Power and voltage levels of some commercial models of hybrid and electric vehicles.
\r\n\tThe applications are those related to intelligent monitoring activities such as the quality assessment of the environmental matrices through the use of innovative approaches, case studies, best practices with bottom-up approaches, machine learning techniques, systems development (for example algorithms, sensors, etc.) to predict alterations of environmental matrices. The goal is also to be able to protect natural resources by making their use increasingly sustainable.
\r\n\r\n\tContributions related to the development of prototypes and software with an open-source component are very welcome.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is intended to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art in the field of Ambient Intelligence. A format rich in figures, tables, diagrams, and graphical abstracts is strongly encouraged.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-069-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-068-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-070-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3fbf8f0bcc5cdff72aaf0949d7cbc12e",bookSignature:"Dr. Carmine Massarelli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10391.jpg",keywords:"Embedded Systems, Technologies, Sensors, Remote Sensing, Smart Homes, Smart Cities, Integrated Monitoring Techniques, Agroecosystem, Smart Public Spaces, Computer Vision, Image Processing, Open-Source",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 8th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Environmental technologist expert in the development of Smart Technologies for water management and environmental monitoring, characterization, and monitoring of contaminated and degraded sites, integration of spatial data such as standard methodologies, interoperability, spectral data infrastructures.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"315689",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Massarelli",slug:"carmine-massarelli",fullName:"Carmine Massarelli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/315689/images/system/315689.jpg",biography:"Main activities:\n-development of Smart Technologies for water management and environmental monitoring;\n-characterization and monitoring of contaminated and degraded sites;\n-implementation of early warning systems and impact assessment systems also from multitemporal monitoring;\n-integration of spatial data: methodologies, standards, interoperability, spatial data infrastructures;\n-use of open source IT systems for the processing, analysis, and integration of remote sensing data with airborne and satellite sensors for thematic purposes such as characterization, control, and analysis of the territory in support of environmental policies relating to contaminated sites;\n-evaluation of the contamination of environmental matrices with specific tests and chemical analyses;\n-installation of airborne sensors and definition of flight parameters for Earth observation, CASI-1500 hyperspectral and TABI-320 thermal sensors;\n-acquisition of spectral signatures of objects through Fieldspec portable spectroradiometer and creation of databases in SQL language;\n-use of tools such as Ground Penetrating Radar for the advanced investigation of the subsoil with law enforcement agencies.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Even higher power levels are found in high‐end models or in other vehicles such as electric buses. These power levels are usually achieved with high currents rather than voltages. Specifically, most commercial vehicles nowadays work with voltage levels below 400 V, which implies currents of the order of hundreds of amperes. This means that these traction drives could generate magnetic fields of considerable strength when compared to other conventional sources.
\nAt the same time, distances between these magnetic field generators and the passengers are relatively short in most vehicles; for instance, it is usual to place the battery pack as far as possible from the bodywork to minimize the risk of battery damage and its consequences in case of crash; this implies positioning them just under or behind the passenger seats [1]. Consequently, there could be hundreds of amperes circulating some centimeters away from the passengers during strong accelerations or deep regenerative braking.
\nThe combination of high currents and short distances involves some risks due to the presence of strong magnetic fields. These fields can potentially have undesired effects on electric and electronics devices, but also on living beings inside the vehicle, or close to it. The first effects are known as electromagnetic interference (EMI) and are analyzed within the discipline of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), whose main goal is to ensure proper operation of operational equipment in a common electromagnetic environment. This is usually done by limiting or conditioning the electromagnetic fields (EMFs) emitted by each device, but mostly by immunizing them so that they are not affected by EMI coming from the rest of the devices.
\nThe second effects are named electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and belong to the field known as bioelectromagnetism or bioelectromagnetics, which studies all kinds of interactions between EMFs and biological systems. EMR is usually classified into ionizing and nonionizing radiation, depending on its capability to ionize atoms and therefore to break chemical bonds. This is only possible if the radiation carries a high amount of energy, and hence ionizing capability is directly associated with wavelength and thus with frequency. The boundary between nonionizing and ionizing EMR is located in the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum. In this sense, all the radiation emitted by an electric vehicle is nonionizing.
\nThe relationship between nonionizing EMR and human health has been studied for decades. In 1996, the World Health Organization (WHO) established the International EMF Project to assess the scientific evidence of possible health effects of low‐frequency EMR (from 0 to 300 GHz), encouraging focused research to fill important gaps in knowledge and the development of internationally acceptable standards limiting EMF exposure [2]. At present, some possible consequences of low‐frequency EMF exposure are still Unclear. Namely health effects caused by long‐term exposure (such as cancer or neurodegenerative disorders) are mentioned in the literature, although conclusive results have not been obtained. Many long‐term studies have been described as questionable and of low repeatability. Moreover, it could be argued that long‐term effects are impossible to determine with certainty, since they take years or even decades to appear. Hence, long‐term consequences are a source of discussion within the scientific community.
\nOn the other hand, short‐term nonionizing effects are well established, and their mechanisms are well known. These biological effects occur as soon as the exposure begins, and they disappear when it ceases, or shortly after. They are caused by extremely strong low‐frequency (up to a few hundred kHz) and strong medium‐frequency EMFs (radio waves and microwaves up to 300 GHz), and thus they are also known as acute effects. They may be classified into two main groups: electrostimulant effects and thermal effects. The former are a consequence of the coupling between low‐frequency fields and living matter, an example of this would be induced currents in some organic tissues generated by an external magnetic field. The latter are due to energy exchange between medium‐frequency fields and biological tissues, which produces a temperature increase in those body parts affected. Thermal effects are usually negligible for field frequencies below 100 kHz, but become increasingly significant as frequency grows. Current standards, guidelines, and recommendations regarding maximum exposure values are developed considering these acute effects.
\nThis chapter is intended to introduce the reader to the topic of magnetic field exposure in electric vehicles (EVs). For further information, a considerable number of references are provided at the end. The chapter is divided into different sections as follows:\n
Section 2, Problem description, describes the main sources of magnetic field within an EV and the corresponding properties of those fields.
Section 3, Prevention guidelines and standards, presents the two most accepted criteria for limiting magnetic field exposure.
Section 4, State of the art, summarizes the most relevant studies published to date about magnetic field exposure in electric vehicles, as well as their main conclusions.
Section 5, Design guidelines, lists some design modifications and considerations that can help improve the safety on an EV from the EMR point of view.
Section 6, Discussion, presents some arguable ideas about magnetic field exposure in EVs.
Electric vehicles are one of the most relevant applications in which power devices and general public share a common space. Other well‐known precedents are power lines close to houses or buildings, electric trains and trams, and household appliances, to cite a few examples. However, the specific characteristics of EVs could make this issue particularly worrying from the point of view of magnetic field exposure. The combination of high current levels, short average distances between equipment and passengers, and long exposure duration is especially detrimental in this application.
\nAs mentioned in the “Introduction” section, power levels in electric vehicles are of the order of tens of kW, while voltage levels rarely exceed 600 V, as shown in Table 1. This implies that current levels usually reach hundreds of amperes. There are not many applications in which people are close to wires or devices carrying such high currents. Besides, the present trend in EVs nowadays consists in reducing voltage levels as much as possible, which implies even higher currents. Paradoxically, lower voltages imply improved safety in case of short circuit or electrocution, but also reduced safety from the point of view of magnetic field exposure.
\nSecond, distances between the traction drive and the passengers are usually short. For a typical electric car, values range from 0.2 to 3.0 m depending on the location of all the power devices and power cables. In this sense, the topology and the configuration of the vehicle (i.e., how the power devices are located within the available space) are particularly relevant:\n
For instance, there are some differences between those vehicles that add a DC‐DC converter connecting the batteries and the inverter as those who do not (see Figure 1). Without such DC‐DC, the battery must have enough voltage for the inverter to drive the electrical machine in every required operating point (torque‐speed). This is usually done reaching a compromise between battery voltage, which should not be too high (using too many cells in series increase balancing and safety requirements) and machine voltage, which should not be too low (lower voltages imply higher currents and lower number of turns in the windings). In general, adding a DC‐DC allows for higher voltages in the drive, which improves magnetic field exposure but could worsen electric field exposure. However, in most cases the DC‐DC aims to reduce battery voltage, and thus battery current increases. Hence, if the batteries are placed close to the passengers, they could suffer from higher magnetic fields.
There are also some differences between pure electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. The former have simpler traction systems, with fewer devices and mechanisms, which can be easily accommodated within the available space. On the other hand, the power train of the latter comprises more equipment, and thus they are more prone to suffer from room issues. Having more flexibility to distribute the power devices within the vehicle is always a good thing, and magnetic field exposure is another aspect that benefits from it, since certain parts can be moved away from the passengers. Nevertheless, pure electric vehicles use more electric power than their counterparts. Considering that voltage levels are similar (see Table 1), this means that pure EVs use higher currents and thus they generate stronger magnetic fields. In general, it could be expected that the second factor (stronger fields) weighs more than the first one (longer distances), so that pure EVs should imply higher exposure levels than hybrid vehicles.
Finally, the type of drive also has some influence over passenger field exposure, namely those vehicles with rear‐wheel drives usually place most of the traction equipment (i.e., the electrical machine and the inverter) in the rear part of the vehicle, while front‐wheel vehicles place it in the front part. As cars are given aerodynamic shapes to minimize aerodynamic drag, the front part is usually longer than the rear part, and distances between the front wheels and the front seats are usually longer than those between the rear wheels and the rear seats, as shown by the two examples in Figure 2. This means that vehicles with front‐wheel drives will usually have longer distances between these power devices and the closest passengers.
Third, regarding the duration of the exposure, it is important to note that general public is subject to electromagnetic fields generated by EVs for a considerable amount of time, significantly longer than other daily exposures such as household appliances. From the results presented in [5, 6], it can be concluded that European citizens spend an average of 1 h and 25 min per working day driving their cars. Even if an appreciable part of that time is spent with the vehicle stopped (e.g., traffic lights or traffic jams), situation in which magnetic fields should be minimum, the duration of the exposure is still rather long. In the United States of America, these average times are probably even longer, up to 2 hours in average. It is important to note here that, in the case of low‐frequency magnetic fields and health effects, it is not necessary to take exposure duration into account at the moment, since there is no scientific proof of any health consequences due to this type of exposure.
\nModel | \nType | \nDrive | \nPower level | \nVoltage level | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Mitsubishi i‐MiEV | \n||||
Peugeot iOn | \nBEV | \nRear wheel | \n49 kW | \n400 VDC | \n
Citroën C‐Zero | \n||||
Nissan LEAF | \nBEV | \nFront wheel | \n80 kW | \n400 VDC | \n
BMW i3 | \nBEV | \nRear wheel | \n125 kW | \n500 VDC | \n
Tesla model S | \nBEV | \nRear wheel | \n235 kW | \n650 VDC | \n
Toyota Prius (3rd gen.) | \nHV | \nFront wheel | \n74 kW | \n400 VDC | \n
Toyota Prius PHV | \nPHV | \nFront wheel | \n60 kW | \n350 VDC | \n
Chevrolet Volt | \nPHV | \nFront wheel | \n55 kW (x2) | \n400 VDC | \n
Power and voltage levels of some commercial models of hybrid and electric vehicles.
BEV = battery electric vehicle; HV = hybrid vehicle; PHV = plug‐in hybrid vehicle.
(a) Most common topology in electric cars nowadays. (b) Alternative topology, in which a DC‐DC converter is added between the batteries and the inverter.
Schematics of two well‐known pure EVs, showing the position of the main power devices: batteries, inverter, and electrical machine. (a) Rear‐wheel drive and (b) front‐wheel drive. Original images extracted from [3, 4] and modified by the authors.
In summary, magnetic fields in EVs could become an issue from the point of view of human health due to a combination of three factors: average and peak current levels, short distances between field generators and the passengers, and lengthy exposures.
\nUnder static electromagnetic conditions, electric fields basically depend on the voltage levels and on the distances between the passenger and the corresponding power equipment (Coulomb’s law). Similarly, magnetic fields depend on the current levels and on that same distances (Biot‐Savart law). In other words, when these physical magnitudes do not change over time, both fields are not coupled and they can be studied separately.
\nHowever, most electrical systems, EVs included, are characterized by time‐varying electric magnitudes. In the most general case, and according to Maxwell’s equations, both fields are coupled and their dependence with respect to variables such as voltages and currents is much more complex than those given by Coulomb and Biot‐Savart laws. Fortunately, it is not necessary to work with Maxwell’s equations in many cases, in which quasistatic approximations are applicable. Specifically, when the frequencies of the electromagnetic phenomena are low—so that propagation speed can be considered infinite [7]—a quasistatic model can be used, which provides an intermediate solution between the most general dynamic case (Maxwell’s equations) and the purely static case (Coulomb and Biot‐Savart laws). In this sense, a quasistatic system evolves from one state to another as if it was a static system [8].
\nDepending on the particular quasistatic model employed (each variant represents a different approximation of Maxwell’s equations), the simplifications adopted will vary. In this particular case, Darwin’s model is used, which considers both capacitive and inductive effects and which incorporates magnetic field contribution to total electric field (Faraday’s law) [8]. In Darwin’s model, Biot‐Savart law is directly applicable, the only difference being that currents and magnetic fields are time‐varying variables. However, Coulomb’s law must be extended to account for magnetic induction. In other words, magnetic fields still depend on currents and distances, but also on time, while electric fields depend on voltages, distances, time, and on magnetic fields.
\nElectric vehicles constitute an application in which quasistatic models are appropriate, since frequencies are generally low. There are basically two types of frequencies in an electrical drive, such as those propelling EVs:\n
Fundamental frequencies: These are the lowest frequencies in the system, and they are related to the operating point of the drive. For example, in a steady‐state situation, fundamental frequency would be roughly 0 Hz (DC) for the battery current and 100 Hz for a 2000‐rpm 50 Hz synchronous machine working at 4000 rpm in the flux‐weakening region. During transients, some of these fundamental frequencies will show harmonic content. One example of this is power peaks in the batteries, which involve low‐frequency harmonics in battery current. In general, fundamental frequencies will be very low, of the order of hundreds of Hertz at most. However, the absence of steady state in some situations, such as urban driving, implies a wide‐frequency spectrum.
Switching frequencies: These frequency values and their corresponding harmonic components are given by the operation of power semiconductors such as insulated‐gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and diodes. They are defined by many factors, starting with the modulation technique (hysteresis band, pulse width modulation (PWM), space vector modulation (SVM), direct torque control (DTC), etc.), and also on the inductance value of the corresponding filters. For those which use variable‐switching frequency, its values will depend on the operating point as well.
More importantly, switching frequencies change significantly with power electronics technology. For instance, there is a huge difference between conventional IGBTs, fast IGBTs, and silicon carbide (SiC) metal‐oxide‐semiconductor field‐effect transistors (MOSFETs). The former usually work at frequencies ranging from 2 to 20 kHz. Fast IGBTs can reach up to 50 kHz in many applications, while SiC MOSFETs are already exceeding frequencies over 150 kHz. Given the voltage levels usually employed in commercial EVs, there is no way to exclude any of the above three major technologies, so all of them are eligible for this application.
In summary, magnetic field frequencies can change considerably from one vehicle to another. According to current EV designs, and considering the technologies implemented in them (conventional IGBTs, and synchronous or asynchronous machines), it seems reasonable to expect fundamental and switching frequencies up to 10 kHz, with relevant harmonic components up to 300 kHz. These values are classified as “low and extremely low frequencies” from the point of view of electromagnetic exposure. Be that as it may, electromagnetic fields generated by EVs present a relatively wide‐frequency spectrum, from 0 Hz to hundreds of kHz.
\nThere are many magnetic field generators in a vehicle, besides the traction drive itself. Examples present not only in EVs but also in conventional ICE‐based vehicles are other power equipment such as the air‐conditioning system, but also magnetized steel‐belted tires, which are one of the main sources of extremely low‐frequency magnetic fields in conventional vehicles. This unintentional magnetization is a consequence of the manufacturing process, and the result is a magnetic field whose frequency depends on the vehicle speed, ranging from 0 to 20 Hz [9, 10]. This field is of considerable strength but attenuates very quickly as distance increases. Hence, maximum exposure values usually take place in the area of the feet [11, 12]. According to some authors, this source of magnetic field is negligible when considering magnetic field exposure inside hybrid and electric cars [13], but this point is not completely clear.
\nNonetheless, all magnetic field generators contribute to overall magnetic field exposure, and therefore should be included in EMR studies. It is important to state here that magnetic field exposure must be assessed globally (total magnetic field), and not individually (magnetic field generated by each device or piece of equipment). See Section 3.1 for further information and corresponding references about exposure assessment.
\nThere are other factors that may influence magnetic field exposure in a positive way. For instance, the results presented in Ref. [14] suggest that the car body shell could behave as a minor magnetic shield for some frequencies. Therefore, constructive aspects such as the shape, material, and thickness of the body shell could affect magnetic exposure.
\nIt is also convenient to consider which operating points are potentially more hazardous for human health. Under normal operation of the vehicle, power/current peaks will be higher during strong accelerations than during deep regenerative braking. This is due to two main reasons: the passive nature of some of the movement resistances (rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag), which implies that both of them will always oppose movement, and the global energy efficiency of the traction drive. Notice that driving style will heavily impact total magnetic exposure in EVs: the more aggressive the driving style the higher the magnetic fields within the vehicle.
\nNevertheless, there is another situation which could involve potentially hazardous exposure for passengers, or even for pedestrians that are close to the vehicle: fast charging. As battery technology improves, higher recharge rates are achieved, which obviously imply higher currents, and hence stronger magnetic fields. Nowadays, charge rates of 2–4 C are already usual, with even higher values reachable in the near future [15, 16]. Therefore, magnetic field generation must be studied not only during normal operation of the vehicle but also during fast charging. As a general rule, it is highly advisable to remain outside of the vehicle, and at some distance from it, while fast charge is in process.
\nFinally, it is important to consider the wide variety of electric vehicles that exit nowadays, and how their different configurations, topologies, and power levels affect magnetic field exposure. Some considerations have already been mentioned in this chapter about vehicle configuration (front‐wheel vs. rear‐wheel traction, for instance; another example would be battery placement), and also about the power topology (significant differences arise when adding a DC‐DC converter, or when using hybrid energy storage systems that combine batteries and supercapacitors for increased performance [17]). The largest differences, however, appear when considering electric vehicles of different types, such as motorbikes, buses, racing cars, or even electric planes [18, 19]. Magnetic exposure in these other vehicles could be very different when compared to electric cars, depending on the power levels involved and on the distances between the power equipment and the closest passengers.
\nMagnetic field exposure assessment is a two‐step process: first, one must characterize the magnetic field inside the vehicle (either by estimation or by measurement). The second step involves determining whether the obtained values could be hazardous for the passengers. Both tasks can prove very challenging, and thus any guidance is welcome. In this sense, there are some standards and guidelines that help with the second step. This section is dedicated to these documents.
\nConcern regarding potentially hazardous consequences of nonionizing EMR started to raise some decades ago, around the 1950s and 1960s, first about radio waves and microwaves, and more recently about low‐intensity fields as well, such as those generated by power lines, cell phones, and Wi‐Fi devices. The effects of nonionizing electromagnetic fields on the human body have been studied for many years already, and the results are conclusive in some cases and inconclusive in others [20–23].
\nBasically, there are two types of effects that electromagnetic fields can have on biological tissues: short‐term and long‐term effects. Short‐term effects, also known as acute effects, are those that appear instantaneously, or minutes after the beginning of the exposure. In general, these effects only take place under fields of considerable intensity, and disappear as exposure ceases. The biological mechanisms involved in these short‐term effects are relatively well known, as well as the field values (intensity and frequency) that cause them [24–27]. They are usually classified into two main groups: electrostimulant effects and thermal effects. The former are caused by the interaction between low‐frequency fields and living matter, either by polarization and dipole reorientation produced by electric fields, or due to induced currents generated by magnetic fields (for instance, a strong alternate magnetic field can induce electrical currents capable of stimulating nerves and muscles in an undesired way). The latter refer to the exchange of energy between fields and tissues, which rises their temperature. These thermal effects are completely negligible for frequencies under 100 kHz, but become relevant at higher frequencies (consider, for the sake of illustration, the operating principle of a microwave oven, whose working frequency is around 2.45 GHz). Electrostimulant effects are instantaneous, while thermal effects have a time constant of minutes.
\nLong‐term effects, on the other hand, are those that could appear after months or years of exposure. Several studies have tried to determine the relationship between long‐term exposure to electromagnetic fields and different pathologies (cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, etc.), without finding conclusive evidence for it. Approximately half of these studies show small correlations, just statistically significant, between long‐term exposure and these illnesses [28]. In any case, the possibility of such relationships made the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) to classify low‐intensity, low‐frequency electromagnetic fields, and also radiofrequency electromagnetic fields, as “possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B)” [24, 25].
\nGenerally speaking, it is extremely difficult to establish direct biological effects caused by long‐term exposure, and to obtain reproducible results [23]. As a consequence, standards and guidelines to limit human exposure are elaborated based only on well‐known, scientifically proven, short‐term effects (with appropriate safety factors), and therefore long‐term effects are not taken into account. This applies to the two most extended guidelines nowadays, those from the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and those from the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). Both are briefly described subsequently.
\nThe most extended criteria for recommended exposure limit to EMFs were first proposed by the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in 1998 [22]. These guidelines are based on current scientific evidence, as well as risk analysis performed by the World Health Organization (WHO). They establish protection recommendations considering well‐known mechanisms and appropriate security factors, the latter being due mostly to scientific uncertainty.
\nEleven years after their first publication, no new scientific evidence of any adverse effects had been found [29], a reason why a review of the guidelines on limitation to exposure to high‐frequency EMFs (100 kHz to 300 GHz) was considered unnecessary. Nevertheless, concerning static EMFs and extremely low‐frequency EMFs (1 Hz to 100 kHz), special guidelines were published in 2009 [30] and 2010 [31], respectively, in an attempt to include the results of the main scientific publications during those 11 years. The referred publications not only established recommended exposure limits to EMFs but also include explanations concerning the ways these fields could affect human health. These two guidelines suggest recommended exposure limits (which are defined in terms of in‐body quantities such as electrical fields and induced currents in a given tissue, which complicates exposure assessment), but they also provide reference levels for the electromagnetic environment (external electrical and magnetic field values). These levels are extremely helpful to assess magnetic field exposure, since the following consideration is usually applied: if the exposure environment complies with the field reference levels, then it can be assumed that the exposure limits are not infringed. Certainly, exceeding these reference levels does not necessarily imply that the corresponding exposure limits have been breached. In such cases, further analysis is required.
\nFrequency (Hz) | \nMagnetic field H (Am-1) | \nMagnetic flux density B (T) | \n
---|---|---|
1–8 Hz | \n3.2 × 104/f2 | \n4 × 10-2/f2 | \n
8–25 Hz | \n4 × 103 / f | \n5 × 10-3/f | \n
25–400 Hz | \n1.6 × 102 | \n2 × 10-4 | \n
400–3 kHz | \n6.4 × 104/f | \n8 × 10-2/f | \n
3 kHz to 10 MHz | \n21 | \n2.7 × 10-5 | \n
ICNIRP’s reference levels for general public exposure to time‐varying magnetic fields.
Notes: H and B in unperturbed RMS values. In addition, reference levels relating to tissue‐heating effects need to be considered for frequencies above 100 kHz.
Regarding exposure limits to EMFs, different considerations arise depending on the person affected. Thus, there is an “occupational exposure,” which is applied to those individuals who are exposed to EMFs as a result of performing their regular job activities. There is also a “general public exposure,” which refers to the rest of the population. In summary, ICNIRP’s reference levels for static magnetic fields are 400 mT for general public (EVs passengers included) and 2 T for occupational public [30], whereas the Earth’s magnetic field ranges from 30 to 60 µT, depending on the region on the Earth. Concerning time‐variant fields, the exposure limits to EMFs for “general public” are given in Table 2 and also in Figure 3 [31]. Notice that these values correspond to a sinusoidal, single‐frequency, homogeneous magnetic field exposure.
\nICNIRP’s reference levels for sinusoidal magnetic field exposure as a function of frequency (up to 10 kHz).
Notice that the above reference levels are not given as a function of time (exposure duration). They are maximum or absolute values that must never be breached. This is consistent with the fact that their corresponding exposure limits have been established based on short‐term effects only. In other words, the above reference levels should guarantee the absence of harmful biological effects in the short term, based on current scientific evidence and in accordance to the experts’ consensus‐based criteria.
\nRegarding multiple frequency sinusoidal exposure, ICNIRP states that all contributions should be considered cumulative, so that the following global limit should be met:\n
where
In the case of nonsinusoidal exposure, the evaluation procedure consists in performing a frequency analysis to obtain the corresponding harmonic decomposition. After this, all harmonic components must be considered at the same time by means of Eq. (1). This metho-dology is simple, but very conservative, given that it assumes that all harmonic components are in phase (worst‐case scenario), which is hardly real. This assumption is so pessimistic that even background noise can result in a breach of ICNIPR’s reference levels if enough harmonic components are included in the calculation [32]. Consequently, a second method is recommended instead for those cases in which the number of harmonic component is considerable [31]. This alternative method consists in weighting the field components with a filter function (inverse Fourier transform) related to the reference levels [33]:\n
where
As aforementioned, ICNIRP’s values are given for homogeneous exposure with respect to the whole extension of the human body. However, this assumption is not valid when magnetic field sources are close to the people affected, as might occur in an EV. Again, considering a heterogeneous exposure as homogeneous (taking maximum values as average values) results in a conservative approach. Other methods involve spatial averaging [35] or dosimetric analysis [31].
\nIt is also important to clarify that these guidelines are not legally mandatory, and that become legally binding only if a country incorporates them into its own legislation [36]. At present, many countries and organizations have adopted these security limits. For example, the European Commission uses ICNIRP’s guidelines to write regulations about EMR emission limits, applicable within the European Union [37]. Most member countries have therefore adopted these regulations, and some of them have even applied more restrictive criteria or have developed measures to legally enforce them.
\nThis subsection briefly describes the standard IEEE C95.6 [38]. This standard defines exposure levels to protect against adverse effects in humans from exposure to electric and magnetic fields at frequencies from 0 to 3 kHz.
\nRegarding long‐term exposures to magnetic fields, the most recent reviews considered in the standard are the following: the International Commission on Non‐Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) [22], the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [24], the US National Research Council (NRS) [39], the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) [20, 40] the Health Council of the Netherlands [41], the Institution of Electrical Engineers [42], and the Advisory Group on Non‐Ionizing Radiation (AGNIR) of the UK National Radiological Protection Board [43].
\nBecause none of the above reviews concluded that any hazard from long‐term exposure has been confirmed, this standard does not propose limits on exposures that are lower than those necessary to protect against adverse short‐term effects. The purpose of this standard is just to define exposure standards for the frequency regime 0–3 kHz. For pulsed or nonsinusoidal fields, it may be necessary to evaluate an acceptance criterion at frequencies outside this frequency regime by means of a summation from the lowest frequency of the exposure waveform, to a maximum frequency of 5 MHz, as detailed in the standard itself [38].
\nFrequency (Hz) | \nMagnetic field H (Am-1) | \nMagnetic flux density B (T) | \n
---|---|---|
<0.153 Hz | \n9.39 × 104 | \n118 × 10-3 | \n
0.153–20 Hz | \n1.44 × 104/f | \n18.1 × 10-3/f | \n
20–759 Hz | \n719 | \n0.904 × 10-3 | \n
759 Hz to 3 kHz | \n5.47 × 105/f | \n687 × 10-3/f | \n
IEEE’s maximum permissible exposure to sinusoidal magnetic fields for general public: head and torso.
Notes: f is the frequency in Hz; MPEs refer to spatial maximum.
Frequency (Hz) | \nMagnetic field H (Am-1) | \nMagnetic flux density B (T) | \n
---|---|---|
<10.7 Hz | \n– | \n353 × 10-3 | \n
10.7 Hz to 3 kHz | \n– | \n3790 × 10-3/f | \n
IEEE’s maximum permissible exposure to sinusoidal magnetic fields for general public: arms and legs.
Note: f is the frequency in Hz.
In addition to the in situ electric field restrictions collected in the standard, but not discussed in this chapter, the in situ magnetic field below 10 Hz should be restricted to a peak value of 167 mT for the general public and up to 500 mT in a controlled environment. For frequencies above 10 Hz, a basic restriction on the in situ magnetic field is not specified in IEEE’s standard. Table 3 lists maximum permissible magnetic field limits (flux density B, and magnetic field strength H) corresponding to head and torso exposure for general public. The averaging time for a root‐mean‐square (RMS) measure is 0.2 s for frequencies above 25 Hz. For lower frequencies, the averaging time is such that at least five cycles are included in the average, but with a maximum of 10 s. In the same way, Table 4 shows arm and leg exposure limits, also for general public. All these maximum exposure limits are based on avoidance of the following short‐term reactions [38]:\n
Aversive or painful stimulation of sensory or motor neurons.
Muscle excitation that may lead to injury while performing potentially hazardous activities.
Excitation of neurons or direct alteration of synaptic activity within the brain.
Cardiac excitation.
Adverse effects associated with induced potentials or forces on rapidly moving charges within the body, such as in blood flow.
IEEE’s maximum permissible exposure values must be understood in the same way as INCIRP’s reference levels. In this sense, compliance with Tables 3 and 4 ensures compliance with the basic restrictions, which are defined in terms of in‐body quantities. However, lack of compliance with these tables does not necessarily imply lack of compliance with the basic restrictions, but rather that it may be necessary to evaluate whether the basic restrictions have been met [38]. For more information, the reader is referred to the standard itself.
\nThe information contained in Tables 3 and 4 is also shown in Figure 4 for clarity. Besides, ICNIRP’s reference levels for general public are also included in the figure for comparison.
\nIEEE’s maximum permissible exposure to sinusoidal magnetic fields as a function of frequency (up to 3 kHz).
This section is devoted to a brief overview of recent publications that deal with EMR and magnetic field exposure in EVs. Some main conclusions, drawn for these studies, are summarized here as well. Related publications, such as those that analyze EMC in electric vehicles or EMR in other applications, are also mentioned.
\nIn general, there are not many publications about magnetic field exposure in electric and hybrid cars. Most works about electromagnetic fields and EVs address problems belonging to the field of EMC. Some examples of such studies can be found in [44–48]. There are certainly several publications that deal with EMFs and its potentially hazardous effects on human health, both from the medical and from the engineering points of view, but for other applications. A review of the medical literature is certainly out of the scope of this chapter, and hence the reader is referred to specialized bibliography such as [23–26, 28] for that purpose. Regarding engineering publications, one classical field of study are power lines [49–52], substations, and other transformation centers [49–54]. Most of these works focus on the effects of EMFs on workers (i.e., occupational exposure). Medical equipment in hospitals is another typical example of electromagnetic evaluation, again focusing on the people operating these machines on a daily basis. More recently, some studies have approached electromagnetic exposure from the point of view of general public, for example, in buildings and urban environments [55, 56]. The first studies in vehicles were probably those about electrical trains and trams, and also about conventional ICE‐based cars [57–59].
\nIn general, publications about EVs and EMR can be classified into two main groups: studies that perform measurements in vehicles (experimental approach) and studies that use analytical approximations or numerical simulations, usually based on the finite element method (FEM) (simulation approach). These two groups are treated separately in the following sections.
\nOne of the first publications specifically dedicated to EMR in hybrid and electric cars is the one by ElectromagneticHealth.org [60], which focuses on the 2004 Toyota Prius (second gene-ration). This preliminary study, which was motivated by a press article published in 2008, titled “Fear, But Few Facts, on Hybrid Risks,” concludes that it is considerably difficult to perform repetitive and accurate measurements in a moving vehicle without the proper means. The magnetic field values obtained during this study were not high (always below 1 µT), but possibly higher than those found in conventional ICE‐based cars. The rear seats were the most exposed, according to this work. One year later, in 2009, two more studies were published which included measurements in an electric car and in a hybrid bus, respectively, under dynamic driving conditions [13, 61].
\nThe next two noteworthy publications, Ref. [58] from 2010 and Ref. [34] from 2013, describe some issues that should be taken into account when measuring magnetic fields in vehicles. The work in Ref. [58] deals mainly with trains and trams, but hybrid cars are also considered. Previous measurements performed in trains, locomotives, and railway stations by different researchers are summarized in that paper. Average results are provided for each type of vehicle considered in the study: 200 trains and trams (both urban and suburban), and also one hybrid car. Train and tram measurements were taken in varied conditions: weekdays and weekends, day and night, inside and outside. Regarding the hybrid car, different positions (front and rear parts, left and right sides, floor, seat, and head levels) were taken into account. Frequency spectrum ranges from 5 Hz to 100 kHz. Magnetic field values found in the car are low (in the order of a few μT), especially when compared to ICNIRP’s reference levels, although it is not clear which method was used to account for multifrequency exposure (see Subsection 3.1). In average, highest magnetic field values were found at the rear left side of the hybrid car. The maximum levels of recorded magnetic field strength are emitted at 12 Hz, which is a very low frequency. About the study published in [34], it provides an example of how to deal with multifrequency exposure in accordance to ICNIRP’s recommendations. This work focuses on electric vehicles exclusively, and the magnetic field values obtained are in line with those from [13], around 15–20% of ICNIRP’s reference levels. The paper also presents simulation results (see Subsection 4.2).
\nIn 2015, two journal papers were published with measurement results from a wide variety of hybrid and electric cars [9, 10]. Some of their authors participated in the two publications from the previous paragraph. The study in [9] comprises a total of three conventional cars and eight electric vehicles, including some based on fuel cells instead of batteries. Both laboratory measurements and road measurements were taken and compared to INCIRP’s reference levels with a wide‐frequency range, up to 10 MHz. The vehicle that showed highest values reached 18% of ICNIRP’s levels. Unsurprisingly, the researchers found that magnetic field exposure was higher in EVs than in ICE‐based vehicles in average. However, the position of maximum exposure within each vehicle (front vs. rear part, foot vs. seat level) was different. This position is probably influenced by the configuration and topology of the vehicle, as described in Section 2. The main sources of magnetic field are identified in this study: at frequencies below 1 Hz, hundreds of μT are present (most likely due to battery current). Between a few Hz and 1 kHz, fields up to 2 μT were found, generated by most sources (combustion engine, steering pump, and wheels are mentioned in the paper, but probably fundamental currents in the inverter and in the electrical machine were also responsible). Finally, above 1 kHz, less than 100 nT was measured, and the authors identified the inverter as the only source (which makes sense, since it is the only power electronics device in the traction drive).
\nThe open‐access study in Ref. [10] focuses on diesel, gasoline, and hybrid cars. Up to 10 vehicles are analyzed, and the results are consistent with previous investigations. Results are presented separately for different seats and for different engine types. In general, magnetic field exposure was higher in hybrid cars, and then in gasoline cars. The authors state that magnetic field exposure depends on the operating conditions (speed, acceleration, etc.), which is unsurprising.
\nOther research projects take a different approach and analyze the problem by means of finite element method (FEM) simulations and even analytical approximations. FEM simulations are helpful to better understand the problem, to analyze magnetic field exposure dependence on certain parameters (for instance, by performing sensitivity analysis), and to develop a predictive methodology. Being able to estimate magnetic field exposure without actually having to perform measurements could prove extremely useful for EV designers. As proposed in Ref. [62], a fully operational estimation tool would allow for optimized predesign even before building the first prototype, thus reducing engineering time and cost.
\n(a) FEM model used in Ref. [64] to estimate the magnetic field generated by one single NiMH battery cell. (b) Hypothetical battery pack belonging to a hypothetical EV analyzed in Ref. [64]. Both figures have been reused with permission.
This is the approach taken in Refs. [63, 64], works that analyze the magnetic field generated by the inverter and by the batteries, respectively, of a hypothetical EV via FEM simulations (Figure 5). Simulation results are validated with experimental measurements in both cases, and then they are used to estimate the worst operating points from the point of view of passenger exposure. Similarly, Refs. [14] and [34] contain two examples of how FEM simulations can be used for estimation and prediction purposes (Figure 5).
\nIn this section, some design guidelines and recommendations to minimize magnetic field exposure in EVs are provided. Note that all these measures are of pure electric nature, and therefore they may not be applicable when considering other factors. They are based on the ALARP principle (“As Low As Reasonably Practicable”). In other words, the goal is to maintain exposure levels as low as reasonably possible with the available means, both in a technical and in an economic sense. This criterion allows the implementation of safety strategies at an acceptable cost, and it should preferably be applied during the first design stages of the EV and its components.
\nThese guidelines are classified into two groups, depending on whether they involve major changes in the vehicle or not. The first group contains measures that do not change the topology nor the configuration of the vehicle, and that do not increase its weight nor its cost:\n
A general design guideline is to place the power devices and their connections as far from the passengers as possible. However, a vehicle usually provides little room to maneuver in this sense, especially in the case of hybrid electric vehicles. The battery stack, the electronic converters, and the motor should be as far away as possible from the passengers. Batteries are usually placed just under the seats, in order to minimize risks in case of crash. However, this involves bringing them closer to the passengers. A compromise should be reached.
Complementary, power devices should be oriented so that the magnetic field suffered by the passengers is minimized. As described in Section 4, some power equipment such as batteries and inverters could generate stronger fields in some specific directions [63, 64]. Therefore, their relative direction with respect to the passengers should be carefully chosen.
Wires of the same type should be as close as possible of each other: both DC wires must be taped together; similarly, the three‐phase AC wires must be taped together, preferably in a triangular disposition. This way, the magnetic field generated by each cable in the interior of the vehicle will be cancelled by the rest.
Wires should be as short as possible, except when this involves bringing them closer to the passengers.
When placing batteries below the seats, the battery pack can be redesigned in order to allow terminals to be placed at the bottom. This would increase the distance from the stack connections to the passengers in a value equal to the height of the battery cells. This is very convenient, given that those connections are usually close to the occupants, they carry currents up to hundreds of amperes, and it is very difficult to place them together so the magnetic field generated by all of them as a whole is cancelled out. Naturally, the chemistry of the batteries must allow this inverted position, which is not a problem with lithium‐based technologies. Notice that this action does not necessarily increase the distances between the passengers and the cells themselves.
If further actions were necessary in order to reduce the magnetic field generated by the EV, these additional measures may prove helpful:\n
Longer distances between power equipment and passengers are always welcome. As discussed in Section 2, front‐wheel traction drives are usually better suited to provide such longer distances.
In the same sense, in‐wheel motor technology [65] allows the devices inside an EV to be distributed in a much more flexible way. The space reserved for the conventional internal combustion motor could be occupied by the battery stack instead, which would mean that no field‐generating devices would be placed under the seats.
The higher the voltages, the lower the currents and the magnetic field, but the electric field could become higher (considering a quasistatic approximation [8], higher voltages, and higher du/dt will imply higher Coulomb electric field, but lower currents involve lower magnetic fields and thus lower Faraday electric field during transients [62]). Nonetheless, high on‐board voltages may be hazardous in case of a crash, so once again a compromise would be necessary.
A magnetic shield can be placed around the main devices responsible for the magnetic field in the interior of the car. Alternatively, the whole interior could be shielded, yielding higher protection at the expense of increased shield weight and cost. In both cases, the efficacy of the shield will be determined by its properties, and especially by its thickness. In the first case, a ferromagnetic alloy of high magnetic permeability, such as Mu‐metal or similar, could be used [66]. For shielding the whole interior, ferromagnetic sheets such as those used to shield hospital rooms and some laboratories are recommended instead [67]. Notice that if switching frequencies grow above 100 kHz (by using SiC power devices, for instance), Faraday shielding could become necessary. This consist in radiofrequency shields made of copper or similar [67], such as those found in microwave ovens.
Magnetic field exposure is a matter of growing concern in the society. Recently, low‐intensity exposure is receiving much attention due to its possible hazardous effects on human health in the long term. However, uncertainty is high and there is still much research to be done. In this sense, short‐term effects are proven and well known, while long‐term effects remain to be found (although some theoretical bases and some experimental results point to the existence of potential hazardous effects [23]). With respect to EVs in particular, results presented so far in the scientific literature suggest that this concern is not scientifically justified, at least according to current standards and guidelines, which only take short‐term exposure into account. In general, exposure levels in EVs are low when compared to ICNIRP’s and IEEE’s recommended levels, but high when compared to other daily exposures such as those suffered at home or at work. This increase in overall magnetic field exposure is what generates concern, despite the lack of scientific proof.
\nUncertainty is not the only worrying aspect of magnetic field exposure in EVs. Some emerging and promising technologies, such as SiC power electronics, could pose a significant threat, given that they allow for higher switching frequencies. Certainly, there are many aspects involved, and therefore deep analysis is required before drawing any conclusions. However, it is clear that replacing silicon‐based IGBTs with SiC MOSFETs could change the spectrum of the magnetic field inside the vehicle drastically, for better or for worse. In this sense, there are already a few publications that alert about a worsening in EMC phenomena when using SiC technology [68].
\nParadoxically, some scientific results suggest that low‐intensity low‐frequency magnetic fields could have beneficial effects on human health. Certainly, these usually refer to medical treatments based on EMFs, but still knowledge is scarce about what will happen to EV passengers in the long term. Other experts have mentioned that even if magnetic fields have undesired effects on humans, it is perfectly possible that our bodies have inbuilt mechanisms to compensate for these effects [23]. Once again, further research is needed.
\nFinally, the authors would like to state that driving style has a strong influence on magnetic field exposure. In this regard, those drivers that favor aggressive styles (strong accelerations and deep regenerative braking) will be exposed to stronger magnetic fields. Efficient driving does not only reduce fuel consumption and maintenance needs; it also reduces magnetic field exposure.
\nThis work was partially supported by the Community of Madrid, which contributed to it through the SEGVAUTO-TRIES-CM Program (S2013/MIT-2713).
The issues of integration of automated information systems into the surrounding world as well as its effective use for information support have become important. Automatic identification and data capture technologies play a paramount importance in this. These technologies include bar code, biometric, and radio-frequency identification. Bar-code and radio-frequency identification (RFID) is widely used in library information systems of ABIS. Of these, radio-frequency identification has a significant functional advantage over bar code identification. It is radio-frequency identification that has the potential to contribute to development of library technologies. RFID technology is now firmly established in the life of modern libraries.
\nFor library RFID systems, the main accounting object is the document of the library collections, which has a material carrier of information. These documents primarily include printed publications, which now form the basis of the book stock collections in most libraries. The electronic publications increased the availability of information for users and, at the same time, was a serious challenge for the traditional document collections and traditional library technologies. Radio-frequency identification technology allows increased mobility of traditional documents in the electronic information space.
\nFull-featured use of RFID system capabilities enables development of library technologies through the use of existing experience and the latest achievements in the field of automatic identification and object management.
\nIn these circumstances, the actual task is to understand the experience, fixing it as generally accepted rules and standards, the implementation of which can ensure further development of both RFID technology and library work technology.
\nThe first attempts to introduce radio-frequency identification technology in libraries began in the mid of 1990s. A pioneer in this field was “3 M” company (USA), which since the end of 1960s started to produce and install radio-frequency EAS systems in libraries and since the beginning of 1990s started production of radio-frequency identification devices for libraries. 3 M company announced the first project of school library automation, based on RFID, in 1994, and in the 2000s, several thousand libraries in Europe and the United States had already implemented RFID technology. A lot of practical experience has already been accumulated by this time [1].
\nMost of the projects used RFID equipment of companies such as 3 M, TAGSYS, and FEIG Electronics of 13.56 MHz band. Commercial attractiveness of implemented projects brought to this market a large number of new participants, among which, along with specialized companies, there were many commercial IT companies of a wide profile working with RFID systems in the field of warehouse logistics. This fact can explain the emergence of RFID library projects based on UHF equipment (860–960 MHz), which is an alternative to the equipment of “traditional” library HF band (13.56 MHz).
\nIn Russian libraries, the technology of radio-frequency identification appeared somewhat later [2]. First, the RFID library project was implemented by “ANTIVOR” company on the basis of Russian ILS “IRBIS64” in the library of the graduate management school of St. Petersburg state University, in 2007 [3].
\nThe first full-featured project implemented in a large Russian library on the basis of Russian RFID-equipment was a research project implemented in 2008–2009 by non-commercial partnership “International Center of Technology Transfer “ (NP “ICTT”), in cooperation with the “GPNTB of Russia” library [4]. The project used the equipment of HF band, appropriate for library conditions and is claimed in foreign libraries.
\nWidespread use of RFID systems in libraries required systematization of the acquired experience. The first library standard for application of RFID technology appeared in Denmark in 2005 [5]. This standard has been directly supported by many countries of the world, and in 2011 Technical Committee ISO/TC 46/SC 4 has established a system of international standards ISO 28560, representing a group of three standards, under the general title “Information and Documentation. RFID in Libraries.” Adopted standards defined the main technical parameters of library RFID systems, as well as the structure and protocols of data exchange with library automation systems. Later, in 2014, the system of standards was revised and a fourth part was added to it. The new standard part was defining the use of UHF band RFID equipment (850–960 MHz) in libraries.
\nCurrently, the international standard ISO 28560 set consists of four parts. To date, all four parts of the standards system have been introduced into the Russian standardization system as identical to international standards.
\nISO 29560-1 [6] standard defined data elements used in the cataloging of documents in library collection, which can be placed in the memory of RFID tags and is used for automation of technology operations in libraries. The entire set of 26 items is given, of which only two items are required—the “Primary Item Identifier” and the “Owner Institution (ISIL)”. The ISIL code is defined in the ISO 15511 [7] standard. Both identifiers represent in the aggregate the “International Library Item Identifier” (ILIL), defined in ISO 20247 [8]. Libraries are invited to decide of specified elements what should be used, based on the needs and capabilities of their automation system. Data elements are presented without specifying the location in the label memory. In general cases, labels may have different organization for different types. There are also no defined encoding conditions in which data can be represented. These conditions are defined in the following parts of the standard.
\nISO 29560-2 [9] standard defines the way of placing of data elements, defined in the first part, in the tag memory, based on standard rules of coding of the object identifier structure defined in ISO/IEC 15962. Standard data element placement rules allow for flexible encoding of variable-length data and different formats. Their application allows the use of RFID tag resources with the greatest efficiency. The data encoding rules in this standard can be applied for any type of labels.
\nISO 29560-3 [10] standard is based on the principles set out in the Danish national standard and on the experience of its use in other countries. Data structures presented in the standard are focused primarily for HF (13.56 MHz) band type labels conforming to ISO/IEC 18000-3 [11] Mode 1 standard. Such type of tags includes NXP company labels of ICode SliX specifications. User memory of these labels has a capacity of 112 bits and is divided into 28 blocks of 32 bits available for reading and writing by special commands of RFID reader. Other types of radio-frequency labels are considered in terms of their compatibility with the base type.
\nData element allocation principles, defined in ISO 29560-3 standard, are based on a fixed data structure consisting of several blocks. In total, four types of data blocks are defined, of which only the “Basic block” is obligatory for programming, which is a rigid structure, consisting of fixed length fields.
\nThe “Basic block” contains data elements, defined in the first part of the standard as mandatory:
\nPrimary item identifier
Owner institution (ISIL)
as well as data elements defined in the first part of the standard as optional:
\nType of usage
Set information
which have acquired the status of mandatory under this standard.
\nAdditional “Structured Extension Blocks” are used to store data elements from full set that are not included in the “Basic block”. The standard defines 5 types of structured blocks of which the formats are determined by their different purposes in the technological system of the library.
\nData allocation principles, defined in the third part of the standard, are not compatible with the rules set out in the second part and they are more stringent. Data compression algorithms are not used in coding; different data elements can be represented in different codes. In general, it can be said that data coding based on the rules of the third part of the standard is less rational than the rules presented in the second part. Adoption of this standard is due to the fact that coding based on the rules of the Danish model became a de facto international standard for libraries long before, and such an international standard was adopted by ISO TC46/SC4 Technical Committee. A large number of libraries in many countries around the world use RFID equipment of HF range, and a huge number of documents were marked with labels encoded according to the rules of the Danish data model. Change to other label types and encoding methods is currently a challenging practice task. This situation is supported by main manufacturers of specialized library equipment. Using UHF RFID equipment in libraries is not popular now, despite the significant advantage of UHF technology in “non-library” areas related to logistics.
\nThe fourth part of the standard (ISO 29560-4 [12]) appeared later than previous three parts and was adopted in 2014 only. The standard defines the rules for placement of data elements presented in the first part of the standard, consistent with coding rules defined in the second part. This part of the standard has been added to allow selection of different frequency bands of RFID equipment, between HF (13.56 MHz) defined in part three of the standard and UHF (850–960 MHz), conforming to ISO/IEC 18000-63 [13], for libraries. Data structures presented in the standard are focused on RFID tags having a block memory organization defined in the EPC global Inc. standard as “Class 1 Generation 2” (EPC C1g2). [14].
\nThe logical memory structure of the radio-frequency labels defined in the fourth part of the standard consists of four blocks, of which only two are available for reading and writing library data elements: “01” (EPC memory) and “11” (User Memory).
\nFor EPC memory block the standard defines the possibility of recording a Unique Item Identifier (UII), composed of the “Primary Item Identifier”, the “Application Family Identifier” (AFI), and, all or selectively, two data elements: the “Owner Institution (ISIL)” and the “Set Information”.
\nThese data elements in various combinations occupy the entire memory block, and the format of their record does not correspond to the format of the standard EPC code. The presence in memory of a “Unique Item Identifier”, in non-EPC format, is determined by the value of a fixed bit in the memory block (bit 17hex = 1), located directly in front of the AFI byte area.
\nFor user memory block, the standard defines the ability to write a set of optional data elements, which is a subset of the set defined in the first part of the standard. The choice of data elements to be written to memory can be arbitrary from a given set and is determined by technological needs of the library.
\nIn general, we can say that the fourth part of the standard defines coding rules applicable to labels with a memory structure corresponding to the EPC “C1g2” specification. In this case, the structure of the “Unique Item Identifier” placed in the EPC memory area is not compatible with EPC code format. This makes library RFID systems based on the fourth part of the standard alternative to EPC systems.
\nEmergence of ISO 28560 systems of international standards was an important step towards the development of RFID library systems. At the same time, while analyzing the content of the standard, it should be noted that its existing parts are not fully consistent with each other, which is a consequence of the historical situation of the use of RFID technology in libraries. Coding principles defined in the second part are not compatible with coding principles presented in the third part. The third and fourth parts of the standard describe incompatible systems. This inconsistency creates difficulties in the further development of RFID technology in libraries.
\nRFID systems use a unique numeric code stored in the memory of radio-frequency tags as an identifier. The degree of uniqueness of the code is determined by the functional needs of the automated systems in which it is used. The main requirement for the identification of code formation is its uniqueness within the boundaries of a specific system.
\nIn the first projects of library RFID systems, a UID code of the radio-frequency label was often used as a unique identifier of accounting objects. The use of this type of identifiers in the library automation system can only ensure their uniqueness. The UID value is set during chip manufacturing; it is constant, and its structure is determined by needs of radio-frequency label manufacturers. In addition, RFID systems based on UID have significant limitations associated with existing library technology: the impossibility of identification of group accounting items in the case of application of non-inventory registration technology for documents and in the case of accounting of document sets of the book stock collections.
\nThe use of radio-frequency labels in the RFID library system, compatible with ISO 28560 standards, involves the use of a rewritable memory area of the label to accommodate structured data, which includes data elements defined in the ISO 28560-1 standard. One of the mandatory data elements is the “Primary Item Identifier” unique for each document instance in the collection of one library. An arbitrary value, that meets the requirements of the ILS, can be assigned for this element. In this case, it is possible to identify the RFID system of group accounting items, such as the publication, as well as sets of documents. The mandatory data block is supplemented by the “Set Information” element for support of accounting of document set. The block is present by the structure of “total set/part number” elements. In addition, if document identifier is located in the rewritable memory, it becomes possible to structure it in order to support functionality of the general system by means of the RFID system.
\nThe ISO 28560 standard defines the length of the primary item identifier as 16 bytes. If you use one byte to display a single character, you can number 10000000000 (10 quadrillion) instances of documents with direct decimal numbering. If you use alphabetic characters to form an identifier, this number of unique combinations will be much greater. Libraries with such collections of printed publications currently do not exist, and in the foreseeable future their appearance is not expected. This code space redundancy can be used to place additional information in the ID code. It can be used to extend functionality of the RFID library system. The primary item identifier must be a structure, each element of which provides a unique identification of the section of the library collection on its hierarchical level. All elements together make up the code of the primary item identifier, which must be unique within the library collection.
\nEntering into the primary item identifier of additional data elements is suitable for RFID systems that support automation of technological processes related to inventory, with varying degrees of autonomy from library OPAC. These data encoding method give an additional value to the identifier, and it can complement the standard method for writing data elements to the radio-frequency label memory, as defined in ISO 28560-3, 4. Such encoding methods can get faster response of the RFID system by reducing and simplifying read operations for user memory. Also it can be useful, for example, in the case of use of RFID system equipment or ready-made third-party software modules that do not fully implement functions of data elements encoding, according to ISO 28560.
\nIt is advisable to choose data items, which are used in automation of technological operations by means of the RFID system, for encoding the primary item identifier. In addition, selected data items must also remain unchanged, because the primary item identifier must remain the same throughout the life of the document in the library collection. The “Book number” and the “Set information” data items can be used for automated verification of the book stock collections.
\nThe book number data item indicates document location in the library store. Inserting these data item into the code structure of the primary item identifier may be efficient, if it is unchanging for document and based on unchanging classification characteristics. For example, in the case of semantic arrangement of the book stock collections, it can be compiled on the basis of library classification tables (indices UDCC, DCD, etc.) or on the basis of library collection identifier classification (ISCI defined in ISO 27730 standard [15]). In the case of formal arrangement, such features may be the book format (size and accession arrangement), document type, author number, year of publication, etc.
\nThe book number is used in library processes, related to automated inventory, but it can also be used in other processes, for example, in document pre-ordering systems and to automatically determine possible delivery time of ordered documents from storage location to issuing location.
\nEntering book index into the structure of the primary item identifier is available for the collection of a separate library, since different libraries may apply different systems of collection arrangement, and formats of book index can vary.
\nThe primary item identifier provides unique codes only within the local integrated library system. To ensure the uniqueness of several libraries, the standard defines an additional data item—“Owner Institution (ISIL)”. The ISIL code is the International Standard Identifier for Libraries and related organizations. Its format is defined in ISO 15511 standard as a data structure that consists of ISO 3166-1 country code (alpha-2 type) [16] and organization identifier as an alphanumeric element that identifies library in the national identification system.
\nThe procedure for using the ISIL code to identify library documents is defined in the international standard ISO 20247. This standard defines the International Library Item Identifier (ILII) as a structure, consisting of two elements:
ISIL or ISCI identifier
Local item identifier
The ISCI specified as a possible element of the ILII structure is a standard collection identifier and it is defined in ISO 27730 standard. Structurally, the ISCI represents ISIL code with extension in the form of a supplementary collection identifier. Collection is defined in the standard as a logical group of one or more resources. Collections can also be logically or physically grouped or separated, i.e. a collection can be part of one or more other collections and/or can consist of one or more sub-collections. Collection can be an archive reading room, a digital collection of electronic resources, or OPAC of the library. Collection may consist of documents, combined on a semantic basis and located in different physical sections of the book stock store (in accordance with the type of arrangement adopted in the library) or in different sections of the virtual repository for electronic document collections. The need to use the ISCI collection identifier in the RFID system is entirely determined by the configuration of the technological system of a particular library. If you want to store it in the label data structure, the part of code that extends the ISIL code can be written to the internal code field of the Alternative Owner Institution defined as a data element in the ISO 28560-1.
\nIn general, data structure, presented in the international standard ISO 20247, defines the method of forming identifier of the library item, which provides its unique identification on the scale of several libraries and several countries.
\nAutomated identification of library document participating in a particular technological operation involves reading data from the tag memory located in the RFID reader working area. At the same time, radio-frequency labels of the same type as the library ones, but not those, can fall into the reading zone. Besides, if library documents are borrowed (or documents are transferred to another library through the interlibrary lending system), they could fall into the reading area of non-library RFID systems for various purposes using the same type of radio frequency tags outside the library. Unauthorized radio-frequency tags in the working area of the RFID system may reduce performance or interfere with the normal operation of the system, for example, to cause malfunction of the accounting system of material objects or to cause false triggering of the system that performs anti-theft functions.
\nTo implement the mechanism of radio-frequency tag selection of the same type in the working area of RFID reader to minimize time of data transmission and exclusion from data exchange of tags that are not included in the system, the Application Family Identifier (AFI) is used.
\nThe AFI is specified by a one-byte code, which is often found in the system memory of the RFID tag. The values of the AFI for various RFID applications are defined by ISO/IEC 15961-2 standard [17]. The hexadecimal “C2h” value is defined for use in libraries. The specified value must be assigned to radio-frequency label of library document located in the area of RFID reading systems for various applications outside library. In this case, they will be ignored or, if necessary, identified as library documents. The “C2h” value can be assigned to the label as a permanent one, at the stage of marking library document, or assigned at the registration of issuing document to reader or in the Interlibrary loan (ILL) system. In this case, when registering return of document, the AFI can be assigned as the “07h” value (“in storage” as defined in ISO/IEC 15961-3 [18]), and it can be used in the RFID library system to implement electronic article surveillance (EAS) functions.
\nTo implement the selection mechanism of the same type of library radio-frequency labels in the RFID reader working area with different data encoding, the Data Storage Format Identifier (DSFID) is used. The DSFID value must be assigned a label at the stage of marking the library document and remain unchanged for the entire period of use of the data recorded in the memory of the label. DSFID values for use in library radio-frequency identification systems are defined in the ISO/IEC 15961-2 standard as follows:
“06h” for tags encoded according to ISO 28560-2.
“3Eh” for tags encoded according to ISO 28560-2.
“1Eh” and “5Eh” values can be used for migration from radio-frequency tags that do not meet the requirements of ISO 28560 standards.
Document of library collection, labeled by RFID tags, may be subject of accounting in the technological system of not the library assignment, for example, in the accounting system in the warehouse of printing house or warehouses, and as a part of transport units in the logistics system for delivery of documents to warehouses of trading organizations or libraries. In addition, documents circulating in the ILL system can be identified in automated mail service systems. For enabling the use of labeled library documents in automated RFID systems, non-library application, data structures written to the label memory must be correctly interpreted by all systems. This possibility is achieved through harmonization of standards, governing the data exchange in systems of different applications.
\nIn library RFID systems that are compatible with the set of standard ISO 28560, for compatibility of library systems with systems of global supply the “Identifier of a trade item GS1” data element can be used, which is optional and is placed in the additional block of the tag data structure, encoded according to ISO 28560-3 rules. Specified data element may contain the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) [19], assigned by GS1 organization to identify products in the supply chain, which is part of the EPC code system. Unfortunately, encodings provided in ISO 28560 standards are not included in the EPC set of standards currently. Thus, radio-frequency labels of library documents cannot be identified in automated EPC systems operating within the existing standards.
\nNow the global technology of contactless identification on the basis of shaped coding and radio-frequency identification in the world applied for marking of goods and transport units exists and develops. The contactless identification is a basis of automation of account at promotion of production from producer to consumer in the systems of warehouse, transport logistics, and trade. Technology of contactless identification represents a set of compatible technologies developed under the general name of electronic product code (EPC).
\nThe concept of EPC was proposed and developed in the early 2000s by the specialized scientific center for automatic identification “Auto-ID Center” created on the basis of the Massachusetts Institute of technology. Later it was published by the international organization “EPC global, Inc.”. The very name “EPC” is a trademark of this organization. Currently, the concept of the EPC is developed by international organization GS1, which has its offices in a number of countries.
\nThe EPC is a numeric identifier unique to each material object to be accounted. Currently, the most commonly used standard code types are of 64-bit and 96-bit lengths. There is also a 198-bit code standard, and a 256-bit code standard is being developed. The total length of code determines the possible length of data fields and, as a consequence, the width of the code space and freedom of choice of data presentation formats.
\nAll information about objects identified by EPC code is available to organizations within a single Global Data Synchronization Network (GDSN), which allows obtaining data about identified objects by their EPC codes. Currently, there is a migration of data from the GDSN network to the Trusted Source of Data (TSM) network, which is a project of the GS1 organization and is designed for two-way exchange of information for users. The GDSN network acts as a source of data for TSD network aggregators.
\nThe EPC concept is supported by manufacturers of RFID equipment. Currently, market offers a wide range of equipment—radio-frequency tags and readers operating in the UHF range (850–960 MHz). Similar HF band equipment (13.56 MHz) is poorly represented, although it is supported by normative documents at the level of international standards [20]. The technical ability of using such equipment in RFID library systems is defined in ISO 28560-4. Use of the same type of equipment in the systems of warehouse, transport logistics, and library RFID systems, with the possibility of modification of identification codes within the existing standards, gives the principal opportunity to integrate RFID library systems with existing, as well as emerging in various fields, EPC identification systems, combined in the TSD network. This integration will allow multiple uses of a single radio-frequency label at all stages of the movement of printed documents, from their production in the printing house to the end user, not only through trade organizations, but also through libraries. The ability to exchange information about library documents in the TSD network with other participants in this process can significantly expand functionality of library automation systems based on radio-frequency identification. For example, such integration is allowed to improve and automate processes of increasing library stock collections, as well as the processes of document exchange in the ILL system, etc. To implement this possibility, it is necessary to harmonize the standards governing the formats of data presentation in library RFID systems with the set of EPC standards.
\nThe format of the structure of data recorded when marking a library document in the memory of an EPC type label is defined in ISO 28560-4 standard. This format is based on the data of elements, defined in ISO 28560-1, and on the coding principles, defined in ISO 28560-2, with significant differences from the encodings, included in the EPC set of standards, and is not supported by EPC systems.
\nFor RFID systems, compatible with EPC standards of the Serial Global Trade Item Number (SGTIN) system is applied [21]. The SGTIN code is a data structure that corresponds to the general structure of the EPC and consists of a standard heading and the following three elements:
“Company prefix”—the company identifier of the vendor/owner in the GTIN format is assigned by the GS1 organization. Format is incompatible with the similar in purpose ISIL identifier used in the libraries.
“Product code” - a generic product identifier in the GTIN format.
“Serial number” - identifies a specific instance of the product.
First two code elements uniquely conform to standard GTIN code, used in bar coding, and replace elements of the codes EAN and UPC previously used in Europe and the United States. Code GTIN may have a standard length of 8, 12, or 13 characters. The international standard numbers for books (ISBN) and periodicals (ISSN) could be submitted in code GTIN-13 since 2007. For them, the dedicated codes in the table of regional GS1 codes are applied:
977—periodicals (ISSN)
978 and 979–books (ISBN)
According to ISO 28560-4 standard, when publication is marked with an EPC type radio-frequency tag in the early stages of the supply chain dedicated, the entire “01” tag memory block (EPC memory) must be overwritten by the library value unique identifier of the accounting item with AFI byte. Information about EPC code is lost, and thus, the label ceases to be recognized in EPC systems. The possibility of its return to such an automated system, for example, when delivered to recipient through a transport company or a postal service or when it enters the sales network, is associated with the need to restore the EPC code in its memory, which will lead to the loss of “library” information.
\nFor implementation of this possibility for printed publications, it is possible to mark them, at the initial stage of the supply chain, when printing, by radio-frequency EPC tags with SGTIN code. In this case, the “company prefix” and “product code” values can contain a standard ISBN or ISSN code and are assigned to the label by publisher. The serial number value is also assigned by the publisher and can be a data structure defined locally in the printing house. Assigned values can be used for automation of technological processes, as well as for transportation and storage of publications. Serial number field can be reassigned when such documents arrive to the library. In this case, the serial number can also be structured in accordance with the technological requirements of library cataloging.
\nTo illustrate the possibility of placing the library structure of data elements defined in ISO 28560-1 and ISO 28560-2 in the EPC SGTIN format, the following calculations can be made. The total length of the reassigned “serial number” field for different types of EPC labels can be from 36 to 180 bits. This field can contain data elements that make up unique identifier of accounting object (UII) according to ISO 28560-4, which includes the following elements:
Primary item identifier—16 bytes
Set information–2 bytes
Owner institution (ISIL)—11 bytes
Of these elements, the ISIL code can be placed in a user memory block, so the total length of UII without AFI byte will be 18 characters. When encoding according to the rules of URN Code 40, the overall length code with AFI byte will be 12 bytes. Thus, the total length of the entry in serial number field, together with the added byte value of the AFI application family, will be 104 bits. The resulting field size does not exceed the maximum possible size of the “serial number” field of the SGTIN-198, which is 140 bits.
\nThis example is an illustration only and shows the principal possibility of placing a unique identifier of a library document in the structure of EPC code, which allows us to talk about integration of the integrated library systems and systems based on EPC standards. This possibility can be realized when using radio-frequency EPC labels in the supply chains with an EPC memory block capacity sufficient to accommodate the SGTIN-198 code. It will also require modification of the regulatory framework for the use of radio-frequency identification in libraries in terms of ISO 28560-4 standard, which defines rules for the use of specialized EPC RFID equipment in libraries. The possibility of realization of such extension of regulatory base of library RFID systems has ripened today and follows from the general logic of development of information systems and, in particular, library systems of radio-frequency identification.
\nIn radio-frequency identification systems operating on the principles of EPC, there is currently no alternative to use equipment of UHF range, the work of which is defined by ISO/IEC 18000-63. The use of such equipment is fundamentally possible in library automation systems. This fact is reflected in ISO 28560 library standards. There are two standards defining operation of library RFID systems: ISO 28560-3—for HF systems, and ISO 28560-4—for UHF systems. The presence of two standards gives libraries an opportunity to choose the type of equipment for their automation system. Rules for placing and encoding data elements in the memory of radio-frequency labels defined by these standards are significantly different and are compatible only at the level of nomenclature of data elements presented in ISO 28560-1. Provisions given in the ISO 28560-2 are applicable only to RFID systems corresponding to the fourth part and are not applicable to systems based on the third part of ISO 28560. The reason for this is that RFID equipment of different frequency ranges—HF and UHF—is incompatible and that does these systems alternative to each other.
\nThe use of UHF equipment based on the EPC concept in libraries is hampered by a number of factors; one of the most significant factors is the impossibility of a “smooth” migration from HF technology to UHF due to their complete incompatibility at the level of applied radio-frequency labels and readers. Thus, the choice of frequency range for the RFID library automation system uniquely determines the type of equipment that should be purchased by the library. The choice of equipment determines the overall configuration of the system and specialized software that is integrated into ILS. Subsequent migration to other equipment is practically impossible, because it is also associated with the re- or additional marking of library documents with radio-frequency labels of another type, since existing RFID readers are compatible only with labels of their frequency range.
\nThe solution to this problem is possible by creating universal RFID systems that work with radio-frequency labels of both bands. Such a way requires a lot of efforts of software and hardware developers, which is associated with significant financial costs. Such costs are reasonable under the condition of payback due to widespread introduction of radio-frequency identification in a large number of libraries.
\nA common problem of widespread introduction of radio-frequency identification technology in libraries at present is the relatively high cost of equipment and availability only to libraries with good sources of finance. This is equally true for both HF and UHF systems. The cost of such equipment consists of two main components: the cost of RFID readers and the cost of radio-frequency tags. The share of radio-frequency tag cost in projects is growing rapidly with increasing library stock collection. For libraries with the collection of more than 100,000 document copies, to be labeled, the share of tags is already determining the cost of the RFID automation project.
\nDrastic cost reduction for the use of radio-frequency identification technology is possible due to repeated use of radio-frequency labels at several stages of product life cycle in the supply chain, from manufacturer to consumer. For libraries, this means that in order to reduce the cost of RFID library systems, printed publications must be marked with radio-frequency tags in manufacturer’s printing house. Labels should be used to automate manufacturing, warehousing, and delivery processes. This is the main direction of development of automatic identification systems based on the EPC concept. Libraries will receive such documents already marked with EPC-type labels that carry information identifying a document as an object of accounting in the global EPC network. The use of such tags in RFID library systems will eliminate the need for libraries to purchase them independently, but the system must support work with tags, used in EPC systems. In other words, the library RFID system must be integrated into a global identification system, based on the EPC concept. Taking into account the fact that the EPC system is currently working with labels of UHF band, for most libraries with the book collection, marked with HF markers, such possibility will appear only in connection with appearance of universal systems that work with tags of both types.
\nThe emergence of universal systems is dictated not only by needs of libraries. There are a number of areas, where use of HF radio-frequency labels is preferred due to physical properties of electromagnetic waves. Increased penetrability of working field of the HF readers allows more efficient reading of labels located inside the objects of accounting or inside package. Relatively small range of HF tags, which is essentially possible, makes them preferable in systems with high information security requirements. At the same time, inclusion of such systems in the global identification system significantly expands their functionality.
\nThe universal systems are still a matter of the future, but their emergence is already supported by existing international standards. If we consider the recent history of the regulatory framework of radio-frequency identification technology over the last ~15 years, we can see a clear trend of transition of existing centers of standardization, from statement of current situation in the market of RFID equipment, to creation of a regulatory framework that determines and stimulates further development of technologies in the direction of integration of RFID systems of similar types.
\nWithout going into the background history, we can say that in the beginning of 2000s, two standardization centers, working on basic RFID standards for logistics tasks, were formed in the world:
Joint Technical Committee ISO/IEC JTC1 “Information technology” /SC 31 “Automatic identification and data capture techniques” developed by the group of standards ISO/IEC 18000 for all types of RFID equipment, including HF and UHF.
“EPC global Inc.” organization is promoting the concept of electronic product code as a single identifier for all automatic identification systems, including RFID systems, and proposed a standard for manufacturers of UHF equipment “EPC UHF Class 1 Generation 2”.
The existence of two different standard groups that determined operation of similar types of devices and were incompatible with each other was a significant obstacle to development of RFID systems. None of them was fully supported by equipment manufacturers. From two ranges that are most used in practical fields, HF and UHF leading manufacturers of HF equipment (including library equipment) were guided by ISO/IEC 18000-3 Mode 1 standard and manufacturers of UHF equipment by EPC C1g2. Use of equipment of a particular range in specific areas was determined by their characteristics and limitations arising from physical properties of electromagnetic waves. In addition, the logical structure of labels of these ranges was significantly different from each other. This fact, along with the difference in frequency ranges, made HF and UHF systems alternative to each other.
\nThe first step towards harmonization of two standardization trends was made by ISO/IEC JTC1. In 2006, a supplement was added to the existing ISO/IEC 18000 group of standards and an ISO/IEC 18000-63 standard was adopted, which defines a data exchange protocol between UHF RFID devices, compatible with the protocol EPC C1g2.
\nThe next step was the development in 2011, by the GS1 international organization together with EPC global Inc., of a standard “EPC Class 1 HF”, which defined EPC protocol concepts for HF RFID equipment. The new standard was supported by ISO/IEC JTC1/SC31 by adopting a similar supplement “Mode 3” to ISO/IEC 18000-3 standard.
\nAt present, we can talk about the existence of a regulatory framework for production and use of RFID equipment, specialized for operation in automation systems, based on the concept of EPC and operating in both frequency bands [22]. In this case, RFID readers of both types will have the same functionality, and radio-frequency tags will have a similar logical structure, described in the following international standards:
HF band—ISO/IEC 18000-3 Mode3 (EPC Class 1 HF)
UHF band–ISO/IEC 18000-63 Type C (EPC C1g2)
The existence of a common regulatory framework for production and use of RFID equipment in the most popular frequency bands provides a fundamental opportunity to implement the original EPC concept: using a single electronic product code to identify objects of accounting in RFID systems of various specializations, including library.
\nThe ability of “transparent” work of the EPC RFID system in two ranges, along with the use of EPC tags, requires use of double-frequency RFID tag readers. Creation of such tag readers is a highly technical task. The first step in this direction was made by FEIG Electronic company, which began production of “ID ISC.PRHD102 HF/UHF” [23] mobile readers in 2013, which supported simultaneous operation in HF/UHF bands. The RFID reader cost of this model is approximately 20% higher than the cost of a similar UHF range reader.
\nDespite the presence of a dual band RFID reader, its use in the proposed generic library system today is not possible, as it does not support working with HF tags like ISO/IEC 18000-3 Mode 3 (EPC Class 1 HF). In addition, until today it is the only dual-band RFID reader in the market, and readers of various types are required to create RFID library systems.
\nThe possibility of producing label EPC HF band appeared in 2013, when NXP Semiconductors company started production of ICODE ILT type chips [24], which comply with ISO/IEC 18000-3 Mode 3 (EPC Class 1 HF). On the basis of these chips it is possible to produce library HF labels of EPC type, but until today such labels are not presented in the market and are not used in RFID systems.
\nFrom the aforesaid, it is visible that emergence of universal RFID library systems today is problematic. Developers of RFID systems face the problem of lack of necessary equipment in the market: tags and readers, and manufacturers are in no hurry to invest in establishing production of new equipment due to the lack of created sales market. Current situation remained very similar to that of the 1990ths for the whole radio-frequency identification technology.
\nImplementation of the large RFID system project, with the use of HF band EPC tags, can change the situation in an area where use of this band labels is advisable along with UHF labels. Within the framework of such a project, developments can be made, further commercialization of which can change the situation in the market. Implementation of such project at the level that ensures its economic efficiency is possible only for large commercial or state organization. RFID library systems occupy a very modest place in the total number of RFID systems and unlikely will be able to meet their needs of the required scale project.
\nParticipation of libraries in the overall development of automatic identification systems may be in their integration into the supply chain of printed publications, from publisher to reader, along with trading organizations. To do this, RFID library systems must support the EPC concept, and it will make a notable contribution to the development of this concept. Such support requires the development and expansion of the regulatory framework that defines principles of application of RFID equipment, designed for EPC systems, in libraries.
\nParticipation in development of the global EPC network will be useful for libraries. The fundamental difference between libraries and book-selling organizations is that documents of library collection are transferred to users for a limited period, with their subsequent return to the library storage system. At the same time, libraries provide users with advanced opportunities to search for necessary information. Integration of ILS into the global EPC identification system, using services of the Trusted Source of Data network can significantly expand the search capabilities of ILS not only for users of library services, but also for library acquisition services. Inclusion of marked documents of library collections into information space of automated systems, based on EPC standards, can significantly increase their mobility in delivery services of the ILL system in the future to provide the widest possible range for access to the library’s holdings through widespread use of new information technologies, with using technologies of automatic identification and item management.
\nAt present, the Internet of Things (IoT) concept is actively developing. This concept involves creation of a computer network that combines physical objects equipped with means to interact with each other and with ambient medium. Great importance in this network is given to artificial intelligence systems, managing processes and excluding human participation from certain actions and operations. Establishment of such a network is possible only on the basis of standardization of information exchange principles. An important place in development of the IoT concept is taken by technologies of automatic identification, and among them the technology of radio-frequency identification has a leading value. The concept of EPC as the global identification system participates in general development of the Internet of Things [25].
\nIOT network can be represented as a virtual space consisting of objects identified in a standard way, and there are used standard communication channels. Within the frame of such a surrounding, there may be many functionally localized information systems that interact “transparently” with each other. Library documents may participate in such systems. This can significantly extend the functionality of library automation systems. The development of IoT systems with library functionality may partially replace functions of specialized library automation systems. The central place in localized IoT systems is taken by humans, who determine the purpose of activity in any area. The system actively involves information for the program to achieve this purpose and making conditions for its implementation. Information support is a key condition for any kind of human activity. Participation of systems of the IoT in information support means that the system itself will define information needs of people, to select and provide sources of necessary information which are in the area accessible for them.
\nSuch an area is the global information system which has included information objects identified in a standard way. These objects may be electronic documents and printing editions marked by radio-frequency tags identified in the global system of identification. The system can determine nearest location of available copy of desired edition independently, and even it can order its delivery to the required place as the location of necessary publications can be both, trading organizations and libraries. For libraries, this will mean that the number of users of their information services, along with a person, will include expert systems of artificial intelligence. This requires that library document collections exist in the global system of automatic identification and in information space of the IoT network.
\nThe development of IoT as a new communication technology is very fast. Today, such systems are already widely used in automation systems of mass production as Industrial Internet of Things. Mass appearance of such systems in the consumer sphere is predicted in 5–10 years. Such systems already exist in space of electronic information resources in the Internet environment. These are the so-called WEB 3.0 systems, the concept of which was formed in the mid of 2000s [26]. Now they exist as technological platforms for formation of content of the smart websites. Inclusion of physical objects into operational space of such systems, which may include library documents, will mean exit of WEB 3.0 systems from Internet virtual space to the real world and transition to IoT systems. This transition is directly related to automatic identification technologies and, to a large extent, to development of radio-frequency identification technology.
\nThe development of library systems of radio-frequency identification in the direction of the EPC and the Internet of things concepts will allow including traditional printed documents, which make up a large part of the library stock collections, in digital information space, along with electronic documents. This will increase accessibility of printed documents to users and promote development of library technologies. This will allow libraries to integrate more fully into global information space at the next stage of development of information technologies as a global integrated system of library and information support of human activities and take a worthy place in the modern information society.
\nThe appearance of radio-frequency identification technology is associated with the development of microelectronics and computer technology. This technology is also the general direction of automatic identification technology development, which allowed effective use of the computer technology in a wide range of applications. The use of first bar-code and then radio-frequency identification in libraries has significantly improved the traditional methods of servicing readers.
\nThe emergence of electronic documents was the next step in the development of information technology, which allowed libraries to go beyond reading rooms to the limitless expanses of the Internet. The new opportunities have become a serious challenge for traditional documents of library collections, which are significantly inferior to electronic documents in access speed. There were ideas of a total elimination of paper books, but such forecasts do not sound today. The market for paper books has been growing in recent years, which means that paper books have found their place in the modern world. Increasing the availability of paper books in the electronic information space is a very urgent task today.
\nPrinted documents now are a significant part of the library collections around the world. The use of radio-frequency identification technology in libraries together with the concept of the Internet of things will allow including “traditional” printed documents in the digital information space along with electronic documents. This will contribute to the development of library technologies and will allow more fully integrate libraries in the global information space at the next stage of development of information technologies.
\nIntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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