Effect of inhibitors on different cofactors of SODs activity.
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. 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From the perspective of protection, improving antioxidase activity would be helpful for organisms to survive under various stresses, but from another respect, the antioxidase activity should be inhibited. Some anticancer agents, such as xenobiotics and radiation, act by producing ROS to kill tumor cells. Cells with high levels of antioxidant enzymes are resistant to these anticancer agents. Therefore, the levels of cellular antioxidant enzymes will influence the sensitivity of tumor cells to anticancer therapies [4]. Thus, more detailed information about an activator and inhibitor of SOD, CAT, and GPX should be known, for better utilization of these enzymes.
\nSuperoxide dismutases (SODs, EC 1.15.1.1) are ubiquitous and one important class of antioxidant metalloenzymes against the harmful effects of superoxide free radicals. The main function of SODs was to decompose superoxide radicals into molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide inside cells, which reaction is as follows:\n
Based on the functional metal cofactors located at the active sites, four distinct classes of SODs have been found (Figure 1). SODs of Class I specifically require manganese or iron ion for catalytic activity (MnSOD and FeSOD) and enzymes that function with either of the two metal ions so‐called cambialistic SODs. Class II is copper‐ and zinc‐dependent enzymes (CuZnSODs). Members of the two classes are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Nickel‐containing SODs are mainly identified from marine actinomycetes and cyanobacteria [5, 6]. Enzymatic reactions of SODs depending on different metals indicate that SODs are developed by cells to offset the harmful effects of reactive oxygen species and match its surroundings.
\nDue to their antioxidative effects, SODs exhibited dramatic potential in medicine, cosmetic, food, agriculture, and chemistry industry. For example, considerable clinical experiments have shown that SODs could prevent oncogenesis and reduce the cytotoxic effects of anticancer drugs. Recently, SODs have found to prevent many diverse diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, asthma, infertility, neurological disorders, and transplant rejection. SODs have also been successfully utilized as a major component in cosmetics for skin protection. In animal husbandry, SODs are considered to be one kind of strong antioxidative enzymes, which can reduce the oxidative stress of animal and prevent the oxidation of animal products, improve the quality of animal products such as meat, egg, or milk. In order to make better use of SODs, their characteristics, the most suitable environment and influencing factors, etc., should be known especially the information of inhibitor and activator.
\nA comparison of the enzyme structures and active sites for the four SODs, (a) streptomyces coelicolor NiSOD (PDB, 1t6u), (b) human Cu/ZnSOD (PDB, 1pu0), (c)
Cu/Zn‐SODs, Fe‐SODs, and Mn‐SODs are sensitive to different inhibitors, and we could distinguish these metal‐specific SODs based on different inhibitory reactions (Table 1). The activity of Cu/Zn‐SODs was inhibited by KCN, but Fe‐SODs and Mn‐SODs were not sensitive to KCN. Whereas, completely different phenomenon was observed when incubated in chloroform‐ethanol (1:3, V/V) component solvent, as a result Fe‐SODs and Mn‐SODs activity were almost lost, while Cu/Zn‐SOD was not sensitive to chloroform‐ethanol. Fe‐SODs and Mn‐SODs are highly homologous and exhibit structural similarity, it is assumed that they originate from the same ancestry [8]. Fe‐SODs and Mn‐SODs can be distinguished by their different sensitivities to H2O2, because Mn‐SOD activity was not sensitive to H2O2. In addition, NaN3 also is used to detect the type of MnSOD, when the SOD was inhibited by neither KCN nor H2O2 [9].
\nSODs | \nInhibitors | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
KCN | \nChloroform‐ethanol | \nH2O2 | \nNaN3 | \n|
Cu/Zn‐SOD | \n+ | \n- | \n+ | \n+ | \n
Fe‐SOD | \n- | \n+ | \n+ | \n+ | \n
Mn‐SOD | \n- | \n+ | \n- | \n+ | \n
Effect of inhibitors on different cofactors of SODs activity.
“+” indicate reaction and “-” indicate no reaction.
Cu2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, and Mn2+ are cofactors of superoxide dismutase, and they are vital to enzymatic activity. But heterogeneous expressed SODs were often existed in terms of apoenzyme or combined other metals present in a culture medium [10], thus might result in partial or total loss of activity. So that reconstituted metal ion is necessary to recovery activity. Apoenzyme was prepared by a metal removal procedure according reference [11] and simplified as follow:\n
Purified SOD was dialyzed against denature buffer: 20 mM 8‐hydroxyquinoline, 2.5 mM guanidinium chloride, 5 mM Tris, 0.1 mM EDTA, pH 3.8, at 4°C for 18 h.
Purified SOD was dialyzed against 5 mM Tris buffer (pH 7.8), containing 1 mM metal ions for 18 h.
Excess metal ions were removed by dialysis against 5 mM Tris buffer (pH 7.8).
To be attention, only specific metal ions combined to SOD, the activity could be recovered. But for Fe‐SOD and Mn‐SOD, because they share highly homologous, Fe‐substituted Mn‐SODs also are active, but the activity is lower than Mn‐reconstituted SOD.
\nSODs are metalloenzyme, and they will be inhibited by chelators [12, 13], such as EDTA and cuprizone (a copper‐specific chelator). They should be avoided losing metal cofactors caused by chelators in the experiment. But a Mn‐SOD from
Co2+, Hg2+, K+ and, Al3+ and other metal ions also show their inhibition effects on SOD activity. A Mn‐SOD from deep‐sea thermophile
High reactive singlet molecular oxygen (1O2) is one kind of short‐lived intermediate from oxidation reaction which oxidizes a variety of biological molecules easily, including lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins, and it also promotes deleterious processes such as lipid peroxidation, membrane damage, and cell death [15]. The biochemical production of singlet oxygen has been proposed to contribute to the destructive effects on a number of biological processes [16].
Carbohydrates, such as maltose, sucrose, lactose, trehalose, glucose, d‐fructose, d‐trehalose, d‐xylose, and so on could stabilize an enzyme structure. For example, trehalose plays a strong promotive effect on superoxide dismutase [18]. Trehalose is a kind of polyol compound with many hydroxyl groups, which has strong hydration ability and can change the free energy to the favorable direction in solution. The multihydroxyl structure of trehalose can connected with both the surface of the enzyme protein and the external water through hydrogen bonding, so that the structure of the enzyme is stable, and the enzyme activity was protected [19].
\nPolyethylene glycols (PEGs) are considered to be a safety and nonimmunogenic materials. They also have multihydroxyl compounds and can be activated by many activators, such as cyanuric, dicycolhexylcarbodiimide, N‐hydroxysucciniimide, and 1,1\'‐carbonyldiimidazole, then activated polyethylene glycol was conjugated with the ε‐NH2 group of SOD. PEG conjugated with SOD not only enhance the stability of the enzyme, but also avoid enzymatic immunogenicity. For example, Beckman et al. [20] reported that a superoxide dismutase conjugated with polyethylene glycol greatly increased endothelial the cell oxidant resistance and half‐life of the enzyme.
\nCyclodextrins (CD), cyclic oligosaccharides containing six (α‐CD), seven (β‐CD) or eight (γ‐CD) α‐1‐4‐linked d‐glucopyranose units have been used to stabilize enzymes in order to increase their activities and favor immobilization. On the one hand, superoxide dismutase modified by β‐cyclodextrin could improve its performance. A superoxide dismutase was glycosylated by cyclodextrin‐branched carboxymethylcellulose and its plasma half‐life time was prolonged from 4.8 min to 7.2 h, its anti‐inflammatory activity also increased by 2.2 times [21]. On the other hand, cyclodextrin and its derivative could synthesize SOD mimics. Puglisi et al. [22] reported a 6A,6B‐Dideoxy‐6A,6B‐di[(N‐salicylidene)amino]‐β‐cyclodextrin conjugated with a manganese(III) complex showed a SOD‐like activity and a good solubility that favor its application.
\nCAT(EC 1.11.1.6) catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, widely exists in animals, plants, and microorganisms. Its uniqueness lies in the enzymatic prosthetic group(ferriprotoporphyrin IX) that could catalyze the same reaction as the holoenzyme.\n
According to the significant catalytic activity, CATs can be divided into three distinct subgroups: typical catalases, a typical catalases and catalase‐peroxidases [23]. Two subgroups, typical catalases and catalase‐peroxidases, contain heme, but the third group has no heme, namely manganese catalases. Most of catalases belong to typical catalases, except catalases in the domain of Archaea. Although there are differences in the primary structure among these typical catalases, but the three‐dimensional structure appears well conserved. Most of these hydroperoxidases are homotetramers with four prosthetic heme groups (Figure 2(a), PDB, 1E93) [24].
\nThe three‐dimensional structure of three types of catalases. (a) a typical catalase (depleted in iron) from
Catalase‐peroxidases may originate from ancestral, a relatively large momomeric unit comprising more than 700 amino acids, indicating that they probably from duplication of an ancestral gene [25]. And catalase‐peroxidases show much higher sequence homology with heme peroxidases than with typical catalases. Recently, a three‐dimensional structure of catalase‐peroxidases has been obtained and is shown in Figure 2(b) (PDB, 3WXO) [26].
\nThere is little structural information about manganese catalases up to now. Subunits with molecular weights around 30 kDa are recognized as tetramers or hexamers, and are remarkably stable at high temperatures [23, 27]. A crystal structure of a manganese catalase from
Sodium azide (NaN3), amine, and cyanide are nonspecific inhibitors of CAT. Catalase‐peroxidases are very sensitive to NaN3, a lower concentration of NaN3 could lead to the enzyme lose its activity by 50%. The inhibitory efficiency order was sodium azide>amine>cyanide>3‐amino‐1,2,4‐triazole(Table 2) [29]. A similar result was found in the other typical monofunctional catalases [30, 31].
\nInhibitors | \nInhibitor concentration (mM) required for 50% inhibition | \n|
---|---|---|
Catalase | \nPeroxidase | \n|
3‐Amino‐1,2,4‐triazole | \n6 | \n30 | \n
Hydroxylamine | \n0.02 | \n1.5 | \n
Sodium azide | \n0.025 | \n0.15 | \n
Potassium cyanide | \n1 | \n1 | \n
Effect of inhibitors on the catalase and peroxidase activity of the catalase‐peroxidase of
3‐Amino‐1,2,4‐triazole (aminotriazole, ATZ) as a noncompetitive catalase‐specific inhibitor is used to study on physiological changes in organisms [32]. Aminotriazole could combine catalase‐H2O2 compound I, thus results in loss of enzymatic activity. In alcohol‐induced liver injury, catalase plays a dual role. On the one hand, catalase could scavenge hydrogen peroxide originated from alcohol to water, but on the other hand, catalase decomposes alcohol that might be harmful to liver, some research studies [33] show that catalase is inhibited by ATZ, which attenuated alcohol‐induced acute liver injury.
\nSalicylic acid acts as an electron donor for the peroxidative cycle of catalase, it is a noncompetitive inhibitor of catalases. It is interesting to note that different CAT salicylic acid exhibits different inhibitory property. CAT1 and CAT2 are two isoenzymes from maize (
The reaction cycles of catalase [
Catalase mainly used in industrial sectors such as textiles, pulp, and paper, their work environment often with high concentration of metal ions. Previous studies have elaborated that catalase can be inhibited by certain metal ions (including Cu2+, Zn2+, and Ag+), a process depends on the metal, concentration, the tissue, and species [38]. Lee et al. [39] compared several divalent metal ions on catalase‐peroxidase (KatG) activity, only the manganese ion revealed some inhibitory effects on the recombinant KatG activity, and EDTA could relieve partly inhibited activity. This implies that manganese may competitively bind to near the heme group and be involved in the enzyme reaction.
\nPhenolic compounds, such as salicylic acid, aspirin, benzoic acid, o‐coumaric acid, and ρ‐hydroxybenzoic acid play a role in the induction of abiotic stress resistance. But only ρ‐hydroxybenzoic acid showed the inhibitory effect on two catalases from maize in a competitive manner, the other compounds were in noncompetitive manner. Weak inhibition by ρ‐hydroxybenzoic acid was also found in both isozymes, only 15 and 9% activity was inhibited, respectively [34].
\nMetformin is a commonly used antidiabetic drug with AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK)‐dependent hypoglycemic activities. A recent study [40] shows that metformin can significantly enhance the activity of catalase. Although metformin bound to CAT byinteracting with hydrogen bonds…., metformin did not affect the expression level of catalase, just affecting its activities, such as Lys449, Val450, and Glu455 residues in murine CAT. The preliminary study indicated that metformin might be a new drug to alleviate oxidative injury and enhance the defense ability of antioxidants.
\nGPX is an important selenium‐containing enzyme which protects cells from lipid peroxide damage and H2O2. GSH‐Px widely existed in the body, there are eight family members: GPX1 is the most abundant selenoperoxidase and is ubiquitously expressed in almost all tissues; GPX2 expression is most prominent in the gastrointestinal tract cytoplasm; GPX3 is greatest expressed in the kidney, and also in various tissues, and is secreted into extracellular fluids as a glycoprotein; GPX4 is the only GPX enzyme that reduces phospholipid hydroperoxides, different with other members, it is not a tetramer, but a monomer; GPX6 was identified as a selenoprotein in the human genome by homology search. GPX1‐4 and GPX6 are selenium‐containing protein, but GPX5 does not contain selenocysteine or Se in active site [41, 42]. More recently, GPX7 (NPGPx) and GPX8 were discovered, but detailed information about these two kinds of enzymes is little up to now [43].
\nMolecular weight of GSH‐PX in human red blood cell was 95,000 Da and that in bovine red blood cell was 83,000 Da, and they are all tetrameric selenoenzyme. A typical crystal structure of human glutathione peroxidase (2I3Y) is shown in Figure 4.
\nGSH‐PX contains one selenocysteine per subunit and selenocysteine plays an important role in catalyst degradation of lipid peroxide, a widely accepted mechanism was proposed as follow:\n
Three‐dimensional structure of human glutathione peroxidase.
There are approximate 25 selenoproteins in humans, and selenium is an essential cofactor for these proteins, including the glutathione peroxidases. There is a complex relationship among utilization of selenium, GPX activity, and methylation. GPX synthesis utilizes selenium via selenocysteine and homocysteine is derived from
dl‐Alpha‐tocopherol (vitamin E) also is an antioxidant, but it is different from selenium acting on GPX directly, vitamin E plays its antioxidant function through combining free radical, named “chain‐breaking reaction.” Vitamin E was considered to be the first line of defense against lipid peroxidation and free oxygen radicals that might suppress the enzymes, such as GPX. It seems that the sensitivity of GPXs was various. In vitamin E‐deficient rat brain microsomes, phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase activity was significantly decreased but GPX activity was not affected. And in liver homogenate, phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase activity was approximately 20 times lower than that of GPX [47].
\nGPX can combine to an electrophilic compound that might result in loss of its activity. More and more evidence shows that upregulation of the GPX system may serve to protect cancer cells from oxidative stress caused by anticancer drugs, thus block GPX that may help to treat cancer disease. A number of inhibitors of GPXs have been reported to use as therapeutics, such as thiol‐containing inhibitors that bind covalently to a selenium atom in the active site [48], nonthiol inhibitors misonidazole [49]. However, thiols tend to combine ubiquitous multivalent metal ions and are easily oxidized, thus leading to nonspecific interactions with proteins. Recently, acylhydrazones have been reported as potential inhibitors of bovine glutathione peroxidase [50]. These inhibitors overcome the disadvantages of thiol‐containing inhibitors, but the efficiency needs to be further improved.
\nd‐Penicillamine is a drug to chelate metals in tissue and promotes its excretion in the urine. d‐Penicillamine hydrochloride could competitively inhibit GSH‐PX, that means the concentration of hydrogen peroxide and reduced glutathione were inversely proportion [51].
\nl‐penicillamine hydantoin is an analogue of glutathione, but the acting configuration is different from d‐penicillamine hydrochloride. After treated with l‐penicillamine hydantoin, GPX activity was inhibited whatever the peroxide (H2O2, terl‐butyl hydroperoxide orcumene hydroperoxide) used as substrate of the reaction. In the presence of 100 μM l‐penicillamine hydantoin, the enzyme reactions catalyzed by glutathione peroxidase were inhibited, but neither glutathione transferases, nor glutathione reductase were affected by l‐penicillamine hydantoin [52].
\ndl‐Buthionine‐[
Gold(I) thioglucose in the presence excess of glutathione (GSH) leads to strong and reversible inhibition of selenium‐GPXs. Gold(I) could competitively combine in reduced form of selenocysteine in active sites, and gold(I) forms a dead‐end complex with glutathione peroxidase resulting in suppression of GPXs. So glutathione peroxidase could be a target of gold drugs that used in the treatment of disease caused by excessive activity of GPXs, such as rheumatoid arthritis [55].
\nTo our knowledge, most literature studies on enhancing GPXs activity were about how to regulate expression of GPXs, study on the activator by acting the enzyme directly was few and most of them are GPX‐mimetic compounds.
\nFor some GPX mimetics, its activity can be enhanced by electron‐donating. naphthalene
This work was supported by grants from the Key project of Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2014A030311010), Guangdong Province Modern Agro-industry Technology Research System (2016LM1080)
\nUser Experience [UX] and User Interface [UI] are major components of any modern software application where interaction with a human is required. While the term UI historically referred to the basic elements that provide input-output functionality [1], such as keyboards, line-printers and visual display units, today, it has broadened to also encompasses elements of visual design including layouts, kinds of prompts/dialog-boxes, fonts/language of text as well as the use of colours and images. There are already voice activated smart or intelligent systems and platforms where the user interface is completely based on audible speech or sound for both input and output.
The UX has been viewed as distinct from the UI and refers to the perception by end-users of the attractiveness and suitability of the software for its intended purpose. In most cases, measurable UX is based on an overall aggregation of both non-abstract and abstract quantities that also include the UI, software functionality and even its response speed. Today, the UX is of paramount importance for any software or (tool) that require user interactions.
Mixed Reality (MR) environments combine both real and virtual (e.g computer generated) objects for presentation within single displays. MR environments have been classified based on the ratio of real to virtual objects within it. Completely virtual reality (VR) environments exists at one end of the continuum while completely real, or physical environments are at the opposite end. In between both ends, the continuum defines arbitrary combinations of both real and virtual objects. When there are more virtual elements than real ones, the environment is classified as Augmented Virtuality (AV) while when there are more real objects than virtual ones, it is known as Augmented Reality (AR) [2].
The AR, AV and VR mixed reality environments can be implemented or displayed using a wide variety of hardware devices that include projectors, visual display units or monitors as well as large wall-sized displays or specialized head mounted displays [3]. This work, however focuses on the display and use of these MR environments on mobile devices, where mobile devices are limited to portable consumer grade ICT devices such as smart-phones/tablets and their associated peripherals such as head or chest mounting units, glasses and watches. That is, we focus on commodity mobile devices such as smart-phones and tablets not including portable or custom (expensive) hardware and equipment [4].
The evolution of UI and UX in MR environments has been heavily influenced by available technology. For example, the MR applications in the 1960s were limited to using wire-frame displays [5]. UX is of particular interest to MR environments as they can easily combine the advantages of both virtual-environments and seamless collaboration [6].
This rest of this chapter provides some background literature review pertinent to the evolution of UI and UX in mobile MR environments, UI/UX frameworks, the unique challenges of the mobile MR environments.
Figure 1 presents a redrawing of the Reality Virtuality (RV) continuum first proposed by Milgram and Kishino.
Redrawn RV contimuum.
This RV continuum was formulated on a 3-dimensional (3D) taxonomy that incorporated the Extent of real-World Knowledge (EWK), Reproduction Fidelity (RF) and the Extent of Presence Metaphor (EPM) [7]. All of which are fundamental to both UI and UX, that is, increasing EWK translates to a better ability to modelling the real-world (which leads to better UI). Similarly, with increasing RF, real and virtual content becomes more and more indistinguishable (which could to a better UX), and with increasing EPM users’ interactions become more natural or better aligned with real environments (which suggests better UX) [8].
Skarbez et al argue that this RV continuum is limited as it describes content only in relation to realism and therefore lacks coherence in the end users’ experience or UX [8]. They state that the “mediating” technology, content conveyed, and resulting impact must be considered together to adequately describe MR experiences”. Equally pertinent is that the RV continuum was formulated explicitly on visual experiences and visual hardware. Due to rapid advances in hardware and software MR environments are no longer confined to just visually synthesized displays alone but now include experiences that facilitate not only haptic and auditory experiences, with at least exploratory iterations in computer-generated stimuli for all the exteroceptive senses, and it is through interactions with the 5 exteroceptive senses (sight, sound, touch, smell and taste) that users experience MR environments [8].
Despite this limitation, the RV continuum remains a relevant framework for MR research and development today. Indeed for modern applications, there is a need to evolve from more passive or traditional modes of HCI to UI that facilitate multi-sensorial modalities allowing for interactions in virtual worlds, where an interaction modality can be defined as a tangible communication mode [9]. Computer UI aim to enhance interactions with computing systems through various interfaces. Historically UI have evolved from batch interface (punched cards) to command-line user interface, graphical user interface (GUI), web-based user interface (WUI), a subclass of GUI, and recently to touch screens that accept inputs at the touch of a stylus or finger [10], Further evolutions in UI can be classified under the broad category of Post-WIMP UI [11, 12, 13], or next generation user interfaces [2]. Such UI employ a variety of novel interaction devices and techniques targeting multi-platform and multi-modal UI that have evolved to address user interactions and experiences in 3-D MR environments, including VR and AR [14], with a need for greater responsiveness, immediacy in feedback and realism within immersive 3-D environments. Examples of NGUI include tangible user interface (TUI), organic user interface OUI, reality-based interface (RBI) and smart material interface (SMI) [15].
Traditional UI were predicated on the narrow scope of usability, where cognitive load was reduced, as opposed to users’ overall experiences [16]. An early paradigmatic model, that is still ubiquitous, is the window, icon, menu, pointer (WIMP) GUI, facilitated by the introduction of the point and click mouse. The WIMP GUI model developed in the 1980s using interfaces from the computer-as-tool paradigm where a 2-dimensional workspace is presented with direct manipulation of objects in a serial nature [17]. Although the WIMP GUI was adapted and popularised by Macintosh in the 1980’s it is still the most dominant type of GUI in modern desktop computers [11]. Reasons for the ubiquity of this GUI include its’ effectiveness in facilitating common office tasks [11]. Other advantages are its ease of use due in part to exploitation of muscle memory and image recognition and commonality across applications with widespread accessibility for a range of users, facilitating the creation of a de facto standard [12]. With the introduction of WIMP interactions with computing hit the mainstream. Before this time van Dam [13] argues that there were two previous generations of user interfaces, placing WIMP in the third generation of UI. UI at this time were optimised to the available hardware, although it is argued that the first generation in the 1950s and 1960s were not UI in the strict sense as there was no interaction with users per se as computers were used in batch mode with punched-card inputs and line-printer output. Between the 1960s and 1980s van Dam [13] highlights the evolution of the second generation of UI, in which for the first-time users could interact with computing systems by typing in parameter defined commands on mechanical alphanumeric displays using timesharing on mainframes and microcomputers. Such systems were founded on operating systems such as DOS and UNIX, with command line shells and device drivers. In the DOS OS the device driver has responsibility for input/output operations, and uses blocks, with their own address, to store information [18] in disks. In this way the user controls all system software through the DOS UI that allows for graphical displays on the monitor. DOS was a forerunner to the GUI and is a command line interface (CLI) system. Key considerations of earlier iterations of UI were responsiveness and immediate feedback to user inputs, increasing functionality through human computer interactions [HCI], where functionality was the key paradigm However WIMP UI have several limitations. As the complexity increases, with additional icons and widgets added, the UI becomes more cumbersome and harder to use, with the serialised nature of the interface separating the user from the perceptions of real time working [11] and preventing parallel inputting [19]. In addition, the UI is predicated on a 2-D paradigm, with 2-D input devices and desktop metaphor and do not innately transpose into 3-D environments [11]. Such limitations have become more pronounced. Evolutions in processing and graphical processors, leading to advancements in software and hardware and iterations in designing and development of more appropriate UI have taken place, with developments in gaming having a major input. With the increasingly widespread proliferation of gaming – from handheld to desktop and online collaborative platforms utilising immersive 3-D worlds, HCI had to evolve in which the overall concept of UX became more of a consideration. As Bonnardel [20] argues as UI evolve in response to e.g., games and 3-D environments novel techniques must be used that are future focused. Equally as importantly such UI need to go beyond functionality and elicit feelings of fun and enjoyments for users [21], highlighting the significance of the overall UX, which is enhanced through increased emotional investment, or affective perceptions [22, 23, 24]. As Tractinsky et al. [23] report correlations exist between users’ perceptions of the aesthetics of the HCI system and its usability. Jakubowski [25] sums this up when stating that the most important aspect of HCI is the influence of a good UX experience on the user productivity. McCarthy and Wright [26] define UX as a qualitative experience while interacting with products. The logical argument being that as users’ qualitative experiences increase, through more immersive, multi-modal and realistic UI, HCI improve, whether they be purely functional, for enjoyment or for educational purposes. Early gaming experience, such as Pong and Space Invaders came to the forefront in the 1970s. As Sahay et al. [27] report, although these early gaming iterations, like all games have the ability to engage people, due to a lack of processing power for example, they lacked features, such as shading, texture, realism and dimensionality, with unattractive and unrealistic graphics. With improvements in software and hardware not only has gaming made huge strides with graphics becoming more realistic, but modern gaming also now incorporates artificial intelligence (AI), Evolutionary advances in portability, range of consoles, including mobile, and network-based gaming [27] has culminated in modern online games, with more responsive controllers that take place in virtual environments with the ability to compete against remote opponents [28]. This in turn has increased the appeal of gaming through immersion. As Jennett et al [28] argue not only does immersion transcend the idea of flow, cognitive absorption [CA] and presence, it is a measure of engagement, engrossment and total immersion, as also reported by Brown and Cairns [29]. Csikszentmihalyi [30] argues that flow happens when individuals are completely engrossed in an activity to the detriment of other things. Thus, the concept of immersion involves losing track of time and cognisance of the real world, involvement and becoming lost in the game, or virtual environment, and is dependent on a good gaming experiences [28]. Thus, the overall UX is enhanced, mediated through more intuitive, interactive, realistic, multi-modal and responsive UI. As Brown and Cairns [29] state “engagement, and therefore enjoyment through immersion, is not possible if there are usability and control problems. Essentially there needs to be an invisibility of the controls for total immersion to take place.” In other words, for enhanced UX, UI need to evolve to become unobtrusive, intuitive to use and multi-sensorial, so that UI are subsumed within the interactive experience. Such advances in UI and increased UX are also apposite to interactions with MR environments.
Although most applications still try to cope with a WIMP-style user interface and two-dimensional input, devices with multiple degrees of freedom are still rare [11]. However with the growth in 3-D applications and MR environments UI are evolving to meet the needs of users interacting with such environments. The overriding difference is that in MR environments the UI has to shift away from virtual interfaces designed to mediate interactions with computer systems to interfaces that combine both real and virtual environments and objects, dispersed at any point along the MR continuum. The ultimate aim is seamless interaction in the same environment. In this way UI in MR environments need to be able to integrate with a real environment where static and dynamic information streams are combined at runtime [2]. Billinghurst et al. [31] sum this up when stating that “AR interfaces are designed to enhance interactions in the real world.” UI designed to work within 3 dimensions contain greater complexity and need to be multi-modal and sensorial in nature. They require more degrees of freedom (DOF) and greater user efficiency due to the greater number of non-serial tasks, involving parallelism [11]. Additionally, due to the wide range of MR environments and possible applications more interactions between users and the environments are needed and a wider range of UI are needed. As Bowman et al. [32] state performance of UI in such environments is task and environment dependent with specific UI, targeted at displays that may be fully immersive or semi-immersive, being needed. Such UI are dependent on ergonomics and the target device with input/ output interactions in MR interfaces trending towards increasing naturalness becoming more intuitive and seamless. Complexities in UI applicable to MR and 3-D environments are due to several factors. These include the range of applicable input devices, which may be discrete, continuous or a hybrid of both, alongside the navigational options potentially available, ranging from more general exploration of such environments to searching for specific locations as well as more precise manoeuvring [32]. In addition, interfaces in such environments need to allow for the ability to interact with, and manipulate, objects in such environments. This can involve zooming and rotation with direct user control, physical control and/or virtual control [33]. One central feature of MR UI is the integration with a real environment. The application requires information about objects and spaces, whose geometry and behavior is not under the control of the designer but must be acquired from the real environment. Real objects can be subject to real-world manipulation [e.g., in a maintenance task] or external forces. Therefore, it must be possible to track state changes in the environment. In practice the “real world” model of a mixed reality application often consists of a combination of static information [e.g., geometry of the environment that is assumed to be fixed] and dynamic information [e.g. position and orientation information for the user and central objects] that is acquired by sensors at runtime. Sherman and Craig [33] describe direct user control as mimicking real world interaction, physical control that uses real devices and virtual control using virtual devices [11]. All these factors point to the fact that UI applicable to MR environments, unlike WIMP interfaces, need high bandwidth as well as efficient processors. In addition, continuous sampling and processing, probabilistic decoding and recognition that can unify input from parallel channels through multi-modal interfaces are needed [12]. As Van Dam [12] describes UI in MR environments need to facilitate body part tracking, gesture and speech recognition as well as haptic force input and feedback devices. Sub-subsections can also be used throughout the manuscript.
Due to the small screen size, lack of memory, low to moderate processing power, smaller and fewer buttons and limited battery power, alongside the array of sensors, UI for mobile devices have numerous constraints, which can affect overall levels of UX. Subramanya and Li [33] classify these types of constraints as device related constraints with user related constraints including limited attention spans affected by mobility, change in locations and contexts and users’ idiosyncrasies. Chong et al. [34] argue the UI and mobile device size are one of the most significant factors in mobile device design and report on the use of a single-layer touch screen UI as opposed to the more conventional multi-layer UI, with promising results in increasing overall UX. The use of low-level computer languages, termed code optimization [34] also helps in reducing strains on available memory, as does the use of touchscreen UI, as opposed to mouse based and command-based UI topologies. This use of low-level language and single-layer UI can potentially overcome issues due to the noted complexities involved in developing applications and UI across various mobile platforms. Such mobile platforms can be incompatible, alongside the variety of programming languages and hardware differences as reported in [35]. Touchscreen UI obviate the need for physical keyboards, thereby maximising available screen sizes whilst at the same time increasing mobility with concomitant reductions in device sizes, as argued in [34]. Touchscreen UI are also aesthetically more pleasing and intuitive to use, thereby potentially facilitating increased UX. As Dunlop and Brewer [36] report with the increasing proliferation and popularity of mobile devices issues of widening access to powerful computing services and resources through the UI need to be overcome when designing UI with good UX. In addition, alongside the small visual displays mobile devices have had poor interaction facilities, including audio and limited input/output (I/O) [36] which create challenges posed by mobile device UI, which are exacerbated by network access issues. However, with advances in mobile device software and hardware leading to increased performance, effective UI designs have and are being proposed and developed. As Choi [37] report such UI can be classified into hardware and vision based, with vision-based UI receiving more focus due to not needing extra technical equipment or physical sensors. Such extra equipment may be inconvenient and relatively inaccurate [37], potentially leading to less well perceived UX due to the need to interact with additional layers, increasing the complexity of the HCI.
Skarbez et al. [8] have suggested or proposed a revised RV continumm as shown in Figure 2, based on the idea that MR environments do not affect the interoceptive senses, can be termed as “external” MR environments. It is only when technology can also stimulate internal senses that virtual environments can be separate from the MR continuum, This revised continuum introduces a discontinuity within VR environments. That is, External Virtual Reality (EVR) environments, next to AV environments and the discontinuity before a ‘Matrix-like’ VR environment at the extremity. This allows the continuum to take cognisance of VR environments that focus on stimulations of the interoceptive senses, while external virtual reality environments are remain MR environments. Note, in the revised RV continuum, the EVR is equivalent to the "Virtual Environment" extremity in Figure 1 and is still part of the MR environment.
Revised RV contimuum.
Skarbez et al consider any form of technology-mediated reality as MR [8]. This is comprehensible when mediated reality encompasses users’ interactions with the world around them, through the use of technology as an extension of users’ minds and bodies [38]. Such arguments expand on MR experiences as going beyond just visual interactions [7]. This is implicit when Paradiso and Landay [38] define extended reality (XR) as a MR environment that involves the union between sensor/actuator networks and shared online virtual worlds. To take account of the interaction between sensor networks and virtual worlds and how a user experiences them, Skarbez et al have re-defined MR as an environment “in which real world and virtual world objects and stimuli are presented together within a single percept,” where different senses, not just sight, may be affected.
As van Dam [12] argues evolutions in UI need to match human perceptual, cognitive, manipulative and social abilities. At the same time interactions need to be as seamless and natural as possible, thereby increasing overall UX. What these evolutionary advancements perhaps highlight, concomitant with advancements in gaming and 3-D MR environments, is that an overall paradigm shift has, and is occurring, from UI that can be viewed as purely functional and non-interactive, such as line printers and earlier iterations of Visual Display Units (VDU) to Graphics Processing Units (GPU) and onto more encompassing, immersive and interactive UI, in which UX is of greater importance. In simple terms non-interactive and more functional UI, that may not have such a high degree of UX, involve using and displaying texts and images as labels, that provide contextual information about objects, images etc., In contract interactive UI, where UX is more of an important paradigm, include buttons, toggles, sliders and other components that facilitate interactions with UI tools, such as icons on touch screens. Evolutionary UI inputs have been aimed at increasing productivity and efficiency through increased interaction, starting with the mouse developed by Douglas Engelbart in 1964. The mouse allowed for greater computer screen interaction in 2-D worlds. Since then, to input UI devices have evolved from the mouse, in line with advancements in gaming and 3-D MR environments, in which improvements in UX are paramount, to include game controllers, motion controllers, hand tracking devices to the Litho controller in 2018 [39]. According to Hillman [39] the Litho controller is an innovative solution that may be able to address shortcomings in hand input or traditional controllers helping with hand fatigue and increasing haptic feedback.
The beginnings of HCI in the late 1950s and early 1960s involved “batch processing” in which programs and data were read from cards or tape (paper or magnetic) until termination with a printed output, via line printers. VDUs superseded such operations, which were still restricted to scrolling commands and responses one line at a time [40]. Research carried out by Ivan Sutherland in the early 1960s led to the development of more powerful computing systems and graphics, with developments in GPU, or graphics cards, as well as developments and evolution in object-oriented programming concepts [41]. Object oriented programming is the fundamental paradigm in the C# computer programming language and focuses on data objects instead of functions and logic, as well as providing the inspiration for the development of Object-Oriented User Experience (OOUX), that classifies objects that users interact with first, before assigning actions to such objects [41]. This seems particularly apposite for MR environments and UI. As Hillman [41] argues OOUX allows for better interaction with spatial 3-D worlds. GPU developments have facilitated accelerations in graphical rendering with many pieces of data being processed simultaneously, leading to more powerful and faster computers. Such evolutionary developments led to the creation of the Xerox Alto in 1973. Although too expensive for widespread use, the Alto supported the use of GUI, as opposed to prototypes [42], as well as being the precursor for evolutionary advancements in gaming and ultimately developments in 3-D immersive MR environments. The emergence of GUI was seen as a disruptive revolution in HCI, being more advantageous and attractive in the early iterations to new users. It was not until 1985, with the release of the Apple Mac, that GUI started to be seen as being successful, and even more importantly with the successful release of Windows 3.0 in 1990 were GUI more widely accepted by government agencies and businesses who controlled research funding [40]. Also, during the late 1960s the first computer aided design [CAD] systems were promulgated with the development of 2-D and 3-D wireframe graphics, with all CAD systems now being based on a windows – menu interface with 3-D models [43]. Wireframe graphics map models, images and objects in 3-D, comprising vertices and edges [44] using triaxial [x,y,z] cartesian coordinates, where the z coordinate represents the height. Wireframe graphics allow for simplicity in presentation and flexibility in the use of colour [45]. Vertices are a collection of the 3-D coordinates connected together into triangles which can contain information such as colours, textures and directions [46], which are displayed through rendering and shading. Evolutions and developments in rendering and shading have further enhanced graphics and GUI. Rendering is the process of generating images and shaders are programmes that take meshes and textures etc. as inputs to generate the outputted image [47]. Figure 3 illustrates how rendering works in Unity.
The rendering workflow.
Numerous frameworks have been proposed for designing and developing UI taking into account UX. Indeed, with the advent of immersive 3-D MR environments and their concomitant UI, in which UX is an increasingly more important concept, UX has in many cases subsumed UI as part of the design process and framework. In this way a more holistic approach can be taken in which UI and UX are combined into one paradigm, which for the sake of this paper can be termed user experienced interface [UXI]. As Hassenzahl and Tractinsky [48] argue, overall UX is influenced by end users’ internal states, including predispositions, expectations, needs, motivations and emotions; as well as the characteristics of the designed interface, including complexity, purpose, usability and functionality, and; the context within which the interaction occurs, be it the organisational or social setting and meaningfulness of the activity.
The design of the interface, or system, can be conflated with UI, whereas the context in which the interaction occurs can be conflated with immersive experiences in 3-D MR environments, whether that involves mobile devices or not, all encompassed within the overarching UX paradigm. Going a step further Hassenzahl [49] put forward a model for UX design in which users perceive interactions with products in two dimensions: hedonism and pragmatism. The hedonic aspect refers to the users’ interactive experiences and the ability of the system to support what has been termed “be-goals, which correlate more to the enjoyability, and emotions involved with interaction. In contrast the pragmatic aspect refers to the perceived ability of users’ interactions with the system to support “do-goals,” which correlate more to functionality and efficiency domains.
Hillman [39] argues in favour of the importance of frameworks for designing and deploying UX, in regard to MR, or XR, environments and applications. Such frameworks can be enhanced by incorporating integrated development environments [IDE] with built in presets that allow for faster prototyping and iterations. One such appropriate IDE is the Unity 3-D game engine which provides opportunities for developing UX for MR environments. Unity is a software framework, that provides a set of tools for “developers around the world to create rich, interactive, 2-D, 3-D, VR and AR experiences” (Unity public relations fact page, n.d.), negating the need for the construction of virtual spaces from the ground up [50]. Examples of preset built in core functionality includes the AR Foundation package which provides presets and plugins to enable development of immersive AR applications, to mobile devices [both Android and Apple], as well as web based and wearables. This is especially true when having to deal with mobile device considerations, which have been outlined in Section 2.3.
Other important considerations in UX design include the interaction between user needs, whether that is private enterprise or public organisations, and business goals along with the fundamentals, of end users wants and needs, ideation, prototyping, testing and implementation, with iteration [39]. Figure 4 illustrates this principle.
The UX design process.
By evaluating end users’ needs and wants the useability, usefulness and desirability of the UX in MR can be determine. Hillman [39] classifies this as the trinity of UX design and is illustrated in Figure 5.
The Trinity of UX.
To arrive at this trinity and design UX effectively and efficiently it would therefore seem that collaboration with end users is another key facet of any framework, much like the incorporation of an IDE, such as Unity. By doing this a modified UXI framework built on foundations outlined by Hillman’s UX design proces is proposed. This is illustrated in Figure 6.
UXI framework.
In this framework aimed at MR applications, UI and UX are merged into one holistic paradigm: UXI. In the consultation phase a collaborative approach is needed to ascertain end users’ needs and wants, be the desired goal an AR education app or a VR app aimed at private enterprise, alongside usability, more specifically ease of use. This leads to the ideation phase in which the development of MR application will take place using the Unity IDE, with built in packages aimed at the development of MR immersive environments. One such example is the AR Foundations package, which contains monobehaviours for such things as planar surface detection; point clouds; reference points: arbitrary positions and orientations that devices track; light estimation: estimates for average colour temperature and brightness in physical spaces, and world tracking: tracking the device’s position and orientation in physical spaces [51]. Post development, deployment of the MR UXI will take place, after which feedback will be a key factor leading to iteration and continual deployment, with or without changes.
The advances in computing and HCI have led to changes in how humans use and interact with computers and other devices, through evolutionary developments in UI and UX. Latterly mobile devices, such as tablets and especially smart phones have become widespread in their proliferation and use. Such mobile devices now have many of the capabilities of larger computers and laptops, albeit with limitations, such as lack of memory, power and smaller screen sizes. Due to advancements in mobile devices such evolutions in UI and UX have been even more pronounced, leading to the blurring between UI and UX, which can no longer be viewed as discrete and separate. UI have been subsumed into overall concepts of UX and frameworks for development and deployment. This is even more pertinent with the advent of MR 3-D immersive environments and how users interact with them. This occurs in a variety of contexts, with interactions occurring more and more on mobile devices. This paper discussed evolutions in UI and UX and how they merged into UXI and proposed a framework for the development of MR UXI, applicable to mobile devices, as well as other devices in general. The next steps are to use this framework in the development of a MR environment UXI for mobile devices and analyse the results.
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Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing large proportion of maize. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted by maize breeders on the world maize germplasms collection with the aim of improving its nutritive value, particularly protein quality for monogastric animals. This chapter assesses the genetic upgrading of the nutritional quality of maize protein that culminated in the development of a new class of maize known as “Quality Protein Maize (QPM)”. Various studies on the nutritionally improved maize for poultry as well as future challenges confronting maize utilisation in poultry production are highlighted.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Kwabla",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-kwabla-dei",fullName:"Herbert Kwabla Dei"}]},{id:"61570",title:"Adenoviruses and Their Diversity in Poultry",slug:"adenoviruses-and-their-diversity-in-poultry",totalDownloads:1798,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"An investigation into the aetiology of fowl adenovirus strains and their distribution worldwide in populations of poultry flocks industry has been conducted. Pathogenic role of the viruses is not always clear. They can cause latent infection or several diseases and are the reason of economic losses in poultry flock industry. Ubiquity of adenovirus strains was commonly described, and stand-alone pathogenicity for a long time has been disputed. A globally emerging trend of adenoviruses and adenovirus-associated diseases has been increasing from year to year in all over the world. Mainly, type FAdV-4 is responsible for hydropericardium hepatitis syndrome (HP), type FAdV-1 for gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU), and types FAdV-2, 8a, 8b, and 11 seem to be responsible for inclusion body hepatitis (IBH). Defining the spreading of the avian adenovirus strains in different types of fowl profile production, recognising their property and determining their types and molecular characterisation are very important from the epidemiological point of view and are considered as excellent basis for vaccine development and gene therapy implementation. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of FAdVs, including their epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic, detection, and molecular characterisation. This comprehensive review is needed to better understand the latest progress in study of the viruses and prospects regarding disease control and implementation of gene therapy.",book:{id:"6623",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk",authors:[{id:"212649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jowita Samanta",middleName:null,surname:"Niczyporuk",slug:"jowita-samanta-niczyporuk",fullName:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:3227,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Majority of the people in the poorest regions of the tropics rely on poultry production as their major source of protein supply. However, poultry production is hindered by the harsh environmental conditions in this regions therefore, reducing the daily supply of protein. It is believed that understanding heat stress in birds by paying detail attention to the sources of heat generation in a poultry house can help manage the heat stress situation in this region. This text reviews the internal climatic conditions of the poultry houses, how the birds respond to them, and their implications for heat management in poultry production. Thus, it provides pertinent information for guidance on parameters for open poultry houses architectural design that ensures optimum climatic conditions that will alleviate heat stress problem in poultry production in hot and humid climate.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"61583",title:"Domestication and Welfare in Farmed Fish",slug:"domestication-and-welfare-in-farmed-fish",totalDownloads:1688,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The domestication of fish species is still in its early stages when compared to terrestrial animals. The effects of domestication on welfare of farmed fishes are complex to study because fish differ from livestock in genetics, physiology and behaviour, and experience different sensory worlds. Consequently, empathy with fish and understanding of their needs becomes more problematic than with land animals. Additionally, the acknowledgement and study of mental dimensions of fish existence is very recent. We discuss that higher levels of domestication in fish do not necessarily correspond to better welfare because (1) artificial selection by the aquaculture industry is mostly focused on production-related traits such as growth, and this selection process may have unknown negative effects on welfare-related traits; (2) the number of fish species presently farmed (circa 300) is 10-fold higher than land animals, rendering the establishment of standard welfare guidelines extremely complicated; (3) the current paradigm of the Five Freedoms guiding welfare is out-dated and was designed for livestock; and (4) there are still severe knowledge gaps in the biology of farmed fishes, especially in welfare-related traits. The implementation of humane farming systems should integrate industry, science and ethics in an open dialogue in order to produce relevant results.",book:{id:"6053",slug:"animal-domestication",title:"Animal Domestication",fullTitle:"Animal Domestication"},signatures:"João L. 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Besides their adverse health effects and the decrease in production rate, concerns over their importance in public health is still under debate. Decontamination approaches to reduce mycotoxins in feed are technologically diverse and based on chemical, biological and physical strategies. Chemical remediation strategies involve the conversion of mycotoxins via chemical reactions. Biological strategies involve various substances such as plant ingredients, enzymes and microorganisms. Physical processes include sorting, milling, dehulling, cleaning, heating, irradiation or combinational approaches. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 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She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/72210",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"72210"},fullPath:"/profiles/72210",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()