\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6142",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Family Planning",title:"Family Planning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Women with unmet need for family planning are those who are fecund but are not using any method of contraception, not wanting any more children, or wanting to delay the next pregnancy. This notion points to the gap between women?s reproductive intentions and their contraceptive behavior. The need for contraception remains too high. This circumstance is made worse by both a growing population and a shortage of family planning services. It is important that family planning is widely available and easily accessible. This book is intended as an aid to substance that all health workers interested in becoming more effective practitioners will consult on many occasions during their clinical practice. It provides views that the readers can test their experiences against. It presents sound and clear advice on some of the most practical guidance applicable to family planning.",isbn:"978-1-78923-277-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-276-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-300-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68266",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"family-planning",numberOfPages:324,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4993c79cffba3126a9ca1ef7c9902c7e",bookSignature:"Zouhair O. Amarin",publishedDate:"June 13th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6142.jpg",numberOfDownloads:25517,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:47,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:85,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 25th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 26th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",middleName:null,surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101551/images/system/101551.jpg",biography:"Zouhair Amarin is a Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Jordan University of Science and Technology. Previously, he was a lecturer at the University of Glasgow, Scotland; senior lecturer at the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom; and dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Mutah University, Jordan. He is a fellow of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and the Faculty of Public Health, London. He has a master’s degree in Medical Science from the University of Glasgow, and a master’s degree in Medical Education from Maastricht University, The Netherlands. Dr. Amarin is a pioneer in in-vitro fertility and was the first to develop microsurgical epididymis sperm aspiration for clinical use. He also discovered a surgical procedure for critical ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. He is the author of numerous book chapters, editor of several books, and author of more than 120 journal papers. Dr. Amarin is also the recipient of eight awards.",institutionString:"Jordan University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Jordan University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Jordan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1134",title:"Population Health",slug:"population-health"}],chapters:[{id:"61630",title:"Introductory Chapter: Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76418",slug:"introductory-chapter-family-planning",totalDownloads:1020,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zouhair Amarin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61630",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61630",authors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin"}],corrections:null},{id:"58463",title:"From Eugenicists to Family Planners: America’s Religious Promoters of Contraception",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72378",slug:"from-eugenicists-to-family-planners-america-s-religious-promoters-of-contraception",totalDownloads:838,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Early proponents of contraception among American religious groups were staunch eugenicists who promoted birth control in the hopes of curtailing the “runaway fertility” of poor Catholic and Jewish immigrants. By the early 1930s, their campaign to legalize contraception was largely successful, but eugenics would soon go from being a sign of progressive politics and enlightened scientific understanding to a dirty word associated with Hitler. By examining the statements of all of the early liberalizers on contraception from 1920 to 1965, this paper demonstrates that although these groups purged their statements on contraception of the word eugenics by the end of WWII, the fertility of “poor others” remained their focus for the next few decades. Talk of “race suicide” changed to talk of “responsible parenthood” as their focus moved away from the whitening Irish, Italian, and Jewish immigrants to the poor in the Third World and Americans in the inner cities.",signatures:"Melissa J. Wilde and KaJaiyaiu Hopkins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58463",authors:[{id:"227331",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Melissa",surname:"Wilde",slug:"melissa-wilde",fullName:"Melissa Wilde"},{id:"227332",title:"Ms.",name:"Kajaiyaiu",surname:"Hopkins",slug:"kajaiyaiu-hopkins",fullName:"Kajaiyaiu Hopkins"}],corrections:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73255",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8423,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58916",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"58216",title:"Pregnant and Out of Options: The Quest for Abortion in Latin America Due to the Zika Virus Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72377",slug:"pregnant-and-out-of-options-the-quest-for-abortion-in-latin-america-due-to-the-zika-virus-pandemic",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Latin America has some of the strictest abortion rules in the world, where the procedure is criminal in cases of rape, incest, or even to save the life of the mother. More than 97% of women in Latin America and the Caribbean live in countries where access to abortion is either restricted or banned altogether. As a result, unsafe abortion is widespread and causes 10% of all maternal deaths in the region. With the onset of the Zika virus pandemic in 2015, and the identification of the virus as causing poor pregnancy outcomes including fetal infection, microcephaly, and other malformations, there became an increased demand for abortions in Latin American countries. The response of many Latin American governments to Zika infection during pregnancy was to recommend that women avoid or postpone their pregnancies. These recommendations were not possible for many women at risk in the affected countries, especially those who were uneducated or living in poverty. As a result of the Zika pandemic, there has been an increased demand for abortion in many of the affected countries that, because of the clandestine and illegal nature of the procedure, carries the heightened risk for additional maternal morbidity and mortality.",signatures:"David A. Schwartz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58216",authors:[{id:"217490",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Schwartz",slug:"david-schwartz",fullName:"David Schwartz"}],corrections:null},{id:"58297",title:"Family Planning Services in Africa: The Successes and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72224",slug:"family-planning-services-in-africa-the-successes-and-challenges",totalDownloads:2096,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The world population is on the increase, and the majority of this increase will be from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It is estimated that by 2030 the population of Africa will rise to 1.3 billion. Published peer-reviewed journals, abstracts, Gray literature (government documents, technical reports, other reports, etc.), internet articles and Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) reports were used as resource materials. Manual search of reference list of selected articles was checked for further relevant studies. Family planning (FP) programmes that started in 1960s across SSA have made steady progress with contraceptive prevalence rates still very low and unacceptably high unmet need. Despite near universal knowledge on contraceptives, there is an obvious knowledge-practice gap. There are barriers, personal, religious and community levels, to contraceptive use. Contraceptives have a lot of benefits to the mother, child and community. Thus, there is a need for publicity campaigns through information, education and communication (IEC) to address social and cultural barriers to FP including misconceptions and misinformation. Contraception should be vigorously promoted in SSA not only for its demographic dividends but also on socio-economic and health grounds and the attainment of sustainable development goals (SDGs).",signatures:"Alhaji A Aliyu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58297",authors:[{id:"217688",title:"Prof.",name:"Alhaji A",surname:"Aliyu",slug:"alhaji-a-aliyu",fullName:"Alhaji A Aliyu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59078",title:"Drivers of Unmet Need for Family Planning among Women of Advanced Reproductive Age in Urban Western Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72896",slug:"drivers-of-unmet-need-for-family-planning-among-women-of-advanced-reproductive-age-in-urban-western-",totalDownloads:1086,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Studies have examined unmet need for family planning among urban women in a number of countries, but women of advanced reproductive age have not been explicitly examined. This chapter examined drivers of unmet need for family planning among urban women of advanced reproductive age in selected West African countries. Data were extracted from individual recode of the most recent Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) implemented in the selected countries. The study analysed weighted sample sizes of 800 women in Guinea, 4928 women in Nigeria and 1253 women in the Gambia. The outcome variable was unmet need for family planning. Key explanatory variables are sets of individual and community characteristics. Three multilevel logistic regression models were fitted using Stata 12. Results showed that among urban women of advanced reproductive age, unmet need for limiting was dominant. Results further revealed that individual and community characteristics significantly drive variations in unmet need for family planning in the studied countries. Urban interventions to reduce unmet need for family planning in West African countries should target women of advanced reproductive age.",signatures:"Bola Lukman Solanke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59078",authors:[{id:"217276",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Solanke",slug:"lukman-solanke",fullName:"Lukman Solanke"}],corrections:null},{id:"57590",title:"Family Planning and Fertility Decline in Africa: From 1950 to 2010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71029",slug:"family-planning-and-fertility-decline-in-africa-from-1950-to-2010",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study analyzes the links between family planning programs, contraceptive prevalence and fertility trends in sub-Saharan Africa. It is based on case studies of countries with demographic surveys. The study reveals a variety of situations. Some countries have completed their fertility transition, while others have reduced their fertility level rapidly in urban areas, but less so in rural areas. In some countries, fertility remained very high, or declined very little, in rural areas, when population policies and family planning programs remained insufficient or almost non-existent. The role of family planning programs in fertility decline is highlighted by contrasting countries with similar characteristics, one of which experiencing a sharp drop in fertility, while the other one is showing a small decline or no decline at all. In each case, the political, economic, and social context is presented in order to explain the differences between family planning programs and their outcomes. These case studies make it possible to draw conclusions about the conditions of fertility control in African countries.",signatures:"Michel Garenne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57590",authors:[{id:"213800",title:"Prof.",name:"Michel",surname:"Garenne",slug:"michel-garenne",fullName:"Michel Garenne"}],corrections:null},{id:"57849",title:"Contraceptive Failure among Women in Homa Bay County of Kenya: A Matter of User and Provider Deficiencies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72161",slug:"contraceptive-failure-among-women-in-homa-bay-county-of-kenya-a-matter-of-user-and-provider-deficien",totalDownloads:960,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although the Kenya family planning program appears successful at the national level—with contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) in 2014 surpassing the 2015 target of 56%—sub-national variations suggest the need to understand the patterns at the local levels to inform programs to either sustain or improve further the levels that the country has attained. This chapter examines the reasons for contraceptive failure among 166 women aged 15–39 years in three sub-counties of Homa Bay County in Kenya. The findings show that failure of methods such as injectables, pills and condoms was mostly because of challenges with client adherence and inconsistent use. Failure of long-acting and permanent methods such as implants and female sterilization was partly due to limited provider capacity to offer the methods and partly due to inability to afford the costs of resupplies of implants. These patterns were further exacerbated by limited access to adequate information on the part of users, which could enable them make informed contraceptive choices. The experiences of women regarding contraceptive failures—including highly effective long-acting and permanent methods—suggest the need for targeted interventions to address challenges that might hamper the success of the family planning program in such localized settings.",signatures:"Francis Obare, George Odwe and Wilson Liambila",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57849",authors:[{id:"36647",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis",surname:"Obare",slug:"francis-obare",fullName:"Francis Obare"},{id:"211409",title:"Dr.",name:"George",surname:"Odwe",slug:"george-odwe",fullName:"George Odwe"},{id:"211411",title:"MSc.",name:"Wilson",surname:"Liambila",slug:"wilson-liambila",fullName:"Wilson Liambila"}],corrections:null},{id:"57964",title:"Interventions for Failed Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72239",slug:"interventions-for-failed-family-planning",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the introduction of family planning services in most areas of the world, failures of contraceptive use often lead to unplanned pregnancies. These women often resort to unsafe methods to end their pregnancies, which contributes to the fourth leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide. Demographic variables that may affect the intention to discontinue the pregnancies would be demonstrated. Pros and cons of different types of induced abortions would be presented and discussed. Programs integrating counseling for women after failed family planning for future comprehensive reproductive health care will be shown. The gap between women’s reproductive desire to avoid pregnancy and altitude of contraceptive use may contribute to the prevalence of unintended pregnancy. Age, race/ethnicity, marital status, and socioeconomic characteristics should be considered in counseling women after failed family planning. Expanding the program that offers integrated abortion training would prepare more physicians to provide comprehensive care for family planning.",signatures:"Li-Wei Chien and Heng-Kien Au",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57964",authors:[{id:"216444",title:"Prof.",name:"Li-Wei",surname:"Chien",slug:"li-wei-chien",fullName:"Li-Wei Chien"},{id:"216445",title:"Dr.",name:"Heng-Kien",surname:"Au",slug:"heng-kien-au",fullName:"Heng-Kien Au"}],corrections:null},{id:"58794",title:"Causes of Visiting Teenagers in the Pediatric and Adolescence Examining Room",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72979",slug:"causes-of-visiting-teenagers-in-the-pediatric-and-adolescence-examining-room",totalDownloads:951,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Depending on female gonads’ function and on hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis activation, results in teenager’s body growth, in secondary sex characteristics’ development and finally in their reproductive potential. In adolescence, the negative feedback of gonadal steroids on gonadotropins is disturbed. Teenagers presenting with dysfunctional bleedings are usually suspected of hemorrhagic ovarian cysts or endometriosis and require gynecologic examination, evaluation, and hormone therapy. It is of great importance both for teenagers and their parents to understand that hormone therapy is the first line treatment for bleeding disorders in these ages. A detailed medical history is necessary to determine the appropriate treatment plan. Primary care includes the detection of adolescents with acute or chronic pelvic pain that may be associated with endometriosis or other pathologies like mullerian duct abnormalities, imperforate hymen, ovarian teratomas, ovarian torsion, and vaginal absence or atresia. Mullerian duct abnormalities are associated with increased rates of unexplained infertility, spontaneous abortions, and pathological conditions of pregnancy. Specialists, should help teenagers in getting familiar to their bodies, to their sexuality, inform them about the sexually transmitted diseases, and safety options including vaccination and guide them in contraception issues.",signatures:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Theodora-Eleftheria Deftereou, Anna\nChalkidou, Xanthoula Anthoulaki, Anastasia Bothou, Bachar\nManav, Zacharoula Koukouli, Stefanos Zervoudis, George Iatrakis\nand Georgios Galazios",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58794",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58794",authors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"},{id:"229224",title:"Ms.",name:"Theodora",surname:"Deftereou",slug:"theodora-deftereou",fullName:"Theodora Deftereou"},{id:"229225",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Chalkidou",slug:"anna-chalkidou",fullName:"Anna Chalkidou"},{id:"229226",title:"Ms.",name:"Xanthoula",surname:"Anthoulaki",slug:"xanthoula-anthoulaki",fullName:"Xanthoula Anthoulaki"},{id:"229227",title:"Ms.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Bothou",slug:"anastasia-bothou",fullName:"Anastasia Bothou"},{id:"229228",title:"Ms.",name:"Bachar",surname:"Manav",slug:"bachar-manav",fullName:"Bachar Manav"},{id:"229229",title:"Ms.",name:"Zacharoula",surname:"Koukouli",slug:"zacharoula-koukouli",fullName:"Zacharoula Koukouli"},{id:"229230",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Zervoudis",slug:"stefanos-zervoudis",fullName:"Stefanos Zervoudis"},{id:"229232",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Iatrakis",slug:"georgios-iatrakis",fullName:"Georgios Iatrakis"},{id:"229233",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Galazios",slug:"georgios-galazios",fullName:"Georgios Galazios"}],corrections:null},{id:"59002",title:"Contraceptive Methods and the Subsequent Search for a Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72525",slug:"contraceptive-methods-and-the-subsequent-search-for-a-pregnancy",totalDownloads:1069,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many women are concerned about their future fertility, about pregnancy complications and about the health of their future child when choosing a contraceptive method and sometimes women want to interrupt the contraception – maybe after years of use – in order to attempt pregnancy. Return to fertility, has been thoroughly analyzed in the literature. This chapter provides evidence-based information and discusses the potential doubts of women. Return to fertility has been consistently found to be sure, albeit sometimes slightly slow in the short term: pregnancy rates after 1 year of contraceptive interruption are 79–95% for oral contraceptives, 79–96% for levonorgestrel IUD, 71–91% for copper IUDs, around 80% for implants and 75–80% for injectable contraceptives. About 50% women are pregnant 3–6 months after contraceptive discontinuation; around 90–95% of women had achieved pregnancy 2 years after stopping their contraceptive method. Some studies have found associated risks of fetal malformations when women take oral contraceptive pills after conception (though other studies disputed these results). However the offspring of women who used oral contraceptives before conception does not show an increased risk of fetal death, miscarriage, gestational hypertension, major newborn structural defects or hypospadias. The effect on birth weight seems small and inconclusive.",signatures:"Blanca Patricia Bautista Balbás, Luis Alfredo Bautista Balbás and\nAlicia Pouso Rivera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59002",authors:[{id:"217808",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Blanca Patricia",surname:"Bautista Balbás",slug:"blanca-patricia-bautista-balbas",fullName:"Blanca Patricia Bautista Balbás"},{id:"218164",title:"MSc.",name:"Alicia",surname:"Pouso Rivera",slug:"alicia-pouso-rivera",fullName:"Alicia Pouso Rivera"},{id:"232251",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Alfredo",surname:"Bautista Balbás",slug:"luis-alfredo-bautista-balbas",fullName:"Luis Alfredo Bautista Balbás"}],corrections:null},{id:"59797",title:"Postpartum Family Planning: Methods to Decrease Unintended Pregnancies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73534",slug:"postpartum-family-planning-methods-to-decrease-unintended-pregnancies",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Postpartum women are at high risk for unintended pregnancies and subsequent adverse perinatal outcomes often due to insufficient pregnancy intervals. There is a high burden of unmet family planning need caused by factors including inadequate education on postpartum contraception, limited access to healthcare professional in the immediate postpartum period, and lack of access to contraceptive options. This chapter will discuss the different contraceptive methods that can be utilized and their respective efficacies, venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk, and impact on lactation. Tubal ligation, lactation amenorrhea, barrier methods, the copper intrauterine device (IUD), and progestin-only pills (POP) have no clinically significant impact on VTE risk or lactation for the majority of women postpartum. Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) injection, implants, and levonorgestrel (LNG) IUDs are considered to have no impact on breastfeeding based on limited clinical evidence. Contraceptive methods that contain estrogens may increase a woman?s risk for VTE in the peri-partum period and should be deferred approximately 30 days postpartum. Sterilization and long acting reversible contraceptives (LARC), including IUDs and contraceptive arm implants, have been proven to be the most reliable and cost-effective methods, which also have high rates of patient satisfaction and continuation. Women have a range of safe contraceptive choices they can use to prevent pregnancy or to space their pregnancies. Health care systems should empower women to become educated about and gain access to postpartum contraception so as to address unintended pregnancy disparities among this group of women. Above all, counseling should be patient-centered when choosing the right method for the woman.",signatures:"Jessica Maria Atrio, Isha Kachwala and Karina Avila",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59797",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59797",authors:[{id:"211305",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Atrio",slug:"jessica-atrio",fullName:"Jessica Atrio"},{id:"239143",title:"Ms.",name:"Isha",surname:"Kachwala",slug:"isha-kachwala",fullName:"Isha Kachwala"},{id:"239749",title:"Dr.",name:"Karina",surname:"Avila",slug:"karina-avila",fullName:"Karina Avila"}],corrections:null},{id:"58267",title:"Birth Control and Family Planning Using Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72242",slug:"birth-control-and-family-planning-using-intrauterine-devices-iuds-",totalDownloads:2125,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Intrauterine devices (IUDs) represent one of the most important methods used for contraception. The methods vary in terms of efficiency, acceptability, costs, and potential complications. Early methods have been improved, and ultrasound (US) evaluation has become an important tool to diagnose the clear majority of IUDs complications. This chapter presents a comprehensive and up-to-date status regarding the use of intrauterine devices (IUDs) for birth control and family planning. The topics discussed in the manuscript will involve the current knowledge on the history, types, mechanisms, health benefits, and risks. More, the present paper presents the medical techniques for inserting and removing a IUD, and the role of US to confirm proper IUD placement. Also, this chapter offers practical guidance in managing problems of continuing users and discusses the clinical circumstances that require reconsideration of the contraception methods.",signatures:"Iliescu Dominic Gabriel, Ștefania Tudorache, Simona Vlădăreanu,\nNuți Daniela Oprescu, Maria Cezara Mureșan, Roxana Cristina\nDrăgușin and Iuliana Ceaușu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58267",authors:[{id:"209081",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",surname:"Tudorache",slug:"stefania-tudorache",fullName:"Stefania Tudorache"},{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",surname:"Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu"},{id:"212490",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragusin",surname:"Roxana",slug:"dragusin-roxana",fullName:"Dragusin Roxana"},{id:"215126",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Vladareanu",slug:"simona-vladareanu",fullName:"Simona Vladareanu"},{id:"215135",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana",surname:"Ceausu",slug:"iuliana-ceausu",fullName:"Iuliana Ceausu"},{id:"216852",title:"Prof.",name:"Dana",surname:"Oprescu",slug:"dana-oprescu",fullName:"Dana Oprescu"},{id:"230814",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Maria Cezara",surname:"Muresan",slug:"maria-cezara-muresan",fullName:"Maria Cezara Muresan"}],corrections:null},{id:"57704",title:"Abortion and Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71772",slug:"abortion-and-family-planning",totalDownloads:932,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Abortion, a procedure by which the dead fetus is removed from the maternal organism and considered as a cultural trait, is found in all cultures of developed societies, as well as in the populations of aboriginal peoples. Moreover, it has long been a concern that has drawn social attention. It was only after in 1798, that the attention was drawn to the relationship between population and the production of goods. This concern has been accentuated by the birth rate and the longevity of human being. Abortion has undoubtedly interfered with population growth, the restriction of abortion advocated for human rights, or religious or economics reasons or by others. Family planning is a set of actions that help men and women plan for the arrival of their children, as well as prevent unwanted pregnancies. It is a project for couples to have offspring per their intentions and also the increase in world population that is worrying everyone has a decrease. For this, the Control of Birth is the method proposed to contain pregnancy. Abortion should only be recommended when a woman cannot or does not wish to give birth to a child or when the method used to control pregnancy has failed.",signatures:"Affonso Renato Meira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57704",authors:[{id:"217073",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Affonso Renato",surname:"Meira",slug:"affonso-renato-meira",fullName:"Affonso Renato Meira"}],corrections:null},{id:"58484",title:"Male Contraceptives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72163",slug:"male-contraceptives",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Background: The world’s population has been growing exponentially, however, currently the choices for male contraception are limited. This review explores ongoing researches on male contraceptives.",signatures:"Eka Rusdianto Gunardi and Yohanes Handoko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58484",authors:[{id:"217138",title:"Dr.",name:"Eka Rusdianto",surname:"Gunardi",slug:"eka-rusdianto-gunardi",fullName:"Eka Rusdianto Gunardi"},{id:"217139",title:"M.D.",name:"Yohanes",surname:"Handoko",slug:"yohanes-handoko",fullName:"Yohanes Handoko"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"4641",title:"Approaches to Hysterectomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2a63bba8f7b17c10aff3d6d59ea0d08",slug:"approaches-to-hysterectomy",bookSignature:"Zouhair O. Amarin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4641.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9507",title:"Family Planning and Reproductive Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a51ae8a0488480238f4cbbbe425058f2",slug:"family-planning-and-reproductive-health",bookSignature:"Zouhair Amarin and Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9507.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"313",title:"Health Management",subtitle:"Different Approaches and Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"50844b8973e93e755acd2e5a950f2766",slug:"health-management-different-approaches-and-solutions",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Śmigórski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12528",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Smigorski",slug:"krzysztof-smigorski",fullName:"Krzysztof Smigorski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2140",title:"Epidemiology Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30ed18695c28d4af7aa8fe536a765829",slug:"epidemiology-insights",bookSignature:"Maria de Lourdes Ribeiro de Souza da Cunha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2140.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87931",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",surname:"Ribeiro De Souza Da Cunha",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-ribeiro-de-souza-da-cunha",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Ribeiro De Souza Da Cunha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5378",title:"The Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"862e269e0512a4763bba54d355c3c44f",slug:"the-epidemiology-and-ecology-of-leishmaniasis",bookSignature:"David Claborn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5378.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5115",title:"Health Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6af1c688ae4cf514c5c3ed6e801f6725",slug:"health-management",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Smigorski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12528",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Smigorski",slug:"krzysztof-smigorski",fullName:"Krzysztof Smigorski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5483",title:"Adiposity",subtitle:"Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f19b6a0755b8a29538e3b2043d4a854",slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5483.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5287",title:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases",subtitle:"Attributes of Lifestyle and Nature on Humankind",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c8ce64cf0b96dce4c16042b2982ef5bb",slug:"epidemiology-of-communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases-attributes-of-lifestyle-and-nature-on-humankind",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5287.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10571",title:"Global Women's Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6e4958a3dcb6623d2b8035bad5f3276",slug:"global-women-s-health",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10571.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74511",slug:"corrigendum-to-has-the-yield-curve-accurately-predicted-the-malaysian-economy-in-the-previous-two-de",title:"Corrigendum to: Has the Yield Curve Accurately Predicted the Malaysian Economy in the Previous Two Decades?",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74511.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74511",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74511",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74511",chapter:{id:"72452",slug:"has-the-yield-curve-accurately-predicted-the-malaysian-economy-in-the-previous-two-decades-",signatures:"Maya Puspa Rahman",dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"June 11th 2020",datePublished:"December 23rd 2020",book:{id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Finance",slug:"banking-and-finance",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316535",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maya Puspa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Maya Puspa Rahman",slug:"maya-puspa-rahman",email:"mayapuspa@iium.edu.my",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"72452",slug:"has-the-yield-curve-accurately-predicted-the-malaysian-economy-in-the-previous-two-decades-",signatures:"Maya Puspa Rahman",dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"June 11th 2020",datePublished:"December 23rd 2020",book:{id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Finance",slug:"banking-and-finance",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316535",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maya Puspa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Maya Puspa Rahman",slug:"maya-puspa-rahman",email:"mayapuspa@iium.edu.my",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Finance",slug:"banking-and-finance",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12030",leadTitle:null,title:"Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c72e8ef86d70bb4f35a3b70ff698427",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12030.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17580",title:"Anxiety Disorders in Dogs",doi:"10.5772/23135",slug:"anxiety-disorders-in-dogs1",body:'
Dogs have been one of the closest domesticated animals to men who live with them, and in the majority of cases bond in such a way that they represent another family member, reason why their behaviour affects the common welfare directly. Changes in dogs’ behaviour represent a serious problem that threatens not only the physical integrity and general well-being of the dog but also that of the people around it. This way, studies focused on resolving animal behaviour problems are indirectly helping in enhancing the family’s life quality and even the community’s; likewise they reduce the pet’s home exclusion risk, since the majority of dog behaviour problems usually lead into the dog’s sacrifice or abandonment. All of these situations frequently cause anxiety problems in humans.
Anxiety is a common reason of consulting in Animal Psychiatry. Of all the treated patients in the Service of Clinical Ethology of the Veterinary Faculty of Madrid, an approximate 88% showed anxiety-related disorders. Studies made by other authors also show numbers similar to ours which leads us to say that the majority of dog behaviour disorders are accompanied by anxiety. This is the reason why they are considered an important problem in the behaviour veterinary medicine.
The majority of behaviour problems related to anxiety or fear that can be found in dogs fit in the normal adaption answers categories, being considered abnormal in the situations that represent a conflict with the animal’s environment. It’s normal for dogs to respond with fear to some stimuli that are unknown to them and to which they weren’t introduced. It’s normal to show aggressive behaviour when confronting an individual that is perceived as a threat and from whom there is no escape, and to use aggression more quickly in these situations as a defence mechanism.
The presence of a significant change in the animal’s life or those situations capable of producing chronic or post-traumatic stress, result in the alteration of the animal’s homeostasis and an adaptation disorder, causes of anxiety disorders (Bousoño et al., 1999; Brousset et al., 2005). There are several factors that predispose towards anxiety, such as genetic factors and experiences during development and learning. The knowledge and study of these elements is essential for the correct diagnosis and application of the ideal therapy. On the other hand, aside from the intrinsic factors, stimuli coming from the environment or the lack of said stimuli belong to the realm of the acquired and, are more influential during the early stages of life; likewise, the lack of control and prediction of the environment also act as influential factors. These imbalances are responsible of the apparition of a psychological conflict, which produces anxious responses, which limits the individual to co-exist in equilibrium with its environment, specially resulting into a social malfunction.
Several definitions for anxiety disorders have been proposed, all of them depending on the different authors’ interpretations. In general, it is accepted that the majority of behaviour disorders are related to anxiety. Overall (1997) stipulates a link between stress and the apparition of anxiety. On the other hand, anxiety is the apprehensive anticipation of a stimulus or situation that the animal perceives as unpredictable or dangerous, adopting a preparation and answer behaviour towards the situation or stimulus that might occur (Beata y col., 2006).
Anxiety is pathological when it is continued or grows in an endogenous way without environmental conditions justifying it, becoming uncontrollable by the dog. This type of anxiety present in pathologies such as phobia, separation anxiety and many ways of handling fear, make the dog enter a self-stimulation spiral which enables it to reach a state of tranquillity and homeostasis. This sort of anxiety requires pharmacological treatment; otherwise, it could result into the worsening of the behaviours with which it is associated, and even depression.
The most frequent anxiety-related problems are: separation anxiety, generalized anxiety, aggressiveness, fears, phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorders.
Dog’s separation anxiety is defined as the behavioural disorder which appears when a dog is left on its own at home or when it is separated from its owners (Sherman and Mills, 2008). It’s common in individuals that haven’t done a correct detachment, a particular period in their development around the time of puberty where they see that the braking of the affective bond is made by the mother. Signs of separation anxiety in dogs are shown in the situations in which the subject is unable to be with the owner or with the person to whom they are attached (Pageat, 2000).
Separation anxiety may be related to stress signs caused by situations, more frequent in time, such as the dogs being left alone for long time intervals because of the owners’ normal habit, or because of restrictions in the social interactions with other dogs, exploratory behaviour and physical exercise (Sherman and Mills, 2008). Likewise, the lack of a physical and social environment for the dog causes a state of boredom and frustration, which can become accumulative and generate separation anxiety.
Symptoms of this disorder frequently appear when the animal perceives that it is about to be left alone, being more obvious when the owner goes out, and becoming more intense between 30 and 60 minutes after leaving. These behaviours were described and numbered by Overall (1997), under which we find excessive vocalization (increase in whining, howling and barking), destructive behaviour (especially directed at objects frequently manipulated by the owners’ and that carry their smell), restlessness (manifested as an exacerbated exploratory behaviour), inappropriate defecation and urination, hyper-salivation and escape attempts. However, not all dogs that come to the clinic with this disorder show all of these symptoms, it’s not only possible to see one, two or all of them at the same time, but also other more uncommon symptoms such as anorexia, vomits and acral dermatitis due to licking. All of these behaviour changes are accompanied by a stress indicative physiological answer. Dogs with separation anxiety are described by their owners as “very clingy”, it’s common that they follow one or more family members step by step; trying to go with them into all of the house’s rooms. This tends to intensify itself near the owner’s departure. It is also typical that owners describe their dogs’ welcoming as an excessive effusive reaction (Manteca, 2003).
Normally, 2-3 month old puppies are separated from their mother while still being strongly attached to them, which can cause a tranquilizing effect and a fundamental support for them to develop all of their behaviours. When the separation happens, the pup suffers an ill-state which can manifest itself with whining during the night and the lack of appetite, from which the animal develops an adaptive behaviour in search for a balance, establishing a new bond of attachment with one of the owners, this being very positive for the puppy because it allows it to finish its development. Under natural circumstances it is the mother that systematically begins this rupture, which in many occasions doesn’t happen in the bond created by the puppy and his owner. The owner continues to respond to the dog’s demands, which has already reached puberty, this provokes a hyper-attachment that is nothing but affective dependence, which will be the origin of separation anxiety (Pageat, 2000).
In our clinic we have been able to see that there are situations that frequently result into a separation anxiety disorder, such as those where the dogs, being used to a continuous human company are left alone for the first time as well as the situations during which the dog and owner are constantly together during a long period of time (because of vacation, sick leave or unemployment). Likewise, separation anxiety can arise after the dog has suffered a traumatic event, such as a time period spent in a shelter or dog pound, or after a change in the routine or family structure (child emancipation, modification in the working schedule, moving to a new home, or a new pet or person in the house). Nevertheless, although it is important to take them in consideration when making a diagnosis or when preventing, separation anxiety does not necessarily present itself after one of these situations. Within the possible factors, genetic predisposition has also been mentioned; however it has not been demonstrated.
The clinical record should be done via questionnaire that can provide all the possible information about the dog’s daily routine related with food, defecation and urination habits, properties of the physical surrounding, social interaction (with other animals as well as with people from their surroundings), physical exercise and the dog’s rest. All of this information is focused on obtaining a better knowledge about the dog-owner relation and to evaluate if the dog has, qualitative and quantitatively speaking, all of its basic needs covered. Questions that might add information about the dog’s behaviour prior to the owner’s departure should be considered as well as the circumstances under which such anxious behaviours are triggered should be determined precisely. It is also important to know the dog’s attitude when the owners return home. Horwtiz (2006) says that the behaviour’s time sequence is important to establish a diagnosis, there are studies that affirm that the typical separation anxiety behaviour presents itself between 5 and 30 minutes after the dog is on its own at home (Borchelt and Voigh, 1982).
It can be suspected that a dog suffers from separation anxiety when it shows one or more of the following symptoms: destructive behaviour, inappropriate elimination and excessive vocalization (Scopelliti and Bracchi, 2000). Dogs that have separation anxiety with a high level of owner dependence show each of the followings symptoms:
A tendency to follow the owner through out the whole house seeking to maintain a constant physical contact.
The increase of physical distance with the owner triggers some anxious conducts in the animal.
When the owners return home the dog shows excessive enthusiasm.
Scopelliti and Bracchi (2000), indicate that from the category of dogs with separation anxiety, the following dogs can be excluded:
Dogs younger than 6 months
Dogs that do not show destructive behaviour or that if they do, they do it in front of the owners.
Spontaneous episodes.
Destructive behaviour or aggressiveness-related vocalization
Inappropriate elimination behaviour (urine) linked with territorial marking in males or with the inappropriate elimination related to physical illnesses.
According to the symptoms, the differential diagnosis proposed by Horwitz (2006) for the separation anxiety firstly includes for destructive behaviour cases: destruction as if playing, hyperactivity, lack of physical exercise, storm and noise phobias, territorial behaviour and fear. When there are signs of excessive vocalization, playing, fear or phobia; external stimuli and territorial behaviours should be considered. Inappropriate elimination is a symptom that should discard: fear, improper training, inaccessibility to the place of elimination, physical sicknesses, submission urination, urine marking and cognitive dysfunction. When there are self-traumatizing behaviours, they should be differentiated from acral dermatitis because of licking, obsessive-compulsive disorder, dermatological problems and neuritis.
On the other hand, (Pageat, 2000) indicates that the deprivation syndrome, sociopathies (dominant dogs tend to stop the departure of other members of the group to which they belong), hyper-attachment of the adult syndrome and involution depression should be discarded.
The efficient treatment of separation anxiety should include teaching the dog how to tolerate the owner’s absence and correcting the specific problems of destruction, barking and elimination (Landsberg et al., 1998). It is vital to convince the owner of the need to break the existing hyper-bond and to teach and involve said owner in the fulfilment of the therapy. Treatment must include environmental enrichment to reduce anxiety symptoms and minimize the tension present at home, which will allow the therapy to work. Any possibility that the dog might respond with anxious signs must be eliminated, thus leaving the dog alone must be avoided; in case that it should happen, it should be done in a safe place where the dog won’t hurt itself or destroy any objects. Activities that boost the dog-owner interaction such as physical exercise and games must be indicated to increase the dog’s wellbeing, as well as reinforce with food treats any wished behaviour (Sherman and Mills, 2008).
It is necessary to control anxiety with anxiolytic drugs to encourage the behaviour modification therapy and to achieve short-term improvements that will motivate the owner in completing the treatment (see dosage table and anxiolytics’ indications for dogs). Better results have been obtained for the treatment of separation anxiety when combining a behaviour modification program and a pharmacological treatment, rather than just using the behaviour modification program (Landsberg et al., 2008; Simpson et al., 2007). The aim is to reduce anxiety and fear as fast as possible as to establish an appropriate emotional balance in the dog so that it may respond better to the behaviour modification program (Sherman and Mills, 2008). The use of a benzodiazepine for four weeks, combined with fluoxetine (a selective inhibitor of the serotonin reuptake) has show to be efficient in controlling the signs of anxiety (Ibáñez and Anzola, 2010).
The goals of behaviour modification techniques, desensitization and counterconditioning, that are used in the separation anxiety treatment tend to diminish the anxiety that is associated with the owner’s departure, reduce the over-attachment and hyper-link between the owner and the dog and teach the dog how to remain home alone, without anxiety (Horwitz, 2006).
Behaviour modification tries to avoid that the dog feels anxious and that it may remain tranquil while the owners return home. It must comprehend that the owners always return once they have left: for this, the dog must be given the opportunity and all the time that it may require. The anxiety that is produced during this time interferes with the learning and so it is necessary to propose an ansiolytic pharmacological treatment that will favour the establishment of the animal’s cognitive abilities. It is very important that during this first period of treatment, the dog should not be left alone at home; the owner will have to provisionally resolve this problem by finding a place other than the home for the dog and offer the necessary means so that it does not miss his company.
Firstly, the owner must have control over his pet. To increase the owner’s control over the animal, he will practice basic obedience exercises such as the commands of sit and stay. It is also necessary to practice relaxation techniques through massage routines and conditioning using treats every time the dog controls its anxiety, this way behaviour opposite to anxiety is reinforced. Once this first step is achieved, a technique based on learning by desensitization is begun, to get the animal to accept or tolerate the owner’s departure from home. To obtain this, a progressive form of departure is programmed which will allow the animal to predict, through the signals that it receives, the owner’s exit. Systematic desensitization is a technique that has been successfully used in humans and pets. There are recent studies (Botler et al., 2011) that claim that systematic desensitization is a key and fundamental element in the treatment of dogs with separation anxiety.
Guideline to follow:
Begin the normal routine departing activities (get dressed, grab the keys, etc.), make the dog get used to said stimuli. The owner must proceed calmly and ignoring all of the dog’s responses, sitting in a relaxed way without leaving the house. Once a more relaxed attitude from the dog has been achieved, the owner can move on to the following step.
Begin as indicated in step one. However, instead of sitting down, the owner should head towards the exit door, open it without leaving, then closing it and sitting down. This must be repeated various times through out the day, until checking that the animal responds with complete tranquillity.
The following step consists on repeating the previous two, but this time remaining outside for a moment without moving or entering, then sitting calmly on the sofa. Repeat until it is assured that the dog tolerates the situation.
Next, leave and close the door for a few seconds, then open it, enter the house and sit again on the sofa, trying to accustom the dog in tolerating short term absences, starting with a few seconds. The routine will be repeated and the dog will be given a signal like “later”, leaving and coming back in a minute. The return must be made as something normal, ignoring the dog.
Proceed gradually from one step to the other and before taking on the following, repeat until the dog shows no sign of anxiety. All the possible ways of leaving home that last less than 10 minutes must be practiced. Many departures can be made per session if the dog manages to relax enough in between them. Once the dog can accept short-term outings (30 to 60 minutes), it will normally be able to tolerate longer intervals of time, between 3 and 8 hours. However, at the beginning the steps should be taken slowly.
In generalized anxiety the animal shows a constant and crescent reactivity, alertness and exploration, and a great motor activity that interferes with a normal social interaction. When anxiety is constant, it continuously alters the individual’s behaviour and it manifests itself as an inhibited stated associated with the production of substitutive activities (Pageat, 2000). When the environment lacks stimuli or they are few, the described signs appear very frequently, without the need of the existence of a triggering stimulus.
Generalized anxiety is shown as a disorder where a constant exhibition and growing hyper-reactivity, motor activity, alertness and exploration are shown. Like in other anxiety-related disorders, the main symptoms may vary, frequently being nervousness, trembling, muscular tension and palpitations between others. These signs may present themselves under the complete absence of a triggering stimulus. According to what has been established for diagnostic criteria DSM-IV and CIE-10 for generalized anxiety in humans, it is state that manifests anxiousness in a persistent and infinite way, under no predominant environmental circumstance in particular. Generalized anxiety is not exclusive to human beings, having similar behaviours in other animals such as dogs been seen (Overall, 1997).
As a diagnosis reference we can use the information given by Diez (1991) who grouped generalized anxiety symptoms in four conceptual units, which help understand them better, and can be applied in dog’s generalized anxiety in accordance to our criteria, since we can easily observe some of the signs or signals described below:
Apprehensive expectation. The patient feels apprehensive, generally preoccupied and ruminative. It anticipates that something bad will happen to him (fainting, lose control or dying) or to the people around him (sicknesses, accidents). Inner restlessness appears the feeling of threats, vague fears, insecurity, sensation of being empty, feeling of nothingness and dissolution of the self.
Motor tension. It refers to finding the patient trembling, restless, startled, shivering, tense, subject to muscular pain, easily fatigable and incapable of relaxing. Frequent blinking, tense brow and face, unstable pace, hyperactivity, nervousness and restlessness are also detected. The underlying common characteristic is an increased striated muscular tone. Behavioural manifestations can go from extreme excitement to stuporous inhibition, in extreme and infrequent cases.
Autonomic hyperactivity. Palpitations, respiratory fatigue, nausea, thamuria, dizziness, sweating, abdominal pains, trembling and cold and wet skin. To this we would have to add mydriasis, vasoconstriction, diarrhea and chest tightness.
Alertness and Scrutiny. Anxious expectation can be seen as “sentinel behaviour”. The patient is nervous, impatient and irritable. The subject is alert, hyper vigilant, has movement difficulty, insomnia, interrupted sleep and evident fatigue when waking up.
In a dog’s case it isn’t possible to know if it has any premonitory thoughts, however, an apprehensive attitude is obvious in the majority of the cases that are diagnosed with generalized anxiety and that come to the clinic.
Counterconditioning and desensitization techniques are the most used in the treatment of anxious dogs. Through obedience and learning techniques, the dog is taught how to show a new adaptive behaviour in presence of the stimulus that causes the anxiety, and that is completely incompatible to the undesired behaviour. The first thing the dog must learn is to show the substitutive behaviour under situations that do not trigger the anxious response and later respond in the same way under the triggering stimulus’ presence. This exercise will be done gradually, allowing the animal to elaborate an adaptive strategy. The stimulus exposure time as well as the presentation degree must grow gradually while the animal gets used to it or becomes impervious to it and said wanted behavior must always be reinforced with a treat (Overall, 1997). A detailed protocol must be designed for each particular case, with all the exercises to be made so that the owner may work in a precise way and that it may be used to analyse the animal’s progress in the following weeks.
In these cases pharmacological treatment is necessary since anxiolytic medication facilitates the learning process of behaviour modification techniques in dogs. The treatment with ansiolytics should last between 30 to 60 days, once the animal has acquired a normal behaviour or achieved a great improvement; the dosage will start being gradually reduced during 10 or 14 days, to prevent collateral effects caused by the abrupt interruption of the therapy (Overall, 1997). See table of ansiolytics administration, dosage and indications for dogs.
Aggressiveness has been identified as one of the most frequent problems in dogs. A study carried out in Canada concluded that an approximate 15% of dogs, out of more than 3000, had bitten a family member at some point. In the United States alone approximately 2 million people are bitten by dogs every year and it is the cause of 10-16 deaths, this makes canine aggression an important problem for public health as well as a public danger (Manteca, 2003). In other countries including Spain there isn’t a significant difference with the described data. This is why it is necessary that the owners of aggressive dogs urgently evaluate what degree of danger their dogs represent and that they find professional counselling to correct mentioned above problem (Landsberg, 2003). These statistics could fall short if we considered that aggressiveness in dogs is occasionally a desired behaviour for those owners that have wanted to train them as guard and defence animals. In this sense, Overall (1997) indicates that some animal owners consider their pets heroes, rather than potentially aggressive dogs, when having been aggressively defended by them from attacks or other people’s threats in the street or at home.
Pageat (2000) defines aggressiveness as a reactive state characterized by a higher probability of triggering an aggression. The aggressive subject reacts more often than others, producing aggressions. Aggression includes a great variety of behaviours from subtle gestures or corporal postures and facial expressions, to explosive attacks (Landsberg, 2003).
As per Mertens (2006), the dog learns how to be aggressive in order to achieve a goal, this happens when the aggression allows the dog to achieve control of the situation, and the learnt response is even more intense when rewarded either by petting, talking, or through certain gestures and postures from the owner towards the dog. Overall (1997), compares aggression in dogs with diabetes, stating that neither is curable, but controllable thanks to a well established diagnosis and a correctly applied therapy. It has been proven that there is a link between low concentrations of serotonin in the brain and spine and an increase in aggressiveness (Brown et al., 1979).
Pageat (2000) defends that patients with anxiety become irritable and can easily develop aggressiveness. Other authors such as Reisner (2006) also linked anxiety and aggressiveness when explaining that dogs that bite their owners, even inside a social context, their motivation can be based almost entirely on the anxiety that they are suffering. Some types of aggressive behaviours have been reduced in frequency and intensity with the use of psychotropic drugs that increase serotonin levels (Fuller, 1996; Oliver et al., 1995). The American Psychiatric Association doesn’t consider aggressiveness in humans a separate diagnostic category; aggression is the main problem in a great variety of psychiatric disorders, which, according to Dodman and Shuster (1998) also apply in veterinary medicine.
The development of an aggressive behaviour in dogs is a complicated and multifactor process. The expression of the behaviour can be influenced by many factors, such as the perinatal ones that include the extra uterine environment and the interactions with the mother and the siblings. Experiences acquired during the learning and socialization period, as well as other biological factors also influence in aggressiveness (Haug, 2008). On the other hand, a medical problem can increase irritability which could later trigger an aggressiveness disorder or worsen the already existing aggressiveness problem. This is why, it is essential to discard any possible medical cause that might provoke or catalyse aggressive behaviour, such as, amongst others, hepatic problems, intracranial neoplasm, cerebral hypoxia, endocrine disorders, infectious sicknesses (for example, rabies, canine distemper),disorders in the animal’s development (hydrocephaly), intoxications (due to metals, organophosphates), apoplexy attacks, traumas or other causes that might cause pain, or an increase in the prolactine concentration induced by drugs, or during a false pregnancy (Landsberg, 2003, Mertens, 2006).
The manifestation of an aggressive behaviour may be influenced by the environment, a determined situation or because of certain people’s presence. In this sense, we have mentioned that learning is an important factor in the development of an aggressive behaviour. Mertens (2006) explains that basically, the dog learns to be aggressive in order to achieve a goal, following the principal of instrumental conditioning and adds that any daily encounter of the dog with people, dogs or other animals can produce an important impact in the development of unwanted behaviours, including aggressiveness. Many situations that involve the owner may result in aggressiveness related conflicts, such as those that can happen during walks when the dog is tied up or loose or wondering around without supervision. Likewise, barking at the pedestrians through the house’s window or during the time the dog spends in the fenced garden. In these cases the owner tends to reinforce the aggressive behaviour with the behaviour he uses in the previously mentioned situations such as touching, petting, pushing or throwing, talking (appeasing or by verbal reprimands) and through gestures and postures that include visual contact, corporal postures and emotional responses.
Dominance aggressiveness is one of the most frequent dog aggressions towards people (Manteca, 2003). It is more frequent in males and in those animals that have reached puberty; signs may be seen at age 3 or less (Landsberg, 2003). Depending on the motivation, there can be two types of dominance aggressiveness which can receive two different denominations: competitive dominance aggression and aggression related to social status or the hierarchy in the man-dog relation (Mertens 2006). In the competitive form, the aggression is frequently done in those situations where a resource has enough value as to fight for it. Pageat (2000) considers aggressiveness to be related with social status, or a hierarchic conflict, such as an alteration in the social relationship between man and dog which can present itself in a vague context, which is denominated sociopathy and that affects the social group and not the individual. On the other hand, Overall (1997) indicates that dominance aggressiveness is the expression of a complex multifactor disorder that is influenced by the social context and the animal’s anxiety level.
It is diagnosed through the animal’s history or the direct observation of its interaction with its owner, where directed aggression towards the owner can be observed in situations where the highest spot of the hierarchy, assumed by the dog, is threatened. This disorder is made of two very well differentiated elements: aggressive behaviour and dominance exhibition. This is why, the diagnosis isn’t only obtained based on aggressions directed towards the family, but also on the dominance indicating corporal attitudes that the dog shows (ears pulled forward, high tail, fixed staring, trying to be physically on top of the family members). It is also possible that the animal demands being petted or that it stops members of the family from accessing certain places of the house (Landsberg, 2003).
Because of its relation with anxiety, the manifestations of dominance aggressiveness are extremely variable, from aggressive behaviour demonstrations which are well defined and that are associated to a clear affirmation of control, to very subtle vocal expressions. The difference is how the dog perceives and uses the information obtained from the encounter. The motivation for aggression may vary depending on the context or situation in which the encounter happens, for example a famished dog may attack when it assumes that another individual may stop its access to food, as well as other dogs that react aggressively if a person tries to take away their favourite resting spot; in other cases they compete over toys or for the owner’s attention (Overall, 1997). Sociopathies are alterations that appear in the context of an ambiguous relation, which means we won’t diagnose this pathology in dogs that completely dominate their owners, but in those animals whose hierarchic situation is vague due to the attribution of prerogatives that are usually associated to the status of being dominant, while the owner takes on a dominant position in hierarchy significant situations. As a consequence signals such as aggressions, hierarchic urination, false pregnancies and destructive behaviour may appear between others (Pageat, 2000). Aggressive behaviour may be directed to one or more members of the household, depending on the relation with the dog, their relative status and their ability to control the dog (Mertens, 2006)
Prior to anything else, measures involving the environment must be taken, such as physical barriers to avoid injuring human beings and also other animals, and teaching the dog how to wear a muzzle. Punishment and confrontation must be avoided at all costs. Therapy will begin by ignoring the dog completely during a period of time, afterwards to be ignored systematically, which implies not answering to any request of interaction made by the dog as it would increase its control.
The owner is to begin any sort of interaction, ignoring the dog’s initiative to establish any sort of communication. The dog’s access to his valued resources is to be controlled, and only if the dog obeys an order, for example “sit”, it will be rewarded with the resource. It should also be avoided that the dog repeats aggressive manifestations, detecting all of the situations in which they usually appear. The reinforcement of basic education should be done to acquire a greater control over the dog in all of the situations. It is recommended to practice obedience exercises with the leash and muzzle if needed for ten minutes on a daily basis. As behaviour modification techniques, desensitization and counterconditioning are recommended.
The treatment’s protocol is based on reducing the stimulus that induces the aggression to the point where the dog doesn’t react. The time exposed to the stimulus is increased as it becomes better tolerated, avoiding at all costs an aggressive response, but if so, the treatment is to be restarted from the beginning (Overall, 1997; Mertens, 2006).
This sort of aggressiveness happens between individuals from the same species. Dogs may be aggressive towards other dogs the same way they are aggressive towards people as we have previously mentioned. There are two different forms, depending to whom the aggression is directed: towards unknown dogs and to the ones with which they live, these are known as “fraternal rivalry” and “sociopathy” (Pageat, 2000). Fights between unknown dogs are more common; however, they’re less harmful than those between known dogs and predominantly imply males that do not know each other (Mertens, 2006).
When conflictive situations appear in dogs that live in groups (2 or more) the most classic symptomatology is the increase in frequency of the hierarchic aggressive behaviours. This happens because of an alteration in the hierarchic organization, in which the owner’s presence is a factor that provokes the aggression, since the tendency is to interfere in said situation, which produces a worsening and perpetuation of the conflict, because it stops the conflict from developing naturally until one of the protagonists submits. The information about the stimuli that provoke the fights is fundamental to establish how to act in these situations. This sort of aggression tends to happen in the situations that include competing over valued resources and whose goal is to establish a dominance- subordination relation (Mertens, 2006).
Dogs that attack unknown dogs may have different motivations. The diagnosis should be accompanied by defining the subjacent factors such as fear, territoriality, competition or a learnt behaviour consequence of a specific training or an unintentional or unnoticed reinforcement. These factors may occur in different combinations and aren’t exclusive between themselves. To determine the dog’s motivation, everything related to corporal postures, the victim’s characteristics, place of fighting, situations that cause the fights and the responses made by the owner in these situations should be observed (Overall, 1997).
Diagnosing aggressiveness between dogs that know each other is more common in same sex dogs and it implies the existence of one of the two following elements: alteration of the behaviour that appears after introducing a new individual to the pack, or alterations that appear after the beginning of the sexual maturity of one of the pack’s members. These elements are associated to the impossibility of the animal’s ability to carry out the combat until the point of submission of one of the adversaries or the impossibility for the defeated to stay away from the group.
For the diagnosis it is also interesting to observe if there is an increase in the aggression’s frequency, urination and hierarchic mounting (Pageat, 2000). Dogs with this type of aggression suffer a high state of anxiety which doesn’t allow them to understand their role in the hierarchy (Overall, 1997). The subordinate dog may avoid encounters, give up his place to the other dog and take on submissive postures when the other dog approaches. The highest rank individual tends to respond when the submissive tries to access a resource (Mertens, 2006).
Treatment directed towards aggressiveness between strangers consists mainly on behaviour modification therapy. The owner’s control over the dog must increase through obedience, doing basic education exercises daily meant to avoid and control aggression towards other dogs. Attacking dogs must be controlled with a muzzle and leash in public places to prevent injuries. Owners should work with their dogs desensitization and counterconditioning techniques to replace the unwanted behaviour with the wanted behaviour such as sitting. As soon as it obeys it must be rewarded with a treat. This exercise should begin at a distance that will allow the dog to stay calm and centre its attention towards its owner; this distance should be reduced as the dog is capable of tolerating the approach without showing any signs of aggressiveness. It is convenient to practice these exercises daily in short 10 to 20 minute sessions, once or twice a day (Overall, 1997; Mertens, 2006).
In the treatment of aggressiveness between known dogs it is fundamental to inform and the counsel the owner in the meaning of the hierarchies and the canine expectations in the group, for the compliance of the proposed rules. Therapy should be systematic and should allow the group to reorganize using its own mechanisms. About the environment: the separation of the dogs by physical barriers is indicated.
First of all the dogs’ hierarchic rank should be established and once it is set which is the highest ranked dog, you should insist on conveniently organizing the space, allowing the submissive dogs to stay away from the high ranked dog’s sight. The subordinate dog should be ignored, at least for a time, and receive the owner’s attention, but not at the expense of the dominant dog’s attention time. The dominant one, will go through the doors first, will eat first, receive exclusive attention from its owner and will have access to its favourite resting spots (Mertens, 2006). Lastly, castration has also been a recommended technique which is relatively successful, but it should be applied over the subordinate and only if its inter-male aggressiveness.
Territorial aggressiveness tries to stop intrusion in the territory (Pageat, 2000). According to Mertens (2006) territorial aggressiveness is mainly protective and, because of this, can be based on fear. A fear response is triggered by a perceived threat towards a valued resource. The majority of individual approaches towards the territory will pass and disappear; however, the fact that an individual disappears may serve as a powerful reinforcement of the aggression. It presents itself when the aggressive behaviour is directed towards a person or animal that is not considered part of the pack. Aggression may be directed towards people or animals that approach a member of the family or the property perceived by the pet. The term perceived property is used because there is no guarantee that the dog may know the limits of the conventional property (Landsberg, 2003).
The key aspects of the diagnosis are that this sort of aggressiveness only shows itself towards strangers and only when they enter what the dog considers to be its territories (Manteca, 2003). Signs are the typical aggressive attitudes (upright ears, tail held high with constant wagging, an assertive posture with the weight directed forward, onslaught and biting) and vocalization (growling, barking, etc). This behaviour can be observed in males, as well as females and it generally appears for the first time before the age of 3 (Landsberg, 2003).
The territorial aggressiveness behaviour modification treatment should be mainly directed to avoid damages towards people and other animals through physical barriers. It is equally recommended to isolate the dog while there are guests and train him in the use of a muzzle. The reinforcement of obedience through daily basic education exercises is aimed to achieve the owner’s control over the dog. The use of desensitization and counterconditioning with the progressive approach of people, under the use of a leash is indicated. Move the exercise towards the entrance, presenting triggering stimuli such as ringing the door bell, letting guests and others in, reinforcing through treats, the wanted behaviours.
Aggressiveness because of fear is one of the ways in which the dog expresses its anxiety towards certain stimuli. An organism that finds itself in a situation from which it is incapable of withdrawing from will respond aggressively. It will attack its adversary without going through the phase of intimidation and without controlling the intensity of the aggression. This aggression tends to be accompanied by neurovegetative manifestations (Pageat, 2000). It is probably the second most frequent form aggression that lacks an organic cause and is directed towards people, after dominance aggressiveness. It happens in the same frequency both in males and females. The efficient elimination or withdrawal of the aversive stimulus reinforces this behaviour. Insufficient socialization (lack of contact with people during the sensible period, between 3 and 12 weeks of age) and inconvenient punishment or traumatic experiences are frequent causes of fear aggressiveness (Landsberg, 2003; Manteca, 2003).
The key element in diagnosing fear aggressiveness is the dog’s posture. At first it shows a distinctive defence aggressiveness posture, with its tail tucked between its back legs, lowered crupper, ears directed backwards and, in occasions piloerection. It also tries to not approach the person, avoiding contact and only being aggressive as a last resource. It is important to take in consideration that it isn’t always like this, since sometimes it behaves as if it wanted to lunge itself at the person. However, a detailed observation of the animal gives clues that the subjacent motivation is fear, some authors sustain that barking frequently accompanies the signs of this behaviour (Manteca, 2003).
The treatment for fear aggressiveness is made of a behaviour modification program that consists of desensitization and counterconditioning. To begin with it is important to consider that dogs should be restrained with leashes and muzzles to avoid damage to humans during their training. Obedience should be reinforced through basic education exercises to obtain the owner’s control over the dog. Foresee a whole situations that provoke a fearful response and avoid them. During desensitization and counterconditioning, exposing the animal to stimuli that cause fear should be progressive and controlled, and with the stimulus at a distance.
Prescribing psychotropic drugs (see anxiolytics table, dosage and indications) may be necessary to allow the dog to learn the necessary techniques to correct each type of problem. Psychotropic drugs tend to place the aggressive dog with high anxiety levels, in a more emotionally equilibrated state. Like selective inhibitors of the serotonin reuptake, tricyclic antidepressants have anxiolytic, anticonvulsants and antiaggresive effects (Crowel-Davis and Murray, 2006).
Anxiolytics may be useful to control aggressiveness in dogs with history of anxious behaviour. To obtain the expected effects at treatment 6 to 8 weeks long may be necessary, while the behaviour modification techniques are applied. In some cases a long term use is necessary, which will vary in accordance to the achieved control over the dog’s anxiety. Fluoxetine’s effect on reducing dominance aggression has been confirmed after three weeks of administration (Dodman et al., 1996). Equally, in short treatment periods of 10 weeks, it has been confirmed that the use of Psychotropic drugs results in good results in aggressiveness disorders related to dog anxiety, (Ibáñez and Anzola, 2009). This is why the use of Psychotropic drugs is an efficient tool in the therapy of aggressive dogs (see table of anxyolitics, dosage and indications). Psychotropic drugs may have unpredicted effects, including the increase of agitation, which will lead to an increase in the clinical risk (Reisner, 1999), this is why they must be use with precaution.
Dogs suffer from repetitive behaviour disorders which are not well defined. Different authors have used different denominations such as “stereotypes”, “obsessive compulsive disorder” or “compulsive disorder”. It is a nosological entity linked to anxiety and defined by Pageat (2000) as “the presence of obsessions or compulsions serious enough to be responsible of a clear ill-being or a functional handicap”.
Compulsive disorders in animals are related to states of anxiety and it is frequent to find these sorts of reactions in dogs that suffer stress. When the stress factor is chronic or unpredictable, the animals tend to show inappropriate or excessive behaviour responses, in order to reduce the level of excitement and consequently the harmful effect of the prolonged physiological response (Dantzer and Mormede, 1985). If the abnormal behaviours are repeated, they can become learn responses when proven efficient in reducing the emotional negative response and the stress associated response. Substitutive behaviours that redirect the energy towards another activity may appear, called displacement activity, which manifests itself in a repetitive and stereotyped way such as licking or “grooming” (Mason, 1991).
Currently there is a dilemma whether dogs really experience the equivalent to human’s obsessive compulsive disorder or just a compulsive disorder; in this chapter we use the term obsessive compulsive disorder just like other authors (Beaver, 1999; Overall, 2007; Pageat, 2000) since we consider that animals can have obsessions, although doubtlessly different those of human beings. The obsessive-compulsive disorder is a recognized disorder by animal psychiatry and one of the most disabling (Dell ‘Osso et al., 2006). Luescher (1998) calls them compulsive disorders and indicates that they are abnormal behaviours produced in repetitive and invariable ways, and that interfere with normal behaviour. Compulsion is defined as a repetitive and intentional behaviour manifested in a stereotyped way and that presents itself as the response to an obsession; compulsive behaviour is not pleasant, it is executed with the aim to reduce the state of anxiety (Hollander, 1993).
According to Diagnosis and Mental Disorders Statistics guide (DSM-IV) for humans, the obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is defined as the presence of obsessions and recurrent compulsions that cause a strong stress or functional alterations (Jang et al., 2010) and which are included in the group of anxiety disorders by the American Psychiatric Association (2002). The behavior syndrome in animals might not be wholly analogous to obsessive-compulsive disorder in humans, although they might share a similar pathophysiology.
An OCD diagnosis requires that the symptoms provoke a notorious ill-being, with a time determined duration and that it significantly interferes in the animal’s normal functioning (Eissen et al., 2009). The course of this disorder is chronic and increases and diminishes in severity, frequently as a reaction to stress. Normally, in humans other psychiatric disorders coexist such as mood disorders, anxiety and psychotic disorders (Dell’Osso et al., 2006). We have been able to observe that in dogs there also exists a relation with mood and anxiety. The proportion in the animal population is high due to genetic causes, mainly because of the procedures of genetic selection, which include inbreeding as a common practice (Robins et al., 1984).
In animals, obsessive-compulsive disorders have been divided in three categories: conflict behaviors, emptiness and stereotypes. Conflict behaviors have been associated to restriction and impoverishment conditions, for example cannibalism, urine suction and tics (Wiepkema, 1980). Empty behaviors or empty activities are unconscious actions practiced in the absence of the stimulus under which they would be expressed and that do not pursue any purpose; in dogs empty behaviors such as licking, self-mutilation and masturbation are typical (Landsberg et al., 2003). The diagnostic signals of stereotyped behaviors in dog may vary a lot, and some may be more frequent than others, such as licking the nose and lips, shaking the head, yawning, circling, pacing, tail-chasing, self-mutilation, snapping at the air, excessive grooming, and rhythmic barking (Landsberg et al., 2003; Pageat, 2000).
Stereotypes may have their origin in an organic disorder, thus a neurological exam and a blood analysis are necessary; and in some determined cases a complete dermatological protocol may also be useful. If the problem began when an important change in the environment took place or it appears under determined circumstances, it is probably a stereotype with no organic cause.
Like in the majority of behaviour disorder cases, the treatment requires the intervention over the animal’s environment, the behaviour modification and the administration of psychotropic drugs. For these disorders treatments combining the use of psychotropic drugs and behaviour modification techniques have been effective, especially habituation and counterconditioning (Overall, 1997). The treatment mandatorily associates chemotherapy and a behaviour therapy (Pageat, 2000).
The reduction of anxiety, or the discovery of methods used to reduce the source of excitement and conflict are the first aspects of the treatment to be investigated in compulsive behaviours. Another important aspect to value in the treatment is the incompatibility in the dog-owner relationship, which may cause problems and in a very special way when it involves an incoherent education. Stereotypes have a reserved forecast and the recommended treatment isn’t always successful.
The environment in which the animal lives must be studied to make sure that the dog has the resources that will offer enough stimulation. Time used for playtime, exercise and attention as well as how they are administered should be analyzed. It is very important to identify and eliminate, if possible, the environmental factors responsible of the compulsive behaviour.
It has been proven that environmental enrichment systems are very efficient, mainly those related to food and social aspects through games with toys or other living beings, if the environment is very poor in stimuli. It is the case of those animals that are locked up for long periods of time on their own in places of small dimensions or with very few occasions of social interaction. In many cases, triggering game sequences where contact with the owner is encouraged resulting in good results which is why it is recommended to practice sports activities where the activity is shared and a correct communication is established between the dog and owner such as that which is done during the practice of “agility”. In other occasions, the best treatment is to take the animal to live in a different environment.
An obedience training program that completes the possible found deficits should be started (Landsberg, 2003). If anamnesis indicated a fear problem or it is associated to an anxiety separation problem, the treatment must include a protocol such as those suggested in each of the cases previously described.
The serotonin reuptake inhibitors (ISRS) and the cognitive-behavioural therapy represent the first line of treatment for OCDs and related disorders (Dell ‘Osso et al., 2006). It has been found that clomipramine is effective and well tolerated in the therapy of obsessive compulsive disorders (Seksel and Lindeman, 2001), likewise fluoxetine has resulted efficient as a complementary tool in the therapy of this disorder (Ibañez and Anzola, 2009). The drugs that result to be the most useful are clomipramine, fluoxetine and selegiline (Manteca, 2003). It is important to take in account that none of them reduce or eliminate stereotypes in all of the treated cases, which is why sometimes it is necessary to try various treatments before obtaining a satisfactory result. See table of anxyolitics, dosage and indications for dogs.
As we have described in the most important anxiety related disorders, the therapeutic management is the implementation of a battery of combined therapies to reduce the state of anxiety, which will depend on the degree of intensity and if there is an involvement brain neurochemistry. The best tools to correct or minimize behaviour disorders consequence of anxiety are behaviour modification techniques and the use of psychotropic drugs. Therapy must begin with a relaxation protocol which predisposes the animal to a better acceptance of the upcoming treatment. Afterwards, psychopharmacology is used and finally behaviour modification techniques such as habituation, desensitization and counterconditioning.
The first step is to establish a model of tranquil and relaxed responses from the dog when the provocative stimulus isn’t present. It is very important that owners recognize their pet’s tranquil responses and that they reward them accordingly. It is advisable to include within therapy at least two daily sessions of relaxing massages which must be set in a tranquil place, without any noise and if possible with relaxing background music. It is convenient to do these sessions during 10-20 minutes until making the animal reach a relaxed state in which it almost falls asleep. During the sessions the animal should remain seated or lying down and be rewarded for its tranquil and relaxed attitude. The owner may gradually add some distractions during these exercises, such as clapping or moving a few steps away from the dog and then returning to the initial position (Neilson, 2006).
Alterations in dog’s behaviour are problems that majorly correspond to neurochemical imbalances triggered by high levels of anxiety. It is more and more frequent in veterinary medicine that owners are interested in finding help for their animals which have anxiety related disorders. Psychotropic drugs are used to compensate the imbalance in the chemical substances of the central nervous system. Since long ago, anxiolytic drugs have been used in humans and animals.
In general, psychotropic drugs result in modifying the animal’s response capacity to successfully confront external stimuli, helping its homeostasis to improve, which will reduce the levels of anxiety. Anxiety blocks the learning mechanisms, incapacitating the animal to respond efficiently and making it even more susceptible to anxiety, generating a vicious circle. Some behaviour disorders may ne reduced both in frequency as well as severity with the use of psychotropic drugs which produce modifications in the neurotransmitters (Mills and Simpson, 2006).
Tricyclic antidepressants, benzodiazepines and other drugs with anxyolitic properties induce a control over many dog’s anxiety (King et al., 2000). Serotonin reuptake selective inhibitors (ISRS) are classified as antidepressants and their use in veterinary is due to its anxyolitic effects. Fluoxetine is the most used in pets to treat behaviour problems and its most frequent use includes the treatment of anxiety (Crowell-David and Murray, 2006).
Benzodiazepines are part of the most used pharmacological group in the treatment of anxiety nowadays. They are synthetic compounds that strengthen GABA’s effects (Cuenca and Álamo, 2005). They are also an alternative to supplement the fluoxetine’s effect in the treatment of anxiety (Ibáñez and Anzola, 2009).
The main behaviour modification techniques used in veterinary are habituation, systematic desensitization and counterconditioning. Habituation and counterconditioning are use to increase the threshold in which the animal responds to a specific stimulus or situation. This procedure requires the identification and ranking of the aversive stimuli, the animal relaxation training, the identification of the animals responses at an acceptable level, the presentation of the stimuli that trigger the problem, by order of range, and the reinforcement of learning (Mills, 2006).
Counterconditioning leads to the extinction or the control of the unwanted behaviour; this is achieved by teaching the dog another behaviour, in this case wanted, which interferes competitively with the execution of the unwanted behaviour. Once the dog learns how to do the competitive behaviour which is incompatible with the unwanted behaviour, a desensitization technique can be started (Overall, 1997).
In the Animal Behaviour Clinic of the Veterinary Faculty, of the Complutense University of Madrid, we have carried out a series of several clinical trials studying a therapeutic efficacy of different drugs in anxiety states in dogs. Psychotropic drugs i.e. antidepressants and anxiolytic and behaviour modification techniques have been used. The efficacy of the used methods in the different dosage regimes has been studied. All anxiety disorders in dogs have been grouped into two general categories in accordance with clinical casuistic: the disorders with and without anxiety and aggressive behaviour.
We have experienced several benzodiazepine drugs together with the fixed therapy. In addition, fluoxetine and a common behaviour modification technique has been also used. The main published results concerned the use of diazepam, while the data on the clorazepate and alprazolam administration have not been published yet. There exists possibility in efficacy discrepancies and adverse events between different benzodiazepines. The possible differences in treatment efficacy in relation to gender and age of the studied animals’ also exist.
In the first study 40 dogs from different breeds, age and gender with anxiety disorders were included (Journal of Veterinary Behaviour, 2009, 4, 223-229). Fluoxetine, diazepam and behaviour modification as therapy methods have been used. The dogs were grouped into two diagnostic categories, according to presence or absence of anxiety and aggressive behaviour. The dogs were also classified in 4 other groups: castrated, whole, young and adult. Diazepam was used orally at a dosage of 0.3 mg/kg once a day for 4 weeks; fluoxetine was given orally and daily at a dosage of 1mg/kg during 10 weeks. Likewise, a behavior therapy was started from the first day of the treatment.
Obtained results have shown a great improvement or elimination of the clinical signs in 38% of the dogs, a minimal or moderate improvement in 31%, while 24% of the dogs didn’t achieve any improvement. There was no evidence of difference in the treatment efficacy between the anxious and aggressive groups; castrated and whole; and young and adult. In addition, a positive correlation between the owner’s compliance with the therapy and an improvement results was revealed.
Main drugs, dosage and indications for dogs.
Charney et al., 2006; Crowell-Davis & Murray, 2006; Landsberg et al., 2003; Mills & Simpsom, 2006; Overall (1997); and Simpson et al., 2007.
This chapter explores the relationship between globalization and sustainability and proposes an approach for sustainable globalization. There is an ongoing debate about the impacts of globalization on sustainability [1, 2] with arguments for both positive [3] and negative [4] impacts. An attempt is made in this chapter to advance this debate by proposing a framework for sustainable globalization. Interactions between globalization and sustainability are analyzed to tackle a complex question of whether globalization can be made sustainable.
The term sustainability is used here to refer to sustainable ecological systems that can be affected by factors such as resources consumption and pollution that impact biosphere functions [5]. The traditional three pillars [6] of sustainability, namely environmental, economic, and social pillars, are considered while also acknowledging that a primary core of sustainability is its concern for the well-being of the future generations [7]. Likewise, this chapter adopts the broad definition of globalization as a process that encompasses the causes, modalities, and consequences of transnational and transcultural integration of human and nonhuman activities [8]. Focus is given to economic and social components of globalization while also touching upon its political component.
Firstly, interaction between globalization and environment is examined by considering energy and resources consumption, greenhouse gases emission, and pollution (Section 2). Then, relationships of sustainability with the current green growth paradigm and alternative economic approaches are explored in the context of globalization (Section 3). Implication of globalization on social sustainability is then examined by taking into account the quality of life, urbanization, and social equality (Section 4). Based on the analyses of different interactions, existing knowledge gaps are discussed (Section 5). Then, an approach for sustainable globalization is proposed (Section 6), and finally, the conclusions are presented.
There are several approaches to evaluate environmental sustainability. Environmental Performance Index has been used as a composite indicator to evaluate the state of sustainability of 180 countries by considering 11 issue categories [9]. These categories are air quality, sanitation and drinking water, heavy metals, waste management, biodiversity and habitat, ecosystem services, fisheries, climate change, pollution emission, water resources, and agriculture. Similarly, Environmental Performance Assessment Composite Index has been developed in [10] by combining three indices associated with natural resources, sustainable and efficient use of resources, and use of alternative resources. Likewise, six broad thematic categories—energy performance; waste management; air quality and pollution; water quality and pollution; land use, agriculture, and fisheries; and biodiversity, forests, and soils—have been proposed by [11] as indicators of environmental sustainability.
Ecological footprint is another common quantitative metric for measuring environmental sustainability. Basically, it is the amount of land, measured in global hectares, required to support a particular lifestyle [12]. Although the ecological footprint gives a valuable quantitative measure of environmental sustainability and enables comparisons of biocapacities of different nations, it does not take technological change and underground resources into account [13]. Furthermore, it does not take land degradation into account [14].
Based on the adaptations from abovementioned studies, this chapter characterizes environmental sustainability in three broad categories of energy and resources consumption, greenhouse gases emission, and pollution to evaluate the interactions between globalization and environmental sustainability.
Globalization has a potential to cause both increase and decrease in energy and resources consumption. Globalization can increase the applications of improved technologies in low- and middle-income nations that lead to higher process and energy efficiencies, eventually reducing the energy and resources consumption. Contrastingly, globalization could also support economic growth that requires higher energy and resources consumption [15].
A popular measure of globalization is the KOF Globalization Index (KOFGI), which measures globalization along the economic, social, and political dimensions for different countries [16]. The 10 most globalized nations based on KOFGI [17] are all high-income nations in Europe that also have very high energy consumption per capita [18]. However, the material footprints of these nations are decreasing over time with the exception of Sweden and Denmark [19]. Material footprint is one of indicators of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and refers to the total amount of raw materials extracted to meet final consumption demands [20]. It may be noted here that the 10 most globalized nations have material footprints higher than the global average, and the majority of them have footprints higher than the European Union average [19]. It is also noteworthy that 50 most globalized nations [17] are primarily high-income nations with a few upper middle-income nations such as Malaysia and Thailand [21].
Energy consumption of top Asian economies has been found to increase with globalization [22]. It has been reported that the physical quantities of goods traded internationally only represent one-third of the actual natural resources that were used to produce these traded goods [23]. Therefore, it can be argued that globalization is currently increasing energy and resources consumption.
Globalization, evaluated in terms of KOFGI, has been shown to increase greenhouse gases (GHG) emission in European Union [24] and Japan [25]. On the other hand, globalization has been found to reduce GHG emission in emerging economies such as Brazil, Russia, India, China, Mexico, Indonesia, and Turkey [26, 27] showing some evidence for Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. This hypothesis states that an inverted-U-shaped relationship exists between different pollutants and per capita income, i.e., environmental pressure increases up to a certain level as income goes up and then decreases. The KEC hypothesis is based on a notion that environmental quality deteriorates at the early stages of economic development and subsequently improves at the later stages [28]. The hypothesis is that as the economic development occurs at the expense of the environment, average income of the population increases. Once the average income is sufficiently high, a turning point is reached where people start to value and take care of their local environment. Technological solutions and energy efficiency enabled by the economic growth then allow for improvement of the local environment, since people can afford to take care of the environment.
Impacts of globalization on local pollution other than GHG emission are presented here. International trade has been found to contribute to significant portion of total air pollution, which is negatively impacting human health [29, 30, 31]. It has recently been estimated that almost everyone on Earth is affected by air pollution [32]. Likewise, globalization may also be contributing toward land degradation. For instance, clearance of native vegetation and land degradation across much of Latin America and Asia has been linked to agricultural expansion and intensification at a commercial scale for export markets [23]. Likewise, there is also an indication that international trades facilitated by globalization are causing higher water pollution in emerging economies such as China [33].
In the context of emerging economies, there are studies showing support for, as well as against, the EKC hypothesis. For instance, support for EKC hypothesis where environmental quality first degraded due to globalization and then improved after the average income became sufficiently high was reported in several Chinese cities by [34]. Contrarily, continued environmental degradation in China was found by [35] despite the average income being sufficiently high, thereby showing evidence against the EKC hypothesis.
Plastic pollution may also be affected by globalization. For instance, China banned the import of plastic waste in 2017 to tackle its plastic pollution problem [36]. Although many high-income nations have agreed to place a strict limit on export of plastic waste to poorer nations, American exporters are still exporting plastic wastes to poor nations [37]. This can cause significant plastic pollution in poor nations that import plastic wastes.
This section analyzes the interaction between the existing green growth economic model and sustainability in the context of globalization. Alternatives to green growth economic models are also explored.
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has a green growth strategy set in place since 2011 [38]. The OECD views green growth as an approach to foster economic growth and development while ensuring that natural assets continue to provide the resources and environmental services on which our well-being relies [38]. The United Nations has a similar concept of green economy, which is a low-carbon, resource-efficient, and socially inclusive economy. Growth in the green economy is driven by public and private investments based on the understanding that natural assets are critical economic assets [39]. An umbrella term “green growth” is adopted in this chapter to refer to any growth-based economic models.
Green growth assumes that economic growth can be decoupled from environmental pressures. In order to evaluate green growth, an approach to measure it has been proposed by comparing gross domestic product (GDP) with resources productivity [40]. Green growth is said to occur when percentage increase in resources productivity is higher than the percentage increase in GDP. For instance, if a country experiences a GDP growth of 2%, and its carbon productivity improves by 4%, the country displays green growth in the climate dimension [40]. Carbon productivity here is an example of resource productivity and is a measure of GHG emission reduction. Overall, green growth should reduce environmental pressure.
Economic components of globalization such as foreign direct investment and trade openness are promoted in OECD countries to accelerate green growth, and it has been found that these components help reduce GHG emission [41]. However, although the implementation of green growth has the tendency to reduce GHG emission [42], global GHG emission is expected to be record high as the world economy recovers from coronavirus [43]. For instance, both China and India surpassed their 2019 emission peaks in 2021. Chinese emission grew by 5.5% between 2019 and 2021, while Indian emission grew by 4.4% [43].
Critics of the green growth paradigm argue that empirical evidence on resource use and carbon emission does not support green growth theory [44]. It has been argued that there is no empirical evidence to suggest that absolute decoupling from resource use can be achieved on a global scale while continuing economic growth [44]. Consequently, alternatives to green growth have been explored. Degrowth and policies for social equity are examples of alternative to green growth [45].
Degrowth paradigm relies on a construct that continuous economic growth and ecological sustainability are incompatible. Therefore, it argues for reduced production and consumption. Likewise, policies for social equity (PSE) are based on a concept that inequality leads to environmental degradation. The PSE is actually a type of green growth with two added radical social policies, namely a job guarantee program and working time reduction [45]. Degrowth, on the other hand, contains the PSE but also argues for downscaling economy. While all the three economic models have their own advantages and disadvantages, simulations of green growth, PSE, and degrowth have shown degrowth model to be most effective in tackling environmental pressures [45].
This section explores the interaction between globalization and society in the context of social sustainability. Three aspects of society, namely quality of life, urbanization, and equality, are considered.
In low-income nations, life expectancy has been positively correlated with globalization [46]. Likewise, quality of life measured in terms of human development index has been found to increase with globalization in several Asian countries [47]. At global scale, aggregate positive effect from globalization-related trade has been reported while also acknowledging disproportionate distributional concerns. The disproportionate concern is that globalization-related trade can lead to unemployment, reduced wages, and slower decline in poverty in some geographical regions and commercial sectors [48].
The overall effect of globalization on high-income, as well as low-income, nations is reported to be improved quality of life. Positive impacts include harmonization of the labor market, development of digital society [49], and reduced macroeconomic volatility due to diversification of risks.
Urbanization is primarily happening in low- and middle-income countries due to economic growth and globalization [50]. Benefits of urbanization are increase in employment opportunities, abundance of unskilled labor, and expansion of industrial, residential, entertainment, and commercial areas. Urbanization and trade openness can also reduce income inequality [51, 52], particularly when coupled with high institutional quality and democracy. However, a study in Africa has found that urbanization alone may not significantly impact equality in the absence of democratic reforms and institutional quality [52]. Institutional quality here refers to corruption control, law and order, and sound bureaucracy. On the flip side, disadvantages of urbanization include increased crime and land use change [50]. Farmland loss, ecological degradation, and decrease in biodiversity are some of the negative consequences of urbanization [53].
The relationship between equality and globalization is very complex. Generally, globalization increases inequality within a nation but decreases inequality between nations [54]. It can therefore be argued that the benefits of globalization have not reached everyone equally. There are also mixed relationships between income inequality and globalization with some countries seeing the benefit of globalization while others have not [55]. Statistical analyses have shown that social spending may not necessarily cushion the impact of inequality brought about by globalization [55]. Overall, better approach to globalization is needed to ensure that inequality does not rise due to globalization and outweigh its positive effects.
Extensive and rigorous research is needed to understand the interactions between globalization and sustainability. The foremost question is whether globalization can be made sustainable. This chapter assumes that globalization can be made sustainable based on the synthesis of existing literature as mentioned in preceding sections and the author’s reflection. However, if future studies and empirical evidence categorically confirm that sustainable globalization is not possible, alternative models to globalization need to be investigated.
In order to tackle a complex question of whether globalization can be made sustainable or not, the following three unanswered questions need to be addressed:
Globalization allows multinational corporations, especially the big tech companies such as Google, Amazon, Facebook, Apple, and Microsoft (GAFAM) to have global influence and strongly affect environmental, economic, and social dimensions of global sustainability. From environmental standpoint, the big tech companies provide assistance to mining of fossil fuels through artificial intelligence and cloud technologies as previously reported by the author [56]. Cloud technology can reduce complexity of information collection and control time in the petroleum production processes. Likewise, artificial intelligence can improve the accuracy of identifying oil fields for effective mining. The assistance of big tech companies to fossil fuel industry raises questions about their commitment to renewable energy transition. On the other hand, GAFAM also have a potential to greatly facilitate renewable energy transition by the application of artificial intelligence and cloud computing. For instance, machine learning could improve the predictability of intermittent renewable energy resources. How should the GAFAM support environmental sustainability in a globalized world needs to be investigated thoroughly.
From economic sustainability viewpoint, the GAFAM could monopolize global markets of intangible assets and digital services [57] threatening economic sustainability. Intangible assets such as intellectual properties and services play major role in today’s global economy [58]. Another very important intangible asset is personal data of global population that GAFAM possess [59]. The GAFAM have been referred to as data-driven intellectual monopolies [57] as they have huge control over digital services and personal data of the global market. Their monopolization and opaque practices could severely harm small and local businesses [60]. On the other hand, the GAFAM have helped the booming of mobile software industry, created avenues for advertisers and ushered in a new generation of entrepreneurs including influencers, podcasters, and marketing experts [61]. Increased globalization will allow GAFAM to penetrate global market more strongly, and the impacts this will have on economic sustainability need to be examined.
Big tech companies also have massive impacts on social dimension of sustainability, particularly on quality of life, freedom, privacy, and equality. Lawsuits have been filed against several big tech companies [59] for possibly maintaining monopoly illegally. There are also testimonials from small and local businesses about how they fear Google more than the Government [60]. For instance, the Government could place limited amount of fine on a small business with minimal impact, but delisting from advertising by Google could mean that the business could go bankrupt, particularly given Google’s dominant market share on Internet searches. The arbitrary control of GAFAM over small businesses [60] could therefore lead to unemployment and freedom to independently run business. This could also greatly increase inequality where few people running the GAFAM have control on large population, and globalization could exacerbate this problem by allowing GAFAM to control more people than they already do. On the other hand, the big tech companies can also allow voices of common people to reach global audience and thereby empower people.
Privacy is another major threat to social sustainability posed by the GAFAM. They have contributed to global surveillance for US National Security Agency [57], and loss of privacy is a major concern with GAFAM. Globalization could enable the GAFAM to surveille more people around the world.
Another important theme that needs detailed investigation is the role of globalization in advancing the green growth versus degrowth debate. For instance, can globalization support green growth model? Renewable energy and technology play central role in enabling green growth. Globalization could enhance the diffusion of technologies that reduce environmental pressures, but it is yet to be proven that growth can be universally sustained indefinitely. Therefore, a case for degrowth in high-income nations can be made, and it is necessary to understand how globalization could enable degrowth. Overall, it is necessary to investigate how globalization could enable the conflicting economic models of growth and degrowth in order to advance the green growth versus degrowth debate.
While globalization may have helped the economic growth of many low- and middle-income nations, globalization may also have contributed to increasing inequality within countries. Likewise, there is a perception that globalization is a threat to national sovereignty [62]. It has also been argued that globalization increases the propensity of obesity, particularly among women, in low- and middle-income nations [63]. From an environmental viewpoint, a study of 130 countries [64] found no significant relationship between globalization and environmental footprint.
All in all, there are positive as well as negative impacts of globalization, and further research is needed to investigate models of globalization that enhance environmental, economic, and social pillars of sustainability holistically.
It may not be possible to generalize the degree of globalization that is sustainable, and it is very likely that different countries need different degrees of globalization for sustainability. However, few basic principles could be adopted to decide on the degree of globalization as guidelines. This section proposes such guidelines as below for social, environmental, and economic dimensions of sustainability. A need for holistic approach is also highlighted.
There are several crucial aspects [65] of social sustainability such as human rights, equity, justice, democracy, and health and safety that cannot be compromised. Adoption of any element of globalization should not negatively impact these crucial aspects even if the globalization has other benefits. Since globalization has complex interactions with society, it may not be possible to only have positive impacts from any element of globalization. However, an element of globalization should only be adopted if it has positive or neutral effects on human rights, equity, justice, democracy, and health and safety even if other aspects of social sustainability are compromised for trade-offs.
Decision-making on the adoption of globalization from environmental sustainability perspective is not straightforward due to the nature of environmental impacts of globalization. Both positive and negative impacts of globalization on environment can be temporary and reversible. For instance, globalization can initially cause environmental degradation due to economic growth propelled by trade openness and foreign investments, but later lead to improved environment after the population has sufficiently increased average income and technical capabilities, thereby validating EKC hypothesis [66]. However, global study on EKC hypothesis is inconclusive [67] indicating the complex nature of interaction between economics, environment, and globalization. It has also been argued that while political and overall globalization improves the environment, economic globalization harms the environment [66].
In order to decide on the adoption of any element of globalization, it is first necessary to evaluate the immediate short-term and long-term positive and negative environmental effects. If short-term negative environmental impacts are identified, it is necessary to evaluate other benefits of creating the short-term negative impacts. In a situation where it is found that the short-term negative impacts are outweighed by benefits, for example, economic growth, it is necessary to identify future measures to reverse the short-term negative environmental impacts with a concrete timeframe. Therefore, careful planning is required by first evaluating whether the negative environmental impact can be reversed or not. If the negative environmental impact is reversible, the cost of reversing it needs to be weighed against the benefit of allowing it. The element of globalization may be adopted if the benefit outweighs the cost of reversing negative short-term environmental impact.
On the other hand, if the environmental impact is irreversible, it is necessary to analyze if this irreversibility compromises the livelihood, needs, and prosperity of future generations permanently. In a case where future generations need are severely compromised permanently, that element of globalization should not be adopted.
Availability and depletion rates (both in quality and quantity) of critical natural resources are other important environmental sustainability considerations. Although the current focus is primarily centered on reducing greenhouse gases emission by implementing renewable energy systems, the use of critical natural resources by these systems cannot be neglected. Renewable energy systems require huge amounts of rare earths and other minerals such as lithium, nickel, copper, manganese, cobalt, etc., and these minerals exist only in fixed quantities on Earth. A typical electric car needs six times the mineral inputs of a conventional fossil fuel car, and an onshore wind plant needs nine times more mineral resources than a gas-fired plant [68]. From a globalization perspective, it is noteworthy that minerals required by renewable energy systems are concentrated in small geographic areas unlike fossil fuels. For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was responsible for 70% of cobalt production, and China was responsible for 60% of rare earth minerals production in 2019 [68]. China alone has nearly 90% share in refining of rare earth minerals [68] such as neodymium, terbium, indium, dysprosium, and praseodymium that are required for solar photovoltaics and wind energy systems. Since critical natural resources for renewable energy are concentrated in small geographical areas, monopolization of the supply chain of these resources by few multinational corporations and nations is a real threat that needs to be addressed with urgency. This is particularly important as major fossil fuel monopolies—BP, Shell, Chevron, Total, Eni, and Exxon—are heavily investing in renewable energy [69]. Fossil fuel industry has held tremendous political power in the United States and globally [70], and if this same industry is again allowed to monopolize the new fuel, i.e., critical natural resources required for renewable energy, what are the implications for sustainability? There is an urgent need to critically tackle this question. All in all, globalization needs to tackle any potential monopolization issues associated with renewable energy systems in order to be sustainable.
Impacts of globalization on plastic pollution and e-waste are another major environmental consideration. Adoption of any element of globalization that increases plastic pollution and e-waste needs very careful cost–benefit analysis.
Green growth versus degrowth debate is still unsolved, and therefore, every country might first need to rethink whether it wants to follow green growth, degrowth, or another economic paradigm before planning its degree of globalization.
In a scenario where a country chooses green growth, a clear time-bound pathway to decoupling economic growth from environmental pressures needs to be formulated. Environmental pressure should not be measured only in terms of GHG emission but also in terms of air pollution, loss of biodiversity, plastic pollution, stress on freshwater resources, depletion of critical natural resources, land degradation, and other pertinent local pollution. In the context of globalization, a country also needs to decide if it will import products and fuels produced unsustainably from other countries to sustain its economic growth. Economic sustainability cannot be achieved if a country does not produce environmentally detrimental products and fuels on its own country but imports them from other countries, especially from low- or middle-income nations where the products and fuels were produced unsustainably.
For low-income nations with high poverty where rudimentary amenities such as food, water, shelter, and access to basic healthcare are lacking for significant number of people, economic growth propelled by globalization may be adopted even if it causes short-term environmental degradation. This is because if the preservation of present generation is being threatened by poverty and lack of basic survival needs, there cannot be any sustainability or perhaps even future generation. By the same reasoning, poor nations could also adopt infrastructural development enabled by globalization even if there is a short-term environmental damage although it may not be possible to compromise potential long-term and irreversible environmental degradation. It may be noted here that the author is not advocating for short-term reversible environmental degradation for poverty alleviation but only opining that this may be permitted as a last resort if poverty alleviation through economic growth cannot be achieved with zero environmental consequences.
On the other hand, high- and middle-income nations need to strongly embed environmental and natural resources protections in their green growth models. Circular economy may allow green growth to sustain indefinitely although this is debatable. Ideally, circular economy is a regenerative system with no waste and pollution. In a linear economy, a product finally becomes a waste, and manufacturing processes also produce wastes that need disposal. Contrastingly, circular economy uses wastes as resources by creating a cyclical regenerative system that can theoretically be sustained indefinitely. It is highly debatable whether circular economy can be sustained indefinitely with zero negative environmental consequence and yet allow growth because a stable system typically remains unchanged and does not grow indefinitely. However, many believe that circular economy can sustain economic growth indefinitely, and the European Union has a circular economy action plan [71]. Even if the circular economy may not sustain green growth indefinitely, it certainly reduces environmental pressures, and therefore, every economic globalization program should embed circular economy wherever applicable.
It could very well be possible that green growth cannot be sustained indefinitely in high-income nations without importing products and fuels that were produced unsustainably elsewhere. Consequently, high-income nations may need to rethink degrowth or other novel economic paradigms in the context of globalization. Social elements of globalization such as tourism, cultural and technological exchanges, and digital services may allow people in high-income nations to maintain existing quality of life without economic growth or even degrowth. For instance, high-income nations could reduce infrastructural development but rather focus on trading digital services with middle- and low-income nations to maintain its living standards. This is an underinvestigated topic, and further research on how globalization could allow the maintenance of quality of life without economic growth in high-income nation is needed.
Holistic approach that takes into social, environmental, and economic dimensions of sustainability collectively is needed in order to devise a sustainable globalization approach. Basic human rights and equality are prerequisites for sustainability and globalization should either have positive or neutral impacts on these prerequisites for sustainability. Likewise, globalization should not enable irreversible long-term environmental impacts that reduce opportunities of future generations to prosper or maintain the quality of life that the present generation has.
Globalization cannot be sustainable if one country prospers at the expense of other countries. Therefore, sustainable globalization should enhance water, energy, and food security globally. Additionally, sustainable globalization should empower people and reduce inequality. Although, globalization requires agreements and laws that countries follow, sustainable globalization should not impinge on autonomy of any country. More specifically, sustainable globalization should not allow giant multinational companies and big tech corporations to be more powerful than any sovereign nation as this is a real risk (see Section 5).
It may not be possible for sustainable globalization to only have benefits with no negative implications at a practical level. Hence, trade-offs need to be evaluated by every country to decide on the degree of globalization it can sustainably adopt. To this end, it is necessary to realize that certain aspects of sustainability cannot be compromised. These include social aspects such as human rights, reduced inequality, livelihood, democracy, health, and safety. These also include environmental aspects such as irreversible environmental degradations that imminently threaten livelihood of present generation or reduce the ability of future generation to thrive and prosper. Once it is ascertained that globalization does not negatively impact the uncompromisable environmental and social aspects of sustainability, other trade-offs need to be evaluated. Since the priorities of every country can be different, these trade-offs evaluations cannot be generalized.
This chapter examines the impacts of globalization on sustainability by considering the environmental, economic, and social pillars of sustainability. Globalization can have positive as well as negative effects on different aspects of sustainability, underscoring the complex nature of interactions between globalization and sustainability. There are several knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to make globalization sustainable. These include questions regarding roles of big tech and multinational companies to enhance sustainability, globalization in the context of green growth versus degrowth debate, and better understanding of how disproportionate impacts (both positive and negative) of globalization can be minimized. Finally, an approach for sustainable globalization is proposed by identifying several environmental and social aspects of sustainability that cannot be compromised by globalization even if it offers huge economic and other benefits.
The author would like to thank the reviewers and the editor for their valuable feedback in improving the chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen books and journals are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter/article level.
",metaTitle:"Access policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All IntechOpen published chapters and articles are available OPEN ACCESS and can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\\n\\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\\n\\nThe full content of chapters and articles can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter/article and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\\n\\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter/article. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\\n\\nIntechOpen chapters and articles are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\\n\\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\\n\\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\\n\\nAll IntechOpen books and Journal articles are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2022-04-14
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"All IntechOpen published chapters and articles are available OPEN ACCESS and can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
\n\nThe HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
\n\nThe full content of chapters and articles can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter/article and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
\n\nRegistration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter/article. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
\n\nIntechOpen chapters and articles are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
\n\nAuthors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
\n\nAll published content can be crawled for indexing. Full text and metadata may be accessed with instructions publicly posted.
\n\nAll IntechOpen books and Journal articles are indexed in CLOCKSS and preservation of access to published content is clearly indicated.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2022-04-14
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6602},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5908},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2400},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12542},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1008},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17561}],offset:12,limit:12,total:132766},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"EDCMP",topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11988",title:"Magnesium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4da7079fb57ccc6aa9f8323d8d42bda6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11988.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11990",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"20cbec723d56ff06096e08d93750ad58",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11990.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11991",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"668c7f042fb58587e82ac90c32a22447",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11991.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11993",title:"Reinforced Concrete",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"74188d8583c4569b6cf7755128a311be",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11993.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11995",title:"Elastomers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e37c2de13a51e358b06c9cf637b55d33",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11995.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11996",title:"Granite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"03b9e834fd0abe7ffef7ef85e7c02426",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11996.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11998",title:"Biocomposites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"31d8afbb8256b34918ddc7ce910cc6e5",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11998.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12264",title:"Polyaniline",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2e0710de2d17485e9d56a87461a2b0b8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12264.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12265",title:"Silk-based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7f580af2140c873052c6e12f9318ee95",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12265.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12261",title:"Sol-gel Method",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5d96c89299217a36052ad1b8031be001",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12261.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12263",title:"Geosynthetic Materials and Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9f1b26209b356040678d896248f51215",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12263.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:100},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:11},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[],latestBooks:[]},subject:{topic:{id:"135",title:"Environmental Studies",slug:"environmental-studies",parent:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:177,numberOfWosCitations:193,numberOfCrossrefCitations:126,numberOfDimensionsCitations:332,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"135",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",bookSignature:"Yajuan Zhu, Qinghong Luo and Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6706",title:"Environmental Risks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea444f5d9f74628b340b2d9514bca236",slug:"environmental-risks",bookSignature:"Florin-Constantin Mihai and Adrian Grozavu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6706.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5995",title:"Mediterranean Identities",subtitle:"Environment, Society, Culture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5254b511e85984b9457a09ddc2758a1c",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",bookSignature:"Borna Fuerst-Bjelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138475",title:"Prof.",name:"Borna",middleName:null,surname:"Fuerst-Bjeliš",slug:"borna-fuerst-bjelis",fullName:"Borna Fuerst-Bjeliš"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1011",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aaa208c16030078cdca711a1867ca7ff",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1011.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96190",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"stephen-young",fullName:"Stephen Young"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2110",title:"Relevant Perspectives in Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a531a19888ec539192408b7a229fdbf9",slug:"relevant-perspectives-in-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Julius Ibukun Agboola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2110.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107567",title:"Dr.",name:"Julius",middleName:"Ibukun",surname:"Agboola",slug:"julius-agboola",fullName:"Julius Agboola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"27194",doi:"10.5772/29375",title:"Using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping in Environmental Decision Making and Management: A Methodological Primer and an Application",slug:"using-fuzzy-cognitive-mapping-in-environmental-decision-making-and-management-a-methodological-prime",totalDownloads:4642,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou and Areti Kontogianni",authors:[{id:"6011",title:"Dr.",name:"Elpiniki",middleName:null,surname:"Papageorgiou",slug:"elpiniki-papageorgiou",fullName:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou"},{id:"71620",title:"Prof.",name:"Areti",middleName:"D.",surname:"Kontogianni",slug:"areti-kontogianni",fullName:"Areti Kontogianni"}]},{id:"27184",doi:"10.5772/26954",title:"Effect of Environmental Change on Secondary Metabolite Production in Lichen-Forming Fungi",slug:"effect-of-environmental-change-on-secondary-metabolite-production-in-lichen-forming-fungi",totalDownloads:7053,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Christopher Deduke, Brinda Timsina and Michele D. Piercey-Normore",authors:[{id:"68386",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Piercey-Normore",slug:"michele-piercey-normore",fullName:"Michele Piercey-Normore"},{id:"68390",title:"BSc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Deduke",slug:"chris-deduke",fullName:"Chris Deduke"},{id:"102711",title:"Ms.",name:"Brinda",middleName:null,surname:"Timsina",slug:"brinda-timsina",fullName:"Brinda Timsina"}]},{id:"27182",doi:"10.5772/26536",title:"Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands: How Small Animals Conquer New Land Around Melting Glaciers",slug:"primary-succession-in-glacier-forelands-how-small-animals-conquer-new-land-around-melting-glaciers",totalDownloads:4972,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar",authors:[{id:"66992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",middleName:null,surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"}]},{id:"27188",doi:"10.5772/26365",title:"Heavy Metals Contamination of a Mediterranean Coastal Ecosystem, Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt",slug:"heavy-metals-contamination-of-a-mediterranean-coastal-ecosystem-eastern-nile-delta-egypt",totalDownloads:3106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"M. F. Kaiser, H.A. Aboulela, H. A. El-Serehy and H. Ezz El-Din",authors:[{id:"3900",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Kaiser",slug:"mona-kaiser",fullName:"Mona Kaiser"},{id:"126516",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamdy",middleName:null,surname:"Aboulela",slug:"hamdy-aboulela",fullName:"Hamdy Aboulela"},{id:"150469",title:"Dr.",name:"H.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Serehy",slug:"h.-el-serehy",fullName:"H. El-Serehy"}]},{id:"55867",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69214",title:"The Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea in a Changing Climate: The Impact of Biological Invasions",slug:"the-marine-biodiversity-of-the-mediterranean-sea-in-a-changing-climate-the-impact-of-biological-inva",totalDownloads:2332,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The Mediterranean Sea, one of the most complex marine ecosystems, is inhabited by a rich and diverse biota which is disproportionate to its dimensions. It is currently affected by different pressures, mainly driven by human activities such as climate change and bioinvasions. This Sea, also due to its geographic position (wedged between the temperate climate of central Europe and the arid climate of northern Africa), seems to be one of the regions most susceptible to global climate change. The increased rates of introduction and spread of marine alien species may represent a supplementary stress factor to Mediterranean marine native biota already challenged by climatic abnormalities. The Suez Canal is considered to be the main vector of introduction of non‐indigenous marine species into the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the dramatically accelerating rate of such introductions and due to the sheer magnitude of shipping traffic, the Mediterranean Sea may be considered as a true hotspot of marine bioinvasions. The complexity of interactions between native and invasive species and the associated resulting impacts make environmental management of such an issue particularly difficult. A collaboration between researchers, resource management agencies and policy makers is called for to bolster the effectiveness of invasive species management procedures.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Anna M. Mannino, Paolo Balistreri and Alan Deidun",authors:[{id:"202075",title:"Prof.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Deidun",slug:"alan-deidun",fullName:"Alan Deidun"},{id:"203773",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mannino",slug:"anna-maria-mannino",fullName:"Anna Maria Mannino"},{id:"203777",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Balistreri",slug:"paolo-balistreri",fullName:"Paolo Balistreri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77362",title:"Role of Eco-Village Initiatives in Mitigating Desertification in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania",slug:"role-of-eco-village-initiatives-in-mitigating-desertification-in-semi-arid-areas-of-tanzania",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation actions for mitigating desertification and improving community livelihood in developing countries have attracted numerous scholarly works. However, there have been insufficient findings on the adaptation regarding the eco-village practices in semi-arid areas in particular. This inspired a study to assess the role of eco-village practices in strengthening climate change adaptive capacity and mitigating desertification in semi-arid areas of Chololo village, Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Data were collected using mixed methods, that is, household survey (92), focus group discussions (21), key informants interviews (6), field observation and documentary review. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis were used in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study found a relatively high level of community awareness on the eco-village initiative; the initiative rehabilitated village forest reserve; improved land productivity for sorghum and pearl millet; increased number of planted trees; and strengthening communities’ adaptation to climate change through improved households’ nutrition, income and reduced water stress.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Fredy S. Mswima and Abiud L. Kaswamila",authors:[{id:"115390",title:"Prof.",name:"Abiud L.",middleName:"Lucas",surname:"Kaswamila",slug:"abiud-l.-kaswamila",fullName:"Abiud L. Kaswamila"},{id:"415117",title:"Dr.",name:"Fredy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mswima",slug:"fredy-s.-mswima",fullName:"Fredy S. Mswima"}]},{id:"77741",title:"Characteristic on the Stability of Haloxylon ammodendron Plantation in the Southern Fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwest China",slug:"characteristic-on-the-stability-of-em-haloxylon-ammodendron-em-plantation-in-the-southern-fringe-of-",totalDownloads:155,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Using chronosequence theory and method, the characteristics of vegetation-soil coupling and structure stability of Haloxylon ammodendron plantations in the southern fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert were analyzed. The results showed, the canopy storey of H. ammodendron plantation experienced three stages, rapid growth (the age of 7 to 20), then slow growth (the age of 20 to 28) and last decline (over the age of 28). The best natural regeneration started from 17-yr-old plantation. Vegetation-soil system coupling degree (C) and coupling coordinative degree (D) of plantations with different age were not one-to-one correspondence. The system of H. ammodendron plantations always stayed in disorder recession, vegetation and soil were prone to loss type during the process of sand-fixation. Five principal components evaluated that the first rank was 42-yr-old plantation. It was inferred that the trend of the vegetation and soil system was from senescence to harmonious development. So the trend of coordinated development between vegetation and soil would be promoted, if the artificial tending and management measures strengthened.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Qinghong Luo, Qimin Chen, Miao He and Na Li",authors:[{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo"},{id:"347848",title:"Mr.",name:"Qimin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"qimin-chen",fullName:"Qimin Chen"},{id:"348214",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Miao",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"miao-he",fullName:"Miao He"},{id:"348215",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"77086",title:"Bowing Sand, Dust, and Dunes, Then and Now–A North American Perspective",slug:"bowing-sand-dust-and-dunes-then-and-now-a-north-american-perspective",totalDownloads:84,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dune fields of the present day, the Dust Bowl disaster of the 1930s U.S. Great Plains, and contemporary efforts to forecast, simulate, and understand dust storms have a striking, uniform commonality. What these apparently diverse phenomena have in common is that they all result from blowing sand and dust. This review paper unifies these three disparate but related phenomena. Its over-arching goal is to clearly explain these manifestations of windblown sand and dust. First, for contemporary dune fields, we offer reviews of two technical papers that explain the eolian formation and the continuing development of two major dune fields in southeastern California and northwestern Sonora, Mexico: the Algodones Dunes and the Gran Desierto de Altar. Second, historical, geological, meteorological, and socioeconomic aspects of the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl are discussed. Third, and last, we return to the present day to summarize two lengthy reports on dust storms and to review two technical papers that concern their forecasting and simulation. The intent of this review is to acquaint the interested reader with how eolian transport of sand and dust affects the formation of present-day dune fields, human agricultural enterprises, and efforts to better forecast and simulate dust storms. Implications: Blowing sand and dust have drastically affected the geological landscape and continue to shape the formation of dune fields today. Nearly a century ago the U.S. Great Plains suffered through the Dust Bowl, yet another consequence of blowing sand and dust brought on by drought and mismanagement of agricultural lands. Today, this phenomenon adversely affects landscapes, transportation, and human respiratory health. A more complete understanding of this phenomenon could (and has) led to more effective mitigation of dust sources, as well as to a more accurate predictive system by which the public can be forewarned.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Peter Hyde and Alex Mahalov",authors:[{id:"348247",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hyde",slug:"peter-hyde",fullName:"Peter Hyde"},{id:"419631",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalov",slug:"alex-mahalov",fullName:"Alex Mahalov"}]},{id:"61738",title:"Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography",slug:"assessment-of-the-riparian-vegetation-changes-downstream-of-selected-dams-in-vhembe-district-limpopo",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha and Bauhinia galpinii). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.",book:{id:"6706",slug:"environmental-risks",title:"Environmental Risks",fullTitle:"Environmental Risks"},signatures:"John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R.\nGumbo",authors:[{id:"224099",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabulani",middleName:null,surname:"Gumbo",slug:"jabulani-gumbo",fullName:"Jabulani Gumbo"},{id:"250766",title:"Mr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"m.j.-mokgoebo",fullName:"M.J. Mokgoebo"},{id:"250767",title:"Prof.",name:"T.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kabanda",slug:"t.a.-kabanda",fullName:"T.A. Kabanda"}]},{id:"78428",title:"Jojoba - The Gold of Desert",slug:"jojoba-the-gold-of-desert",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] is evergreen, perennial and drought resistant shrub belongs to the family of Simmondsiaceae. It is a multipurpose oil seed crop mainly grown in desert regions of world. This plant has unique oil among plant kingdom which is chemically a liquid-wax. The liquid-wax is made up of an ester of long chain fatty acids and alcohols. The liquid-wax is unique in nature because have no traces of glycerine and easily modified via hydrolysis, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, phosphosulfurization and ozonization techniques. The main uses of liquid-wax in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and lubricants. It is a potential seed oil crop for desert region so it is well known as the gold of desert. The main purpose of this chapter is to review the complete information about this plant so that it can produce and utilized maximally. Moreover, the review focuses on biology, biogeography, physico-chemical properties of jojoba oil and propagation techniques of the plant of desert regions.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Raman Bala",authors:[{id:"347678",title:"Dr.",name:"Raman",middleName:null,surname:"Bala",slug:"raman-bala",fullName:"Raman Bala"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"135",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/73624",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"73624"},fullPath:"/profiles/73624",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()