular morphology (Figure 17c). Therefore, as rotation speed is increased during anodization, the nanotubular morphology is predominant. This change in morphology continues as anodization potential is increased. In fact, as it can be appreciated in Figure 17d, a porous tubular morphology is obtained when anodization is carried out for higher anodization potentials (40 V) even under stagnant conditions. This might be explained taking into consideration that at higher anodization potentials, nanostructures grow faster [75, 76], which involves a lower oxide dissolution, and consequently, a tubular morphology. Besides, the length of the nanostructures was measured obtaining the following values: ~360–600 nm at 20 V, ~800–1100 nm at 30 V and ~1100–1400 nm at 40 V. Thus, longer nanostructures are formed at higher anodization voltages, regardless the hydrodynamic conditions. In this case, longer nanostructures possess a high surface/volume relation, increasing the interaction with light and the electrolyte, and consequently, improving their photocatalytic activity.
\nFE-SEM images of the ZnO/ZnS nanostructures anodized at 20 V under static conditions (a), at 1000 rpm (b) and 3000 rpm (c) and at 40 V and under static conditions (d). Current densities recorded during anodization for all the samples anodized at 30 V and at the different rotation speeds (e).
Figure 17e shows, as an example, the current density profiles during the anodization process at 30 V and at the different studied hydrodynamic conditions (0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm). For all cases, the tendency of the current densities is to sharply decrease at the beginning of the anodization, owing to the ZnS precursor layer formation. After that decrease, the current densities continue decreasing until, finally, they stabilize. This tendency is typical of an oxide layer formation in glycerol-based electrolytes [22]. Additionally, it is important to highlight that the higher current density values obtained for the samples anodized stirring the zinc rod are in agreement with the enhancement of the diffusion of the fluoride ions due to the flowing conditions [77]. Besides, the background noise obtained in the current density register of the heterostructure synthesized under static conditions is related to the formation of oxygen bubbles in the zinc surface of the rod during anodization, which generates an irregular anodization of the surface.
\nIt is important to point out that the profiles of current densities versus time for the rest of the heterostructures anodized at 20 and 40 V follow the same trend with hydrodynamic conditions. However, the current densities possess higher values when samples are anodized at higher potentials.
\nFigure 18a shows, as an example, the Raman spectra of the annealed ZnO/ZnS heterostructures anodized at 30 V at the different hydrodynamic conditions (0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm). Zinc is characterized by a strong broad background signal, which hinders the Raman peaks (Figure 18a). This response is associated with the photoluminescence (PL) due to a broad defect band emission in the nanostructures, such as oxygen vacancies [22, 78]. This high concentration of defects was produced due to the absence of oxygen in the atmosphere during the thermal treatment (samples were annealed for 3 h at 375°C in an argon atmosphere), so the evaporated oxygen present in the material cannot be replaced [79] and therefore, the density of oxygen vacancies increases. Then, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) tests were carried out in order to check the crystalline structure of the annealed samples. Figure 18b shows, as an example, the XRD spectrum for the ZnO/ZnS heterostructure anodized at 30 V and at 2000 rpm.
\nRaman spectra of the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures annealed at 375°C in argon atmosphere for 4 h anodized at 30 V and at 0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm (a) and XRD spectra of the ZnO/ZnS heterostructure anodized at 30 V and 2000 rpm after the annealing treatment.
In the XRD spectra shown in Figure 18b, the presence of both ZnO and ZnS can be clearly demonstrated due to the presence of their characteristic peaks [74]. The peak at 25° is related to the ZnS phase with the orientation of (002) [74]. The peaks situated at 36° and 70° are associated with the refraction produced by the polycrystalline Zn substrate [74]. The high intensity of the peak centered at 36° is characteristic of the wurtzite ZnO phase, with an orientation of (101) [80], which is the most abundant phase of the heterostructures. Another ZnO characteristic peak is the one roughly centered at 34°, which corresponds to the orientation (002) [81]. The peaks at 32°, 56° and 67° are associated with the wurtzite ZnS phase with the orientations (101), (112) and (104), respectively [81]. Besides, the peaks centered at 48° and 63° are related, the former, with the ZnS phase with an orientation of (110) and the ZnO phase with an orientation of (102), and the latter, with the ZnO phase with an orientation of (103) [74, 80, 81].
\nThe ZnO/ZnS nanostructures were characterized as photoanodes in a previously degasified solution of 0.24 M Na2S and 0.35 M Na2SO3 [22]. Figure 19 shows the photocurrent densities applying different potentials obtained under simulated sunlight AM 1.5 conditions for the different anodization potentials (20, 30 and 40 V) at the studied hydrodynamic conditions (0, 1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm).
\nPhotocurrent densities vs. applied potential of the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures anodized at 20 V (a), 30 V (b) and 40 V (c) measured in a 0.24 M Na2S and 0.35 M Na2SO3 solution under AM 1.5 illumination.
In Figure 19a, it can be observed that the dark current density values for the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures anodized at 20 V are, in general, high. This fact might be related to a low photocorrosion resistance and could be occasioned by the heterogeneous ZnS precursor layer formed when anodization is performed at 20 V (this was confirmed in FESEM characterization, see Figure 17a). On the other hand, when anodization was performed at higher voltages, photocorrosion resistance is increased (Figure 19b and c), regardless the applied hydrodynamic conditions. In particular, for applied potentials of −0.4 and 0.2 V, the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures show a good stability, since the dark current densities are close to zero and the photocurrent densities are high. Besides, the photocurrent densities for the nanostructures anodized at 30 and 40 V increase for the heterostructures anodized under hydrodynamic conditions. This could be related to the morphology obtained for the nanostructures anodized under hydrodynamic conditions, which showed more nanotubular aspects (Figure 17) as the rotation speed was increased, which enhances the charge separation [16, 82, 83, 84, 85]. Hence, the photocatalytic response is improved.
\nFigure 19c shows that the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures anodized at 40 V and under hydrodynamic conditions present the best photocatalytic behavior in terms of higher photocurrent densities and good photocorrosion resistance. In particular, the best conditions were obtained for the ZnO/ZnS heterostructures anodized at 40 V and at 1000 rpm, where the photocurrent density for photoelectrochemical water splitting increased in 100% with respect to the one anodized at 20 V and at 0 rpm, and in a 71% in relation to the photocurrent density obtained for the heterostructure anodized at 20 V and 1000 rpm.
\nIn this chapter, the effect of rotating the electrode during electrochemical anodization (hydrodynamic conditions) has been evaluated for different metal oxides. In all cases, hydrodynamic conditions enhanced the photoelectrochemical response of the nanostructures in photoelectrochemical water splitting process.
\nFor nanostructures of TiO2, hydrodynamic conditions in ethylene glycol media removed the initiation layer over the nanotubes, whereas in glycerol-based electrolytes, rotating the electrode changed the morphology from nanotubes to nanosponges, increasing then the porosity of the structure. For the nanostructures formed in both electrolytes, the surface area increased, resistance values decreased (as EIS showed) and flat band potential became more negative (as MS plots indicated).
\nIn the case of WO3 nanostructures, the ones synthesized under hydrodynamic conditions presented high active surface area. Furthermore, in the presence of NaF and rotating the electrode, the nanoplatelets grew in a tree-like manner forming globular clusters with more exposed area than in the case of nanostructures synthesized under stagnant conditions. When H2O2 is present in the electrolyte, the nanoplatelets were very small, and they aggregated forming very thin layers with high surface areas, which in turn resulted in higher photoelectrochemical efficiencies.
\nFor nanostructures of iron oxide (mainly α-Fe2O3), stagnant conditions resulted in nanostructures with an initiation layer that partially covered the top of the nanotubular structure. This layer was removed under hydrodynamic conditions, in particular at 1000 rpm. At higher rotation velocities, collapsed and stacked nanostructures were formed, which caused lower photoelectrochemical efficiencies. Rotating the electrode during anodization at 1000 rpm led to nanotubular structures with suitable donor densities values and flat band potentials (as MS results indicated), which enhanced photoelectrochemical results.
\nIn the case of ZnO/ZnS heterostructures, high applied potentials and hydrodynamic conditions during anodization led to nanotubular morphology which resulted in higher photoelectrochemical performance. In particular, heterostructures anodized at 40 V and under hydrodynamic conditions presented the best photocatalytic behavior and good photocorrosion resistance.
\nThe authors would like to express their gratitude for the financial support to the Ministerio of Economía y Competitividad (Projects CTQ2013-42494-R and CTQ2016-79203-R), for its help in the Laser Raman Microscope acquisition (UPOV08-3E-012) and for the co-finance by the European Social Fund.
\nHealth literacy (HL) is an issue of increasing importance in the health sector due to its ability to use existing health services effectively and efficiently. It allows the acquisition of better outcomes from the services provided thus, reducing health expenditure. Study findings indicate that a significant number of successful results from health services are closely associated with the health literacy of individuals [1, 2, 3]. Its importance was better understood during the COVID-19 pandemic, because of the dependent relationship between individuals and the health care organizations.
The health literacy concept, which has been initially used to mean individuals’ ability to read drug prospectuses, health-related brochures, and understand health-related information, has changed and expanded over time. Today, health literacy is defined as “people’s knowledge, motivation, and competencies to access, understand, appraise, and apply health information to make judgments and take decisions in everyday life concerning healthcare, disease prevention, and health promotion to maintain or improve quality of life during the life course.” [4], in essence, a lifelong learning activity that needs continuous improvement for individuals.
Over time, it has been understood that health literacy issue is not solely an individual burden, the health system and health organizations have an important role as well, so the “Organizational Health Literacy” (OHL) concept has been launched. OHL is defined as the ability of health organizations to provide information and services that are easy to find, understand and use, to assist people in decision making, and to remove existing barriers to all individuals who are seeking services. Health literate health care organizations are organizations that provide the needed information and services to the people in an easier way of access, understanding, and use [5].
Literacy is not a genetic or an ordinary characteristic of the people. It is a phenomenon that emerges and develops under the influence of several variables. It is the product of a kind of interaction and that means there is a mutual and reciprocal action. For such action there must be at least two sides, a receiver and a sender or influencer. Additionally, it always occurs in an environment that has physical, social, and psychological characteristics. So, all of these variables regarding receiver, sender, and environment should be considered to understand the concept. That means health literacy is a product of an interaction between health-seeking individuals and the health care providers within the environment of health care organizations [6, 7].
Because measurement and evaluation methods of a feature is closely linked to its conceptualization, the concepts of HL and OHL should be clarified before discussing the measurement methods.
The first use of the term health literacy was in the 1970s, during the times when health education was seen as a component of social policy, [8] and evolved in recent years. HL is expressed as the knowledge of individuals throughout their life course, which will guide behaviors and decisions related to themselves and public health, their knowledge of basic health information and services, their access to this information, their understanding of the information accessed, and then their use of this information for the development of health for the maintenance or improvement of quality of life. It is the degree to which individuals have the capacity to access, understand and interpret the basic health information, and services they need to make appropriate decisions associated with their health [4, 6].
Studies have reported that there is an association between low health literacy and various negative health behaviors as well as poor health-related outcomes, such as difficulties to interpret health messages and labels, poor medication adherence, high rates of hospitalization [9], frequent emergency room use, less frequent mammography rates [10], lower participation in preventive activities [11], inappropriate drug use, poor self-management of chronic conditions [12], high mortality rates [13], and increased health care costs [1, 14, 15].
Several definitions of health literacy [4, 16], as well as health literacy measures, were reported in different studies [15]. It is seen that more than 150 health literacy instruments were developed and used in the first decade of the 21st century according to various publications [17, 18].
Presence of different health literacy definitions and use of different measurement tools may be considered normal since they focus on different aspects of the concept and are complementary to each other. Here, the important thing to remember is that methods needed to measure health literacy are usually developed according to our understanding and definition of health literacy. In their study, Urstad et al. [15] have concluded that there will be a risk of missing information when the used measurement tools of health literacy are not consistent with the definition and concept of health literacy.
On the other hand, current health care systems have a complex nature and they are in rapid change and evolution. They usually are not designed according to the abilities of at least some of their service users and this characteristic makes it difficult for some patients to access and use the correct health information they needed. So, such systems should also be literate to help and increase the low literacy level of all patients.
The term OHL is relatively a new concept that emerged a few decades ago to address the challenges faced by individuals with predominantly limited HL. Because the service relationship in healthcare institutions and organizations is a mutual interaction, the literacy of institutions has become an important issue in recent years.
Features of the health organizations, such as a respectful approach to patients, easy access to services, easy information to understand, helpful navigation and signage systems, and correct answers given to every kind of question are important factors. These features are helpful to individuals for the correct use of the services, and they are as effective as the literacy of the individuals [5, 19, 20].
There are numerous studies showing that the development of OHL leads to positive effects on the health of patients and increases patient satisfaction [21, 22, 23, 24]. Although there are various studies and ways on how an institution can become a health literate organization, agreed-upon methods to measure, and evaluate the level of OHL are still lacking. The existing methods are generally highly scoped, but their reliability and criterion validity are generally unknown since they are not used in interventional research.
OHL standards and measurement methods have become an increasingly important topic in the last decade. Although there is a strong interest in OHL, majority of the studies are theoretical, and methodological studies are limited. Presence of measurement methods with different characteristics causes confusion over OHL.
A recent review showed that at least 17 different measures were used to assess OHL. According to the findings of this scoping review, six major categories of OHL have been defined and the most prevalent topic is referred to as “communication with service users.”
The following categories were, “easy access and navigation,” “integration and prioritization of OHL,” “assessments and organizational development,” “engagement support of service users,” and “information and qualification of staff” [25]. However, it was stated that no consensus has been reached on criteria that can describe a health care organization as a health literate organization.
Some criteria are focused on specific health facilities [26] or different aspects of OHL [26, 27] and/or interventions [26, 28], their evaluation [29] and implementation [30].
Another scoping review regarding OHL implementation has found that important factors that can be helpful for creating health literate organizations are ordered as, supportive leadership, a culture of change and innovation, awareness and participation of the staff, and engagement of service users [31]. However, different studies have also commented that still there is not a sufficient amount of evidence to assess the effects of OHL interventions on improved health outcomes or cost-effectiveness, and further studies are needed [26, 28].
As it was stated by Kaper et al. [31], interventional studies regarding the improvement of OHL have several weaknesses and the main limitations of the studies were lack of an experimental design and lack of instruments measuring OHL outcomes with known reliability and validity. Studies were usually conducted on small sample groups and without a control group or based on baseline cross-sectional measurements. Nevertheless, it is concluded that the instruments used in these studies may be useful to observe and monitor the change over time and make comparisons between the organizations [31].
Following are the most frequently referred studies regarding the conceptualization, implementation, and measures of the OHL.
The idea of a
The comprehensive study, prepared by Brach et al. in 2012 [5], is a milestone in OHL. In this study, detailed recommendations on what health literate organizations should and should not be are clearly stated and Ten Attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations are defined.
Ten attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations are as follows [5]:
Has leadership that makes health literacy integral to its mission, structure, and operations.
Health literacy is an organizational value for a health literate organization, and strategies of health literacy are internalized at every management level. They are perceived as part of the business and integral to its mission, structure, and operations. Leadership is the key to the success and sustainability of such an implementation.
Integrates health literacy into planning, evaluation measures, patient safety, and quality improvement.
Health literacy is integrated into the strategic and operational plans of a health literate organization. It is seen as an inseparable part of patient safety and quality improvement activities and is evaluated regularly.
Prepares the workforce to be health literate and monitors progress.
Every professional in the organization must be health literate and understand the meaning of being a health literate organization. So, they must be trained and educated by appropriate adult education methods for the establishment of a health literate organizational culture. Training and education activities must be continuous and monitored regularly. They must be organized under the responsibility of a training team and include every staff member.
Includes populations served in the design, implementation, and evaluation of health information and services.
Community participation and decision sharing are essential for the success of all health care activities including health literacy. Health literate organizations include representatives of the local people in the design, implementation, and evaluation of services. Especially hearing the voices of individuals with low health literacy is important for designing user-friendly services.
Meets the needs of populations with a range of health literacy skills while avoiding stigmatization.
Health literate organizations use communication methods that are as simple as possible. Written, visual or digital communication is not sufficient since some individuals may have difficulties. So, alternatives such as oral communication and escort guiding are useful methods. These methods must be available for and offered to every service user to reduce the low literacy-related stigma. This is particularly important for individuals who have limited health literacy.
Uses health literacy strategies in interpersonal communications and confirms understanding at all points of contact.
Health literate organizations create an environment that has linguistic and cultural competency to support health literacy strategies. Such an environment aims to provide clear communication during all interactions and for every kind of service including clinical, administrative, and financial services.
Provides easy access to health information and services and navigation assistance.
Health literate organizations design their facilities to help people to access information and services easily. They use a simple and easy-to-understand style of symbols, language, and signage.
Designs and distributes print, audiovisual, and social media content that is easy to understand and act on.
Health literate organizations design all printed materials, such as education documents, diagnosis and treatment guides, laboratory test results, insurance policies, bills, and various written directives in an understandable style and with easy-to-understand language. The same approach is true for the design and distribution of audiovisual and social media content.
Addresses health literacy in high-risk situations, including care transitions and communications about medicines.
“First, do no harm” is the number one principle of medicine since Hippocrates. However, due to the nature of the health services, there are several high-risk situations that cannot be eradicated in health facilities. Complications following surgical operations, adverse drug reactions, and absence of radical therapies are some examples of these situations. Health literate health care organizations identify such situations and inform patients appropriately.
Communicates clearly what health plans cover and what individuals will have to pay for services.
Health literate organizations communicate openly, clearly, and on time regarding financial issues such as coverage of the patient’s health plans, and how much they will have to pay for which services. They answer all relevant questions of the service users in an understandable language.
The ten attributes are related to health organizations, health care professionals, and various types of healthcare facilities that have direct responsibility for the provision of health services. All kinds of hospitals, clinics, group practices, private physician offices, community health centers, pharmacies, health insurance companies, accreditation agencies, information technology and health education professionals, and administrative staff needed to have these attributes to become health literate. In other words, almost all components of the supply side of a health system must have these ten attributes.
“Ten attributes of health literate healthcare organization” has been used by many researchers in the following years.
In a study conducted by Kowalski et al. [33] a ten items survey tool “Health Literate Health Care Organization Ten Item Questionnaire” (HLHO-10) to represent the ten attributes was developed. It was applied as part of a larger study and cross-sectional data was collected from a key informant survey in 51 German hospitals, and found to be reliable and valid [33]. It was concluded to be a useful tool to assess the level of OHL that is which organizations are helpful to their users to access, find, understand, and use the correct information they needed as well as the services.
Later HLHO-10 has been used during a survey to assess the OHL of a group of hospitals in Turkey and investigate the relationships between OHL, patient satisfaction, and individual health literacy by Hayran and Ozer [21].
Bonaccorsi et al., have used the Italian version of the HLHO-10 scale in healthcare organizations in Tuscany. They have found that accredited hospitals have higher HLHO-10 scores and perceived quality increases with the increase in HLHO-10 scores, which is interpreted as OHL an integral element for the quality of care [34].
HLHO-10 scale was also adapted to measure and use the OHL level of the facilities established for individuals with various disabilities [35].
Ten attributes provided intellectual foundation to other action frameworks. At least two other concepts and tools were based on the principles of the ten attributes. These are, “Vienna Concept of Health Literate Hospitals and Healthcare Organizations” (V-HLO) [36] and “the Organizational Health Literacy Responsiveness self-assessment tool” (Org-HLR) [37].
V-HLO is designed as a self-assessment questionnaire that includes 9 standards, 22 sub-standards, and 160 items [36]. It was tested by Pelikan and Dietscher in Austria and found to be successful [38].
This tool builds upon the “Ten Attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations.” However, the V-HLO expands the concept by introducing specific aspects tested in Health Promoting Hospitals (HPH) that were created by an international working group within the ‘International Network of Health Promoting Hospitals. It includes five standards published by WHO-EURO [39], 18 strategies of the HPH [40], and with reference to quality management concepts.
V-HLO considers the significance of organizational support for health literacy as a necessary precondition for sustainable implementation. This support is necessary for the implementation of interventions in relation to four action areas of the concept. These action areas are health literacy that is needed to gain adequate
These action areas are applied to three stakeholder groups, namely, patients, staff, and population.
Nine standards of V-HLO are as follows [38]:
Establishment of management policy and organizational structures for health literacy (includes 2 sub-standards)
Development of materials and services in participation with stakeholders (includes 2 sub-standards)
Qualification of staff for health-literate communication with service users (includes 2 sub-standards)
Provision of a supportive environment with health-literate navigation and access (includes 5 sub-standards)
Application of health literacy principles in routine communication with patients (includes 4 sub-standards)
Improvement of the health literacy of patients and their entourage (includes 2 sub-standards)
Improvement of the health literacy of the staff (includes 2 sub-standards)
Contribution to the health literacy in the region (includes 2 sub-standards)
Sharing experiences and being a role model (includes 1 sub-standard)
In the following years, the French version of V-HLO has been prepared and tested in three hospitals in Belgium. It was concluded to be an appropriate tool for hospitals that have the intention to raise their level of health literacy, create awareness and formulate strategies and actions [41].
The rationale underlying this Project was the need for a specific tool to assess and enhance OHL in primary health care settings. As the authors have stated, most approaches to OHL have usually focused on inpatient care, and outpatient and/or primary health care services have rarely been included. However, especially the level of OHL in primary care settings is of great importance, because they are the first contact points of the well-designed health systems.
The tool has been developed and evaluated with the participation of various practice partners including general practitioners and community health care organizations as well as expert opinions. The aim of this tool is to make the needs assessment, identify the improvement areas, and implement the actions necessary for OHL.
The tool consists of three modules and six dimensions:
A user manual containing instructions
A checklist for self-assessment of the community health services
A handbook to measure the improvement of the check-list items
Six dimensions of the tool were based on the ten attributes of a health literate health care organization [5], the nine standards of the V-HLO [38], and six dimensions of a health literate organization as used in the Tasmanian toolkit [HelloTAS] [43] and finalized after discussions with the representatives of primary care professionals the community health care organizations.
Six dimensions of the tool included the main content of the checklist. Then it was divided into 15 sub-dimensions including a total of 43 criteria (Table 1).
Dimensions | Sub-dimensions (number of criteria) |
---|---|
1. Provision of easy access to primary care services and facilitated navigation | 1.1 Contact (5) 1.2 Navigation within the primary care service (2) |
2. Communication in plain and easy to understand language | 2.1 Oral communication (8) 2.2 Written communication (5) |
3. Promotion of health literacy for service users | 3.1 Empowering service users to use health information (1) 3.2 Promotion of an active role and self-management of service users (2) |
4. Promotion of health literacy of staff members | 4.1 Know-how and professional competence (1) 4.2 Personnel development (3) 4.3 Staff members’ health (1) |
5. Incorporation of health literacy into management and organizational structure | 5.1 Health literacy as an organizational responsibility (2) 5.2 Health literacy as a development goal (2) 5.3 Organizational culture (2) 5.4 User involvement – feedback (2) |
6. Promotion of health literacy at care interfaces, networks, and further activities of the organization | 6.1 Care interfaces (4) 6.2 Networking and further activities (3) |
“Organizational Health Literacy Self-Assessment Tool for Primary Care” (OHL self-AsseT).
Adapted from De Ganni et al. [42].
Authors have concluded that this tool may be helpful for a successful implementation of OHL in primary care settings because it was developed with the participation of various practice partners and shaped by expert opinions.
In their study, Trezona et al. [37] developed the Organizational Health Literacy Responsiveness self-assessment tool (Org-HLR) and conducted an assessment process for supporting the health organizations with the application of the tool.
OHL responsiveness is the synonym term for OHL. It means the provision of health information and services in an equitable manner in terms of access and participation, taking into consideration the literacy needs and preferences of all service users, and supporting community participation during decision-making processes for health and well-being [37].
The self-rating Org-HLR tool and process were derived through co-design processes with a wide range of professionals working in the health and social services sectors, It has seven dimensions for assessment and they are divided into 24 sub-dimensions with 135 performance indicators.
Seven assessment dimensions are:
External policy and funding environment
Leadership and culture
Systems, processes, and policies
Access to services and programs
Community engagement and partnerships
Communication practices and standards
Workforce
A scale to assess the OHL status of different types of secondary and tertiary care hospitals has been developed by Dundar Ege and Hayran [44]. Forty-three 7-point Likert-type scale items were prepared by a comprehensive literature review and shaped by expert opinions. It was tested by the management staff of a sample group of 47 hospitals in İstanbul, including State hospitals, Private Hospitals, University Hospitals, Non-Profit Foundation Hospitals, and Accredited and Non-accredited Hospitals.
Five dimensions of OHL-Hosp were identified following the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency of the items of each dimension has been found significantly high and statistically significant (Table 2).
Dimensions (number of items) | Eigenvalues | Variance (%) | Cronbach’s alpha |
---|---|---|---|
1. Leadership and Regulations (16) | 20.996 | 48.828 | 0.987 |
2. Communication (14) | 5.014 | 11.661 | 0.946 |
3. Operational Access (6) | 3.320 | 7.722 | 0.954 |
4. Indoor Access (4) | 2.973 | 6.914 | 0.948 |
5. Outdoor Access (3) | 1.638 | 3.810 | 0.841 |
Dimensions and factor analysis findings of the OHL-Hosp scale.
The scale consisting of 43 items and five dimensions is concluded to be a valid and reliable instrument to determine OHL levels of secondary and tertiary care institutions.
This tool is the updated version of the “Health Literacy Environment of Hospitals and Health Centers” by Rudd and Andersen [45]. It was developed by Harvard University and published in 2019 [7]. Its original form has been widely used in the USA. It was also adapted to use in different countries including Australia, New Zealand and European countries.
It is helpful to identify and rate the factors that are related to the literacy of health organizations for improving health literacy and monitoring change over time.
The HLE2 tool is organized into five sections, 10 parts, and 135 criteria as it is presented in Table 3. Content of all sections is addressed through the lens of health literacy. Each section has a rating scale. Following data collection, a total score and a percentage score is computed for each section. An overall score tally of the HLE2 has not been recommended. Instead, actions to consider for the % score of each section are described.
Sections | Parts (number of criteria) |
---|---|
1. Organizational Policies |
|
2. Organizational Practices |
|
3. Navigation |
|
4. Culture and Language | (10) |
5. Communication |
|
The study is based on visitor observations and standards to be applied by officials and it is organized as a list of things to do for OHL. The list can be applied in the form of brainstorming sessions with active members of healthcare institutions.
In a scoping review [25] which was held in 2021, sixty studies on OHL are examined in-depth and common six main categories, 25 subcategories of attributes, and 494 criteria of OHL were identified.
The main categories were ordered as:
Communication with service users
Easy access and navigation
Integration and prioritization
Assessments and organizational development
Engagement and support of service users
Information and qualification of staff
Among the reviewed articles published between 2006 and 2020, the majority were related to toolkits. This was followed by discussions, case studies, feasibility studies, surveys, workshop summaries, or evaluation studies.
“Ten Attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations” by Brach et al. [5] was the most frequently referred publication for the concepts used.
Reviewed studies have used 17 different assessment tools and instruments for the assessment of OHL. The HLHO-10 [33] and the HLE2 [7, 45] were the most frequently referenced tools among them.
The tools were usually designed as questionnaires and used during surveys. Some studies have used them in their original form while others have used a subset of items. Some studies have used the translated tools in a different language while others have adopted the measures for a different type of method.
Design of the assessment methods has also varied. Some studies have used standardized questionnaires and semi-structured interviews while others have collected the data by observations, checklists, and material assessments.
However, the authors have stated that the majority of the tools and instruments were not tested for validity and feasibility.
The goal of the study was to develop a valuable set of measures to inform OHL-related quality improvement activities. The study [46] was based on patient feedback and presented the standards that increase quality in healthcare organizations.
These are organizational structure, policy and leadership, communication, navigation, and patient participation. The results are similar to other studies.
Communication has been deeply examined as the main standard of OHL in this study in 2021 [47]. A sensitive communication approach was assessed from the perspective of the patients’ health in complex care structures.
As an important finding of the study, better processing of the organization is perceived by patients that was related to significantly higher health literacy scores. On the other hand, better health literacy scores were related to more patient-reported social support provided by physicians and nurses as well as fewer unmet information needs.
It was concluded that investing in good processing of the organization can improve the communication that is sensitive to health literacy. This has the potential to encourage service user–provider relationships and it might reduce the unmet information needs of the service users.
In this meta-narrative review, Farmanova et al. have identified 20 health literacy guides with various contexts and scopes [27]. Most guides have been prepared for general healthcare organizations. Six of them were specific for primary care besides hospitals and pharmacies. One was specific to health literacy of nursing practices.
Most included dimensions of OHL in guides were verbal and written communication, and access and navigation. All guides have included these dimensions. Access and navigation referred to the physical environment as well as the provided services by the organization.
Thirteen key barriers under 3 broad themes were identified during the use of health literacy guides: barriers related to the leadership and cultural environment of the organization; barriers related to the design and planning of interventions needed for the improvement; and barriers referred to the health workforce.
Especially recent guides provided best practices and recommendations that are evidence-based to support OHL actions. However, it was found that most of the guides have not been tested and their applicability was unknown in organizational practices, and this finding raises questions regarding their effectiveness [27].
Authors have concluded that OHL seems to be a heterogeneous phenomenon and it can be theorized from many different perspectives and implemented in different ways.
There is a similarity among the criteria identified in the conceptualization of the OHL in various studies. However, despite the conceptual similarities and presence of many different techniques and scales to assess OHL, there is still confusion about conceptualization and operationalization [25].
“Ten Attributes of Health Literate Organizations” by Brach et al. [5], is the most detailed and broad-ranged study in terms of conceptualization of OHL and has been an intellectual foundation for several other studies. Many of the assessment tools and instruments were based on the principles described as ten attributes. Most frequently used examples are, HLHO-10 [33], V-HLO [36], and the Org-HLR [37].
HLHO-10 is designed as a questionnaire that rates each of the ten attributes on a Likert scale.
The V-HLO aims at the sustainability of OHL and expands the concept by introducing specific aspects tested in Health Promoting Hospitals (HPH) [39, 40]. It approaches OHL from the stakeholders’ view considering their impact zone.
The Org-HLR uses health literacy responsiveness as a system-level action. It aims to coordinate and integrate all health care services, and system navigation by intersectoral collaboration [37].
Another important instrument HLE2 Assessment Tool [7] has a long history and wider use and includes palpable criteria mostly based on observations regarding implementation details. It offers ‘to-do lists’, observation forms, and process management details that can also be used during brainstorming meetings in organizations.
Among the several criteria to describe OHL, “communication” seems to be the major and most common component in all studies. Possible benefit effects of HL-sensitive communication were examined in several studies [47] including specific groups such as cancer patients [48], culturally diverse patient groups [49], and concluded to be an important dimension of OHL.
“Ease of access and navigation” is another significant criterion to describe OHL that has been investigated in many studies. Zanobi et al. [26] and Bremer et al. [25] have identified many different interventions for easy access and navigation in their scoping reviews. Use of pathways with different color codes, directions prepared with a plain and standardized language, support from volunteer escorts, directions posted in commonly used languages, and navigation apps are some examples. However, no studies have been found to evaluate their effects.
In some studies, quality is considered the main aspect [46] and OHL is examined as an instrument to raise the quality of healthcare.
It is known that patient satisfaction and responsiveness are high in organizations with high OHL [21]; however, it is not possible to say the opposite and it is important not to confuse OHL with patient satisfaction or health care responsiveness.
According to a study conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, OHL principles and guidelines may be helpful to promote human-centered health care and services even in times of crisis [50].
OHL has been examined in various countries, in different settings, and from different aspects by many researchers. Among the limited number of scales that have been presented in some studies, none of them was tested for validity and reliability [51].
Additionally, many patient health outcomes have been investigated, but it is seen that almost all of them were related to supportive interventions for patients. No study was found reporting the patient health outcomes that are related to staff.
The effects of environmental support on health care staff have been rarely studied. Only a few studies have reported outcomes related to the satisfaction and helpfulness perception of the staff [26].
Comprehensive work done by Brach et al. on the conceptualization of the OHL is a milestone as we have mentioned above [5]. It serves as an intellectual base for other studies. In studies, regarding the implementation and assessment of OHL, checklists based on on-site observation and interview forms based on general questions for qualitative evaluation purposes are used. Furthermore, in some studies, it is observed that checklists for self-evaluation and guidelines to assess the healthcare organizations including primary healthcare institutions are also used.
In a comprehensive systematic review, it was found that the practices, measurement, and evaluation criteria in the field of OHL are very diverse and differ from each other [52]. According to the results of the screening, there were 8 main measurement-evaluation tools used for OHL measurement-evaluation, among which HLHO-10 (Health Literate Health Organization-10) [33] and V-HLO (Vienna Health Literate Organization) [36, 38] were used more frequently.
No definitive list of actions for implementation was found as well as assessment and measurement of the OHL. As a matter of fact, the rapid change in health care systems, institutions, types of services, technologies, and even professions naturally will affect and change the ways of our understanding of OHL.
So, aims for the implementation, operationalization, and improvement of the OHL must be addressed in a systematic and flexible manner. This issue is particularly significant for the communication of health care organizations with service users.
As the last word, some recommended steps to facilitate organizational change when promoting OHL practices can be summarized as encouragement of leadership, presence of clear and effectively communicated change vision, and provision of staff training and education to promote OHL practices [53]. These are the most important steps during the journey to facilitate organizational change toward OHL.
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However, conventional fuzzy inference systems may suffer from either too sparse, too complex or imbalanced rule bases, given that the data may be unevenly distributed in the problem space regardless of its volume. Fuzzy interpolation addresses this. It enables fuzzy inferences with sparse rule bases when the sparse rule base does not cover a given input, and it simplifies very dense rule bases by approximating certain rules with their neighbouring ones. This chapter systematically reviews different types of fuzzy interpolation approaches and their variations, in terms of both the interpolation mechanism (inference engine) and sparse rule base generation. Representative applications of fuzzy interpolation in the field of control are also revisited in this chapter, which not only validate fuzzy interpolation approaches but also demonstrate its efficacy and potential for wider applications.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Longzhi Yang, Zheming Zuo, Fei Chao and Yanpeng Qu",authors:[{id:"167084",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Chao",slug:"fei-chao",fullName:"Fei Chao"},{id:"198988",title:"Dr.",name:"Longzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"longzhi-yang",fullName:"Longzhi Yang"},{id:"200974",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanpeng",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"yanpeng-qu",fullName:"Yanpeng Qu"},{id:"200975",title:"Mr.",name:"Zheming",middleName:null,surname:"Zuo",slug:"zheming-zuo",fullName:"Zheming Zuo"}]},{id:"54790",doi:"10.5772/67989",title:"A Model for Evaluating Soil Vulnerability to Erosion Using Remote Sensing Data and A Fuzzy Logic System",slug:"a-model-for-evaluating-soil-vulnerability-to-erosion-using-remote-sensing-data-and-a-fuzzy-logic-sys",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Soil vulnerability is the capacity of one or more of the ecological functions of the soil system to be harmed. It is a complex concept which requires the identification of multiple environmental factors and land management at different temporal and space scales. The employment of geospatial information with good update capabilities could be a satisfactory tool to assess potential soil vulnerability changes in large areas. This chapter presents the application of two land degradation case studies which is simple, synoptic, and suitable for continuous monitoring model based on the fuzzy logic. The model combines topography and vegetation status information to assess soil vulnerability to land degradation. Topographic parameters were obtained from digital elevation models (DEM), and vegetation status information was derived from the computation of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) satellite images. This spectral index provides relevance and is updated for each scene, evidences about the biomass and soil productivity, and vegetation density cover or vegetation stress (e.g., forest fires, droughts). Modeled output maps are suitable for temporal change analysis, which allows the identification of the effect of land management practices, soil and vegetation regeneration, or climate effects.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Ignacio Meléndez-Pastor, Jose Navarro Pedreño, Ignacio Gómez\nLucas and Antonis A. 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This system utilizes only current state information and can resolve potential conflicts without knowledge of intruder intent. The avoidance logic was verified using formal methods and shown to select the correct action in all instances. Additionally, the fuzzy logic controllers were shown to always turn the vehicles in the correct direction. Numerical testing demonstrated that the avoidance system was able to prevent a mid-air collision between two sUAS in all tested cases. Simulations were also performed in a three-dimensional environment with a heterogeneous fleet of sUAS performing a variety of realistic missions. Simulations showed that the system was 99.98% effective at preventing mid-air collisions when separation assurance was disabled (unmitigated case) and 100% effective when enabled (mitigated case).",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Brandon Cook, Tim Arnett and Kelly Cohen",authors:[{id:"200830",title:"Mr.",name:"Brandon",middleName:"Matthew",surname:"Cook",slug:"brandon-cook",fullName:"Brandon Cook"},{id:"200833",title:"Mr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Arnett",slug:"timothy-arnett",fullName:"Timothy Arnett"},{id:"200834",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen",slug:"kelly-cohen",fullName:"Kelly Cohen"}]},{id:"54614",doi:"10.5772/67899",title:"A Fuzzy Belief-Desire-Intention Model for Agent-Based Image Analysis",slug:"a-fuzzy-belief-desire-intention-model-for-agent-based-image-analysis",totalDownloads:1373,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Recent methods of image analysis in remote sensing lack a sufficient grade of robustness and transferability. Methods such as object-based image analysis (OBIA) achieve satisfying results on single images. However, the underlying rule sets for OBIA are usually too complex to be directly applied on a variety of image data without any adaptations or human interactions. Thus, recent research projects investigate the potential for integrating the agent-based paradigm with OBIA. Agent-based systems are highly adaptive and therefore robust, even under varying environmental conditions. In the context of image analysis, this means that even if the image data to be analyzed varies slightly (e.g., due to seasonal effects, different locations, atmospheric conditions, or even a slightly different sensor), agent-based methods allow to autonomously adapt existing analysis rules or segmentation results according to changing imaging situations. The basis for individual software agents’ behavior is a so-called believe-desire-intention (BDI) model. Basically, the BDI describes for each individual agent its goal(s), its assumed current situation, and some action rules potentially supporting each agent to achieve its goals. The chapter introduces a believe-desire-intention (BDI) model based on fuzzy rules in the context of agent-based image analysis, which extends the classic OBIA paradigm by the agent-based paradigm.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Peter Hofmann",authors:[{id:"199778",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hofmann",slug:"peter-hofmann",fullName:"Peter Hofmann"}]},{id:"54682",doi:"10.5772/68050",title:"Use of Fuzzy Logic for Design and Control of Nonlinear MIMO Systems",slug:"use-of-fuzzy-logic-for-design-and-control-of-nonlinear-mimo-systems",totalDownloads:1599,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Standard analytical methods are often ineffective or even useless for design of nonlinear control systems with imprecisely known parameters. The use of fuzzy logic principles presents one possible way to control such systems which can be used both for modeling and design of the control. The advantage of using this method consists in its simplicity and easy way of developing the algorithm, which in the phase of designing the controllers and also for modeling the features of the designed structures, allows the use of computer technology. Simplicity of the proposed structure (usually with the PI controllers) and determination of their parameters without any need for complex mathematical description present another considerable advantage of the used method. This chapter presents two typical examples of designing the control of nonlinear multi‐input multi‐output (MIMO) systems from the field of mechatronic systems based on fuzzy logic principles.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Pavol Fedor and Daniela Perduková",authors:[{id:"199777",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Perdukova",slug:"daniela-perdukova",fullName:"Daniela Perdukova"},{id:"205024",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",middleName:null,surname:"Fedor",slug:"pavol-fedor",fullName:"Pavol Fedor"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54537",title:"Fuzzy Logic Application, Control and Monitoring of Critical Machine Parameters in a Processing Company",slug:"fuzzy-logic-application-control-and-monitoring-of-critical-machine-parameters-in-a-processing-compan",totalDownloads:1880,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The processing company under study found out that the boiler was the key machine and needs artificial intelligence monitoring and control. It was simulated under Matlab software and oil level, and pressure and temperature were to be modelled and controlled using the programmable logic controller (PLC) with a fuzzy logic controller as the main brain of control. The company is for processing of fruits to produce juice.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Tawanda Mushiri",authors:[{id:"198749",title:"Dr.",name:"Tawanda",middleName:null,surname:"Mushiri",slug:"tawanda-mushiri",fullName:"Tawanda Mushiri"}]},{id:"65167",title:"Functional Safety of FPGA Fuzzy Logic Controller",slug:"functional-safety-of-fpga-fuzzy-logic-controller",totalDownloads:816,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this paper we describe a methodology to implement a fuzzy logic controller in FPGA. The implementation of fuzzy logic controller (FLC) in FPGA requires a qualitative and a quantitative analysis to define the system safety integrity level (SIL). This level can be defined by the quantification of the probability of failure on demand (PFDavg). We propose to analyze the implementation advance safety architecture of fuzzy logic controllers with 1-out-of-2 controllers (1oo2) in FPGA using the reliability block diagram (RBD) and the Markov model. 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The paper formulates the problem of causal relations in a broad sense and analyzes the methods for its solution with an emphasis on the socioeconomic aspects. For this purpose, the system approach, comparative experiment, economic and mathematical modeling, and other general scientific methods are used. The authors suggest that the causality of factors be studied based on the theory of fuzzy binary relations using the mathematical tools of Goguen’s fuzzy implication. As an example, the paper describes the effect of organizational culture indicators under the Denison’s model on the key performance indicators of an organization.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Nazarov Dmitry Mikhailovich",authors:[{id:"278819",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitrii",middleName:null,surname:"Nazarov",slug:"dmitrii-nazarov",fullName:"Dmitrii Nazarov"}]},{id:"55096",title:"EMG-Controlled Prosthetic Hand with Fuzzy Logic Classification Algorithm",slug:"emg-controlled-prosthetic-hand-with-fuzzy-logic-classification-algorithm",totalDownloads:1891,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In recent years, researchers have conducted many studies on the design and control of prosthesis devices that take the place of a missing limb. Functional ability of prosthesis hands that mimic biological hand functions increases depending on the number of independent finger movements possible. From this perspective, in this study, six different finger movements were given to a prosthesis hand via bioelectrical signals, and the functionality of the prosthesis hand was increased. Bioelectrical signals were recorded by surface electromyography for four muscles with the help of surface electrodes. The recorded bioelectrical signals were subjected to a series of preprocessing and feature extraction processes. In order to create meaningful patterns of motion and an effective cognitive interaction network between the human and the prosthetic hand, fuzzy logic classification algorithms were developed. A five-fingered and 15-jointed prosthetic hand was designed via SolidWorks, and a prosthetic prototype was produced by a 3D printer. In addition, prosthetic hand simulator was designed in Matlab/SimMechanics. Pattern control of both the simulator and the prototype hand in real time was achieved. Position control of motors connected to each joint of the prosthetic hand was provided by a PID controller. Thus, an effective cognitive communication network established between the user, and the real-time pattern control of the prosthesis was provided by bioelectrical signals.",book:{id:"5883",slug:"modern-fuzzy-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Fuzzy Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Beyda Taşar and Arif Gülten",authors:[{id:"198982",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Beyda",middleName:null,surname:"Tasar",slug:"beyda-tasar",fullName:"Beyda Tasar"},{id:"201773",title:"Dr.",name:"Arif",middleName:null,surname:"Gulten",slug:"arif-gulten",fullName:"Arif Gulten"}]},{id:"64740",title:"Some Topological Properties of Intuitionistic Fuzzy Normed Spaces",slug:"some-topological-properties-of-intuitionistic-fuzzy-normed-spaces",totalDownloads:865,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In 1986, Atanassov introduced the concept of intuitionistic fuzzy set theory which is based on the extensions of definitions of fuzzy set theory given by Zadeh. This theory provides a variable model to elaborate uncertainty and vagueness involved in decision making problems. In this chapter, we concentrate our study on the ideal convergence of sequence spaces with respect to intuitionistic fuzzy norm and discussed their topological and algebraic properties.",book:{id:"7656",slug:"fuzzy-logic",title:"Fuzzy Logic",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic"},signatures:"Vakeel Ahmad Khan, Hira Fatima and Mobeen Ahmad",authors:[{id:"276104",title:"Dr.",name:"Vakeel A.",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"vakeel-a.-khan",fullName:"Vakeel A. 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Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"83117",title:"Endothelial Secretome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106550",signatures:"Luiza Rusu",slug:"endothelial-secretome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu"}],book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83073",title:"Dental and Orofacial Trauma Impacts on Oral-Health-Related—Quality of Life in Children: Low- and Middle-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105845",signatures:"Yolanda Malele-Kolisa, Nazia Khan, Mpho P. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:9},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:245,paginationItems:[{id:"196707",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa Numan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucak",slug:"mustafa-numan-bucak",fullName:"Mustafa Numan Bucak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196707/images/system/196707.png",biography:"Mustafa Numan Bucak received a bachelor’s degree from the Veterinary Faculty, Ankara University, Turkey, where he also obtained a Ph.D. in Sperm Cryobiology. He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". 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