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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"125",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"PID Control, Implementation and Tuning",title:"PID Control",subtitle:"Implementation and Tuning",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The PID controller is considered the most widely used controller. It has numerous applications varying from industrial to home appliances. This book is an outcome of contributions and inspirations from many researchers in the field of PID control. The book consists of two parts; the first is related to the implementation of PID control in various applications whilst the second part concentrates on the tuning of PID control to get best performance. We hope that this book can be a valuable aid for new research in the field of PID control in addition to stimulating the research in the area of PID control toward better utilization in our life.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-166-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6003-8",doi:"10.5772/652",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"pid-control-implementation-and-tuning",numberOfPages:248,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"85fa6169048e8bdeb686e8c50cdce0d7",bookSignature:"Tamer Mansour",publishedDate:"April 19th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/125.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40886,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:9,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:61,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 1st 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 4th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"64880",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"tamer-mansour",fullName:"Tamer Mansour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64880/images/1636_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tamer Mansour graduated from Tohoku University at 2008. Since then, he had been involved with the Aerospace Engineering Department at Tohoku University as a visiting researcher. He had published many papers in international journals like “Advanced Robotics” and “Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics.” He served as a reviewer for “Journal of Sound and Vibration” and “Robotica.” He had the experience in teaching and assisting during the period from 1996-2004. Since October 2004, he started his Ph.D. course and finished in July 2008. During this period, he had the experience as teaching assistant and research assistant in the graduate school of Engineering in Tohoku University. His major fields of interest include control of flexible manipulators and application of intelligent controllers in space robots, PID control, Mechatronics Systems.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"718",title:"Electronics and Instrumentation",slug:"electronics-and-instrumentation"}],chapters:[{id:"15193",title:"Multivariable PID control of an Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment Process",doi:"10.5772/14966",slug:"multivariable-pid-control-of-an-activated-sludge-wastewater-treatment-process",totalDownloads:4512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Norhaliza Abdul Wahab, Reza Katebi and Jonas Balderud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15193",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15193",authors:[{id:"19363",title:"Dr.",name:"Norhaliza",surname:"Abdul Wahab",slug:"norhaliza-abdul-wahab",fullName:"Norhaliza Abdul Wahab"},{id:"137154",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",surname:"Katebi",slug:"reza-katebi",fullName:"Reza Katebi"},{id:"137155",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Balderud",slug:"jonas-balderud",fullName:"Jonas Balderud"}],corrections:null},{id:"15194",title:"Stable Visual PID Control of Redundant Planar Parallel Robots",doi:"10.5772/14953",slug:"stable-visual-pid-control-of-redundant-planar-parallel-robots",totalDownloads:2744,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Miguel A. 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Kadir"}],corrections:null},{id:"15196",title:"Application of Improved PID Controller in Motor Drive System",doi:"10.5772/14963",slug:"application-of-improved-pid-controller-in-motor-drive-system",totalDownloads:6956,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Song Shoujun and Liu Weiguo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15196",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15196",authors:[{id:"19347",title:"Dr.",name:"Shoujun",surname:"Song",slug:"shoujun-song",fullName:"Shoujun Song"},{id:"23004",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiguo",surname:"Liu",slug:"weiguo-liu",fullName:"Weiguo Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"15197",title:"PID control with gravity compensation for hydraulic 6-DOF parallel manipulator",doi:"10.5772/16023",slug:"pid-control-with-gravity-compensation-for-hydraulic-6-dof-parallel-manipulator",totalDownloads:3591,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chifu Yang, Junwei Han, O.Ogbobe Peter and Qitao Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15197",authors:[{id:"22907",title:"Dr.",name:"Chifu",surname:"Yang",slug:"chifu-yang",fullName:"Chifu Yang"},{id:"23108",title:"Prof.",name:"Junwei",surname:"Han",slug:"junwei-han",fullName:"Junwei Han"},{id:"23109",title:"Prof.",name:"Qitao",surname:"Huang",slug:"qitao-huang",fullName:"Qitao Huang"},{id:"23110",title:"Dr.",name:"O. 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Grygiel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15198",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15198",authors:[{id:"22145",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafal",surname:"Grygiel",slug:"rafal-grygiel",fullName:"Rafal Grygiel"},{id:"22146",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Blachuta",slug:"marian-blachuta",fullName:"Marian Blachuta"}],corrections:null},{id:"15199",title:"Multi-Loop PID Control Design by Data-Driven Loop-Shaping Method",doi:"10.5772/14954",slug:"multi-loop-pid-control-design-by-data-driven-loop-shaping-method",totalDownloads:2907,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Masami Saeki and Ryoyu Kishi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15199",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15199",authors:[{id:"19301",title:"Dr.",name:"Masami",surname:"Saeki",slug:"masami-saeki",fullName:"Masami Saeki"},{id:"22717",title:"Mr.",name:"Ryoyu",surname:"Kishi",slug:"ryoyu-kishi",fullName:"Ryoyu Kishi"}],corrections:null},{id:"15200",title:"Neural Network Based Tuning Algorithm for MPID Control",doi:"10.5772/16058",slug:"neural-network-based-tuning-algorithm-for-mpid-control",totalDownloads:3171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tamer Mansour, Atsushi Konno and Masaru Uchiyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15200",authors:[{id:"5455",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",surname:"Mansour",slug:"tamer-mansour",fullName:"Tamer Mansour"},{id:"23157",title:"Prof.",name:"Atsushi",surname:"Konno",slug:"atsushi-konno",fullName:"Atsushi Konno"},{id:"23158",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaru",surname:"Uchiyama",slug:"masaru-uchiyama",fullName:"Masaru Uchiyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"15201",title:"Adaptive PID Control for Asymptotic Tracking Problem of MIMO Systems",doi:"10.5772/14168",slug:"adaptive-pid-control-for-asymptotic-tracking-problem-of-mimo-systems",totalDownloads:2793,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kenichi Tamura and Hiromitsu Ohmori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15201",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15201",authors:[{id:"17034",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiromitsu",surname:"Ohmori",slug:"hiromitsu-ohmori",fullName:"Hiromitsu Ohmori"},{id:"17035",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenichi",surname:"Tamura",slug:"kenichi-tamura",fullName:"Kenichi Tamura"}],corrections:null},{id:"15202",title:"Pre-compensation for a Hybrid Fuzzy PID Control of a Proportional Hydraulic System",doi:"10.5772/15202",slug:"pre-compensation-for-a-hybrid-fuzzy-pid-control-of-a-proportional-hydraulic-system",totalDownloads:3630,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pornjit Pratumsuwan and Chaiyapon Thongchaisuratkrul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15202",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15202",authors:[{id:"19946",title:"Dr.",name:"Pornjit",surname:"Pratumsuwan",slug:"pornjit-pratumsuwan",fullName:"Pornjit Pratumsuwan"},{id:"48387",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaiyapon",surname:"Thongchaisuratkrul",slug:"chaiyapon-thongchaisuratkrul",fullName:"Chaiyapon Thongchaisuratkrul"}],corrections:null},{id:"15263",title:"A New Approach of the Online Tuning Gain Scheduling Nonlinear PID Controller Using Neural Network",doi:"10.5772/15964",slug:"a-new-approach-of-the-online-tuning-gain-scheduling-nonlinear-pid-controller-using-neural-network",totalDownloads:3651,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the design, development and implementation of a novel proposed online-tuning Gain Scheduling Dynamic Neural PID (DNN-PID) Controller using neural network suitable for real-time manipulator control applications. The unique feature of the novel DNN-PID controller is that it has highly simple and dynamic self-organizing structure, fast online-tuning speed, good generalization and flexibility in online-updating. The proposed adaptive algorithm focuses on fast and efficiently optimizing Gain Scheduling and PID weighting parameters of Neural MLPNN model used in DNN-PID controller. This approach is employed to implement the DNN-PID controller with a view of controlling the joint angle position of the highly nonlinear pneumatic artificial muscle (PAM) manipulator in real-time through Real-Time Windows Target run in MATLAB SIMULINK® environment. The performance of this novel proposed controller was found to be outperforming in comparison with conventional PID controller. These results can be applied to control other highly nonlinear SISO and MIMO systems. Keywords: highly nonlinear PAM manipulator, proposed online tuning Gain Scheduling Dynamic Nonlinear PID controller (DNN-PID), real-time joint angle position control, fast online tuning back propagation (BP) algorithm, pneumatic artificial muscle (PAM) actuator.",signatures:"Ho Pham Huy Anh and Nguyen Thanh Nam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15263",authors:[{id:"22699",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho Pham Huy",surname:"Anh",slug:"ho-pham-huy-anh",fullName:"Ho Pham Huy Anh"},{id:"39132",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen Thanh",surname:"Nam",slug:"nguyen-thanh-nam",fullName:"Nguyen Thanh Nam"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"247",title:"Advances in PID Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0a5bf1875562e6d243c8ea120cf4284",slug:"advances-in-pid-control",bookSignature:"Valery D. 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The first topic covers the approaches to describing the chaos phenomena in terms of generalized differential equations; the second one describes the different approaches applied to the study of the non-classical dynamical systems. The topic Chaos and Fractals illustrates the application of the cellular automata, non-classical differential equations, and surprising attractors; the appearance of new physical phenomena are discussed in the Chaos in the Classical and Quantum Mechanics. The topic Advances of Chaos describes the novel results in the pure and applied science based on the chaotic background. The application in the Pure Sciences and Technologies covers the achievements based on the characteristics of the chaos fundamentals. Since huge progress on chaos theory predetermines its application in the many areas of pure and applied science, the proposed book will be demanded by many scientists and industrial engineers, as well as post-graduate students and beyond.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-123-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-122-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-124-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"38f0946fe1dd3314939e670799f88426",bookSignature:"Dr. Mykhaylo I. Andriychuk",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12019.jpg",keywords:"Deterministic Laws, Chaotic Dynamical Systems, Chaotic Mixing, Bifurcation of Vector Fields, Fractal Patterns, Fractal Mapping, Entropy, Non-linear Transformations, Chaos and Fuzzy Systems, Euler Method, Nonlinear Chaotic Maps, Application",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"16 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"IEEE senior member and known researcher in the antenna synthesis according to the desired amplitude characteristics, numerical methods for solving the non-linear integral equations, and asymptotic scattering theory.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"57755",title:"Dr.",name:"Mykhaylo",middleName:"I.",surname:"Andriychuk",slug:"mykhaylo-andriychuk",fullName:"Mykhaylo Andriychuk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57755/images/system/57755.jpg",biography:"Prof. Andriychuk obtained the M.Sc. degree in computational mathematics from the Lviv National University, the Ph.D. degree in application of computational techniques from the Kyiv National University, and the D.Sc. degree in mathematical modelling from the Lviv Polytechnic National University in 1976, 1987, and 2015, respectively. He has been employed by the Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems of Mechanics and Mathematics (IAPMM), Ukraine for more than 40 years. Currently, he is the Head of Department of the Numerical Methods in Mathematical Physics at the IAPMM. His professional performance includes more than 160 papers in the scientific journals and international conference proceedings, which concern to the diffraction and antenna synthesis theory, optimization methods and nonlinear integral and matrix equations. He is author of two monographs in antenna theory. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72385",title:"3D Solid Reconstruction from 2D Orthographic Views",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91977",slug:"3d-solid-reconstruction-from-2d-orthographic-views",body:'\nCurrently, in the industry, there are two main types of geometric design: 2D designing shown in a multi-view drawing, which is a popular and traditional technical document, and 3D designing, which exists in the computer-aided design (CAD) and CAM systems such as Inventor, Catia, and Solidwork.
\nThe 3D designing has many advanced applications, such as dynamic and static simulation, digital machining, visual observation, etc., and is required when we operate a CAM/CAE system. This approach has been hugely successful, initially appearing from 1990 with AutoCAD R12 and getting better and almost perfect now. Still, besides its advantages, designers should have the skills to read and understand technical drawings as well as proficiently use the 3D CAD systems, which is inconvenient for long-time engineers who are familiar with the traditional design only. Also, these 3D solid files have poor compatibility between 3D CAD software even with the same software but different versions (due to commerciality). Besides, modifying a 3D CAD file is much more complicated than editing a 2D CAD File. Additionally, the training for old engineers to get used to using 3D CAD systems instead of using 2D drawing consumes a long time. Even after having a 30-hour training course, they feel that creating two views is easier and faster than creating a 3D model, which usually uses auxiliary objects such as work plane, work axis, work point (e.g., in Inventor), etc.
\nWith 2D designing, the designer only needs to create 2D technical drawings, which are comfortable and very familiar to the engineers. Compatibility between 2D CAD versions is also perfect (the higher version will read the file of the lower version and can convert files of the newer version to the older version form). Besides, most of the current products have been being produced and stored by technical drawings.
\nBoth types of design mentioned above need the CAD system can convert from one to another automatically. From 3D to 2D, the conversion process is very simple, but the reverse process (i.e., 2D to 3D that is also called reconstruction) is so complex that up to now, there is still not any software that can do it as thoroughly as we have been expecting. That is why the reconstruction problem has been studied since the first 1970s, and a large number of works can be found in the scientific literature. These can be classified into two significant categories: B-rep-oriented approach [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14] and CSG-oriented approach [15, 16, 17, 18].
\nThe survey of these works allows for the following assessments: recently, the B-rep-based reconstruction approach is more appreciated than the CSG-based approach. That is mainly because CSG-based methods are less suitable for complex shapes and structures (especially when basic blocks interact, which will be difficult to identify them) and often require more user interaction than the B-rep-based method. However, there are still some limitations that exist in the B-rep-based approach as follows:
\nSome methods are only appropriate and proposed for polyhedral subjects. In contrast, the other authors have expanded the polyhedral approach for the objects formed by curved faces but have not yet dealt with complex intersections and interactive structures of basic blocks containing curved surfaces. Most of the reconstruction methods require the input of three views, while the technical drawings usually use only two views to describe the common machine parts. The elimination of all the invalid candidate objects is often incomplete and has not used line-type information on the views, leading to the need for more views to remove these invalid objects. There has not been a single work that has achieved all three main advantages: reconstructing a 3D solid object formed by revolving surfaces, from two views, and giving enough solutions of the 3D solid compatible with CAD/CAM systems.
\nThis chapter presents in detail our 3D solid reconstruction system without the limitations above; that means the following have been applied:
Using only two given views.
Employing B-rep approach instead of the CGS.
Extending the object domain into the solids formed by planes, cylinders, and cones.
Outputting all solutions of the 3D solid while reducing the consumed time.
Creating the 3D solid compatible with CAD/CAM/CAE systems.
The following synthetic reconstruction method [6] combines and develops polyhedron reconstruction methods of Wesley and Yan with Sakurai’s reconstruction method of objects with curved faces. Let
where fVR is the mapping function from 2D vertices in Ps to 3D vertices,
In each mapping function, rules, along with some constraints, are applied to low-level objects to create higher-level objects and eliminate “ghost” elements.
\n\nFigure 1 shows the steps of a typical B-rep-based 3D model automatic reconstruction method. The method consists of eight steps. The main steps are candidate vertex formation, candidate edge formation, candidate face creation, candidate block creation, and decision-making. These steps correspond to the mapping functions in Eq. (1). When two edges intersect, they are divided into four edges in the edge segmentation step. If the two faces intersect, they are also divided into four faces in the cutting edge insertion step.
\nBlock diagram of a typical B-rep-based 3D model reconstruction method.
* The following are the definitions in 2D view (see Figure 2).
Lines are divided into line segments by intersecting points.
A node is an endpoint of a line segment.
A curved line containing extreme points should be divided into two segments (e.g., a circle should be divided into two arcs).
A view is a set of nodes and line segments.
Definitions in 2D view and 3D object [
* Definitions in 3D object (see Figure 2).
A solid is a body occupying a range in the three-dimensional space enclosed by several surfaces.
A face is a segment of surface which constitutes a boundary between the solid and the exterior space.
An edge line is an intersection of two different faces. If we desire to distinguish the line added for the identity of a curved surface from the others, the added line is called an auxiliary edge line.
A vertex is an intersecting point of more than three edge lines.
The reconstruction problem (see Figure 3) is that from the front view and top view to find out the solid object
The projection conditions:
Block diagram of the reconstruction system.
\n
Topology conditions of a solid:
Where: {V} is the set of vertices; {E} is the set of edges; {F} is the set of faces;
A general way to solve the problem consists of two main phases:
From front view and top view, to find out a set of candidate objects (vertices, edges, faces—these objects satisfy only the condition of projection).
To find out a subset in the set of candidate objects to meet two groups of conditions above, which means some false candidate objects must be removed.
The growing problems are:
The algorithm to create the candidate objects should be in general for many types of surfaces such as plane, cylinder, cone, and sphere.
The algorithm for removing false candidate elements can be against the increase in the number of the candidate. So, we need to use an efficient strategy for browsing the combination of assumed values by using the rule for the propagation of attributes (true and false) of elements, satisfying the projection and topology conditions, avoiding the combination of all.
From the original database of two given views in AutoCAD that follows the DXF code, create the database as follows:
\nNode1[] and Node2[] are two matrices of the type ADS-POINT (used for ObjectARX programming in Microsoft Visual Studio 2015).
\nFrom database Node1[] and Node2[] above, find out any pair
where ﻉ is the small value depending on the user’s input.
\nThe pair
The algorithm for recognition of all candidate vertices.
It is not difficult to specify
Set
From the original database of the front view, create the database as follows:
Matrix lineseg1 [100, 2]: lineseg1[
Matrix line1[100][20]: line1[
It is similar to create lineseg2[][] and line2[][] from the top view.
\nFrom the database above, find out any pair of vertices
The pair
Ed[] [1] and Ed[] [2] show two vertices k and m.
\nEd[] [3] and Ed[] [4] show the members of line1[][] and line2[][] (i.e., Ed[] [3] and Ed[] [4] show front view and top view of the edge).
\nThe conditions (11) and (12) are used for recognition of any regular edge.
\nIf ver[
If ver[k] [2] = ver[
Note: for each edge, check for the possible existence of intermediate vertices. If an intermediate vertex is found, the vertex causes the creation of two new edges (unless one of them already exists).
\n\n
i. Projecting face (the face is perpendicular to the plane of projection)
For each member
\n
From the set of edges on the frontal projecting surface j, find out all minimal closed loops of edges, they specify a new candidate face. The algorithm for recognition of frontal projecting faces is shown in Figure 5. It is similar to recognizing horizontal projecting faces. The candidate faces should be stored in the database as follows:
Faceed[100][30]: faceed[
ii. Cylinder. The cylinders mentioned here are projecting cylinders so that in any view, one projection of the cylinder becomes a circle. The circle should be divided into two arcs. The cylinder is divided into two half projecting cylinders; the algorithm for recognition of these half cylinders is the same as the algorithm above.
iii. Cone. The axis of the cone mentioned here is perpendicular to the plane of projections so that in any view, one projection of the cone becomes two circles (one of them may be a point). The two circles were divided into four arcs, which mean the cone is divided into two half cones.
Algorithm for recognition of projecting faces.
A searching tree removes false candidate elements by checking conditions (5), (6), and (7). The purpose of this traversal process is to eliminate false assumptions due to dissatisfaction with topological conditions. To counteract the increase in browsing time on assumption binary tree, the duration of this process is exponentially increased: 2n, where n is the number of assumed faces. Status management and browse planning aim at selecting the face for the next step with the highest priority (the priority is assessed by its amount of information, for example, the face contains many edges, and the face will see a high level of priority). Conflicts are found during the browsing process. If it meets any conflict, the next step will be backtracked.
\nBased on the condition (5), the algorithm to create the solid is described as follows: for each range, the faces are numbered in height order; the primitive solid is generated from first to second, third to fourth, etc. The outcome solid is a union of all such primitive solids (see Figure 7b).
\nThe proposed reconstruction method has verified reliability by a program written in Visual Studio (see Figure 6). The program was compiled and then built an Objectarx file to run in AutoCAD. After downloading the Objectarx file, AutoCAD has an extended command to rebuild the 3D solid model from its two views (see Figure 7). The 3D solid model has been exported as the SAT file that PTC Creo Parametric 3.0 (CAM software package) can use. The tool paths generated in PTC Creo (see Figure 7c) have been compiled into the specific codes needed for the HS Super MC500 CNC machine to mill the surfaces. The machined part was then 3D scanned. The 3D comparison result generated by Geomagic software is shown in Figure 7(d). The machining accuracy in Figure 7(d) indicates that the 3D solid model reconstructed from its two views is compatible and usable for CAD/CAM/CAQ/CNC systems. The proposed method is limited to perfect input drawings that contain only lines, circles, and arcs. However, an engineering drawing is often a mixture of geometric representations and annotations, and it\'s challenging to ensure that engineering drawings are absolutely accurate. Therefore, techniques to reconstruct the 3D solid model from real drawings should consider these imperfections [6].
\nExtracting of ObjectARX program in Microsoft visual studio 2015.
(a) Two given views; (b) solid creating automatically; (c) tool path generation; (d) 3D comparison between the CAD model and the part machined by CNC.
The 3D solid models are extremely useful in techniques. An excellent way to create the 3D solid is an automatic reconstruction from its views. The 3D solid automatic reconstruction system presented in this chapter has advanced features as follows:
Using only two given views.
Outputting all solutions of the 3D solid while reducing the consumed time.
Creating the 3D solid compatible with CAD/CAM/CAE systems.
Nrf2 is a central regulator of antioxidant response element (ARE)-related gene expression and immune response. This gene encodes a transcription factor that is a member of basic leucine zipper (bZIP) protein family. The encoded transcription factor regulates genes containing antioxidant response elements (ARE) that many of these genes involve the generation of free radicals. Nrf2 is expressed in the kidney, liver, and intestine where detoxification occurs routinely. Nrf2 is located in cytoskeleton attached to Keap1. Nrf2, encoded by the nuclear factor (erythroid derived 2)-like 2 (Nfe2l2) gene, is a leucine zipper protein and a polypeptide. It has a molecular weight of 66 kDa and is widely expressed [1, 2]. Nfe2l2 gene contains a xenobiotic responsive element (XRE) at −712(XREL1) position of promoter region and two additional XRE-like elements found in +755(XREL2) and + 850(XREL3) positions, which are directly modulated by aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) activation [3]. Nrf2, which is found in the cytoplasm in normal or stress-free conditions, migrates to the nucleus in case of oxidative stress and attaches to DNA. Mutations and changes in Nrf2 expression have been described in many cancer types [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Upregulation of Nrf2 is linked with many types of cancer, including the lung, skin, prostate, breast, and head–neck [6, 8, 10, 11]. Many mechanisms have been reported for the increased activity of Nrf2 in cancer cells. Some of them, (1) somatic mutations in Kelch-like ECH-related protein 1 (Keap1), Cullin 3 (CUL3) or Nrf2 [12]; (2) epigenetic silencing of Keap1 [13]; (3) abnormal protein accumulation that disrupts the interaction between Nrf2 and Keap1 [14]; (4) transcriptional upregulation of Nrf2 through oncogene-dependent signaling [15]; and modification of Keap1 by metabolic programming [16]. Increasing studies show that Nrf2 activation may not be beneficial in all types and stages of cancer over the past few years. In fact, Nrf2 can ensure survival of not only normal cells, but also cancer cells, and supports the process by which Nrf2 activation in malignant cells can sustain development of the disease. The roles of the bad or good side of Nrf2 [7, 8] have caused debates because it is still not clear whether Nrf2 acts as a tumor suppressor or oncogene [7, 9]. Nrf2 hyperactivity in tumors creates a protective environment that promotes survival by protecting cancer cells from radiotherapy, oxidative stress, and chemotherapeutic agents. Therefore, there is a growing range of research aimed at identifying the boundaries between Nrf2 positive and negative responses in cancer and targeting Nrf2 therapeutically [17, 18, 19]. It is clear that Nrf2 exactly plays its protective role without distinguishing for cancer and normal cells. Current studies acknowledge the double roles of Nrf2 in carcinogenesis: protective in the early stages and harmful in the later stages.
Nrf2 is inactivated transcriptionally by binding to its regulator Keap1, which targets Nrf2 for proteasomal degradation in basal conditions. CUL3 ubiquitin ligase, which governs the degradation, is a third protein. Under stable conditions, ubiquitous Nrf2 is rapidly disrupted by 26S proteasome (Figure 1). Nrf2 has a very short half-life of less than 30 minutes. Therefore, Nrf2 is not abundant under basal conditions and, in light of current studies, supports the claim that Nrf2 is found at a relatively low level in most organs or tissues [20, 21, 22]. Nrf2-Keap1 is of first importance in balancing homeostatic environment since cells need to respond by adapting to different stresses. Cells can use highly toxic molecules to be used in the physiological signal. These molecules contain reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen types (RNSs) such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and nitric oxide (NO). Low concentrations of these molecules are used for adaptive intracellular signaling, and high concentrations are used for defense mechanisms against microorganisms [23, 24]. But, physiological concentrations of these molecules need to be precisely regulated, and Nrf2-Keap1 play important role in this signaling.
Schematic of Nrf2 pathway. a) under normal conditions, Nrf2 is structurally bound to Keap1 protein in the cytoplasm. Keap1 regulates Nrf2. Keap1 targets Nrf2 for ubiquitination and then degradation via proteasomal pathway. b) ROS/electrophiles can cause sequestration of the Nrf2/Keap1 complex and subsequent phosphorylation of Nrf2, which is transferred to the nucleus. Nrf2 regulates transcriptional activation of antioxidant and detoxifying enzymes by binding target genes to antioxidant-sensitive elements (ARE) in promoter regions.
Nrf2 is a transcription factor that regulates cellular stress signals and reacts by directing different transcriptional programs. Limited number of researchers were working only on inhibiting its protective role and carcinogenesis in suppressing oxidative or electrophilic stress till a little more than a decade ago [25, 26], but recently, Nrf2 has become a topic of widespread interest and research area. Kelch-like ECH-related protein 1 (Keap1) is a negative regulator, has encouraged many publications, and has become an important topic of discussion. The debate focuses on whether Nrf2 is tumor suppressor or reverse oncogenic, leading to the question of whether Nrf2 should be targeted for anticancer therapeutic agents [27].
Genetic analysis has shown mutations in Nrf2 and Keap1 in some cancers. These mutations increase Nrf2 expression and are related with resistance to chemotherapy and poor survival rate from cancer [18, 28]. Sequence analyses of Nrf2 and Keap1 have identified many mutations within Kelch domain and in the Neh2 domain of Keap1-Nrf2; this causes Nrf2 to unstable due to Keap1’s inability to target Nrf2 for degradation and ubiquitination (Figure 1a). Whether activation or inhibition of Nrf2 is a good strategy for treatment or prevention of cancer is still unclear. In vivo studies have shown that basal Nrf2 protein levels decrease with age and associate with lower expression target genes of Nrf2 [29, 30]. Therefore, it is more probable that Nrf2 acts as a defense against the aging process caused by free radicals, which gradually decreases over time, leading to accumulation of free radicals that can cause cancer progression [31, 32].
Keap1 has more than 20 groups of free sulfhydryl (-SH) in the cysteine residues. These highly reactive molecules for stress act as sensitive sensors. Reactive cysteine thiols are present as (S-) under physiological pH and are more reactive to ROS/RNS than sulfhydryl groups [33]. Keap1 alters cysteine residues, giving a response to oxidative or electrophilic stresses [34, 35]. Tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ), an electrophile, reacts with reactive cysteine residues in Keap1 to activate Nrf2 [36]. Binding of tBHQ to Keap1 does not impair binding of Nrf2 to Keap1; this indicates that sequestration of Nrf2 from Keap1 homodimer cannot explain electrophilic mediated induction of Nrf2 accumulation within cells [37]. These modifications result in conformational changes of Keap1 and reverse degradation of Nrf2, which is then transcriptionally activated.
Different types of stressors react differently with the cysteine residues in Keap1, suggesting that the residues of cysteine in some way contribute to activity of Keap1 individually or in combination (23,24). This indicates that Nrf2-Keap1 mechanism is not a simple “on” or “off” button mechanism but can instead respond with different mechanisms by various stress factors [23, 35].
Some of the promising Nrf2 activator or inhibitor agents are currently in different phases of clinical trials [38, 39, 40]. Human clinical trials were kept assessing the effects of inducers [41, 42]. These include: (1) approved and other purpose agents such as dimethyl fumarate (DMF) and Oltipraz; (2) compounds purified from natural sources such as broccoli sprouts, curcumin, resveratrol, and sulforaphane; and (3) highly potent triterpenoid derivatives, e.g., RTA 402-408 and CXA-10 [43].
Nrf2 protein, which forms a heterodimer structure with MA or Jun protein in the nucleus (Figure 1b), binds to ARE (Antioxidant Response Element) sequence on DNA and provides regulation of related gene expressions in favor of activation of antioxidant mechanisms [44]. PI3-kinase is responsible for nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and binding of Nrf2 to ARE to induce enzymes such as GST, HO-1, and NQO1. It is essentially a common DNA sequence called an antioxidant response element (ARE) similar to Nrf2-binding motif for induction [45].
Cancer cells have higher ROS levels than normal cells. Nevertheless, they can adapt to high ROS levels with the activating of certain ways that allow them to proliferate and survive. These ways include the activation of antioxidants to reduce ROS, as well as metabolic reprogramming pathways that can produce more ROS and make cancer cells more vulnerable to future stress [46, 47]. Keap1-Nrf2 pathway is one of the most important signaling pathways that play a role in the survival and defense of cell against xenobiotics and oxidative stress.
Keap1 contains 27 cysteines, which account for 4.33% of all amino acids, whereas the average cysteines content in human proteins is 2.26% [48]. Proteomic analyses have found that several of the 27 cysteines in Keap1 have been modified to respond to different electrophiles [49]. However, only three of the Keap1 cysteines, Cys151, Cys273, and Cys288, were found to be functionally important for Keap1-Nrf2 regulation [50]. Cys273 and Cys288 target Cys151, which is a subset of Nrf2 activators, although they are essentials for Keap1 to inhibit Nrf2 under basal conditions. During oxidative stress, ROS reacts with cysteine residues of Keap1, including C151, C273, and C288, allowing Nrf2 to escape Keap1-mediated degradation [51].
Human Nrf2 protein has 605 amino acids and seven highly preserved Neh (Nrf2-ECH homology) domains from Neh1 to Neh7 (Figure 2). Neh1 domain contains small musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma homologous proteins (MafF, MafG or MafK) and a basic leucine zipper (bZIP) motif that is heterodimerized for DNA binding and transcriptional activation [52]. Neh2 regulatory domain of N-terminal contains DLG and ETGE motifs critical to Keap1 binding and resulting in Nrf2 degradation [53].
Domain structure of Keap1 and Nrf2. a) Keap1 is sectioned into five domains. These are N-terminal region (NTR), Tramtrack, and Bric-à-Brac (BTB) domain, an intervening region (IVR), six Kelch repeats, and a C-terminal region (CTR). The BTB domain mediates homodimerization of Keap1 monomers as well as Cul3 binding. The IVR contains several important cysteines for regulating Keap1 activity by forming a complex with CUL3 and RBX1 to form a component of E3 ubiquitin ligase. Both IVR and CTR are responsible for Keap1 to retain Nrf2 in the cytoplasm. The NTR contains 60 amino acids. The Kelch domain in Keap1 consists of six repeat sequences (K1–K6) and interacts with DLG and ETGE of Nrf2 domain. The Kelch domain also contains double glycine repeats (DGR). b) Nrf2 comprises seven Nrf2-ECH(Neh1-7) homology domains. The Neh6 domain, which is serine-rich region, and Neh2 are important for binding because they are negative regulatory domains of Keap1 and β-TrCP, respectively, resulting in Nrf2 ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Neh3, Neh4, and Neh5 domains are necessary for binding to transcriptional activity. The Neh1 domain is a basic leucin zipper motif, which is responsible for its stability, ARE sequence to bind in DNA, and dimerization with sMaf proteins. The Neh7 domain interacts with the retinoid X receptor alpha (RXR
Neh3 domain is located in C-terminal of Nrf2 contains VFLVPK motif, which is critical for binding to CHD6 helicase [54]. Nrf2’s N-terminal includes two transactivation domains, Neh4 and Neh5, and both domains were found to be necessary for Nrf2’s maximum transactivation activity [55]. Neh6 domain contains a degron containing a DSG motif embedded in a set of serine-rich residues. This binding region is a docking site for adaptor protein β-TrCP, which mediates ubiquitin ligase of Nrf2 by a Cullin1-Rbx1 complex [56]. Neh7 domain interacts with the retinoic acid receptor a (RARa) and suppresses Nrf2 transcriptional activity in the nucleus [57].
Nrf2 degradation can be stopped when exposed to electrophiles and ROS. Reactive cysteines are a small set of protein cysteines with pKa values relatively low around 4 and 5 due to the effect of surrounding amino acid microenvironment, unlike most protein cysteine thiols with pKa values of about 8.5. Reactive thiols are perfectly targets for electrophiles, and indeed, several electrophilic reagents have been shown to directly alter thiols. The modification of Keap1 is thought to impair structural integrity of Keap1-Cul3 E3 ligase complex, causing a decrease in ubiquitination activity, thereby facilitating accumulation of Nrf2 [58, 59]. In recent studies, presence of unrestricted Keap1 has recognized deleterious effects to cellular homeostasis and highlighted Nrf2’s role as Keap1’s suppressor that implies that Nrf2 and Keap1 are mutually blocking each other [60]. Under normal conditions, Keap1 plays an important role in limiting Nrf2 activity by binding to DLG/ETGE motifs in the Neh2 domain and inducing ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of Nrf2 (Figure 1a) [61].
Permanent activation of Nrf2 in tumor cells is activation of p62, that is, a multifunctional protein involved in selective autophagy that is often overexpressed in tumors [6]. p62 in phosphoryl form can bind with Keap1 in the same binding domain for Nrf2, thereby competitively inhibiting Keap1/Nrf2 interaction resulting in Nrf2 stabilization and translocated into the nucleus. Nrf2 can consecutively upregulate p62 gene expression, thereby upregulation of a pro-survival circuit that can support tumor formation. The accumulation of proteins and metabolites that disrupt Keap1-Nrf2 can activate Nrf2 in cancer. p62 is the best-known disruptor that competes with Nrf2 for direct attachment to Keap1 through an SQSTM1 motif similar to ETGE motif in Nrf2 [62]. After p62 is bound to Keap1, it causes Keap1 to go into autophagic degradation [63]. Recent studies have shown that p62 gene expression is upregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma and that the activation of Nrf2 induced by p62 is critical for HCC development [64, 65].
Kelch domain of Keap1 interacts with two different sequences of amino acids found in the N-terminal of Nrf2: ETGE and DLG [66]. Based on a series of critical observations, “Hinge-Latch model” (Figure 3) that is Keap1-Nrf2 interactive two-site binding model was proposed [66]. ETGE motif has a higher affinity for Kelch-repetition domain than DLG motif. Therefore, Keap1 captures Nrf2 through ETGE motif before DLG motif is attached to adjacent unoccupied Kelch-repeat domains; this is called the “hinge and latch” mechanism [67, 68]. The modes of binding DLG and ETGE to Keap1 are quite different [69]. Keap1-DLG binding is characterized as kinetically a “fast-on-fast-off,” which is thermodynamically guided by both enthalpy and entropy. In contrast, ETGE-Keap1 binding is characterized by completely enthalpy guided and involves a two-state reaction that leads to more stable conformation [70, 71]. These findings support the claim that DLG motif serves as a converter that transmits environmental stress to Nrf2 induction as a latch (Figure 3).
The regulation of Nrf2 via the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE mechanism under basal and stress conditions, as explained with the “hinge and latch” model. a) under basal condition, two Keap1 molecules and one Nrf2 molecule form a trimer structure and Nrf2 is polyubiquitylated by the Keap1-Cul3 E3 ubiquitin ligases and then disrupted by 26S proteasome (
Nrf2 plays a major role in the protective mechanism against xenobiotics, which can initiate carcinogenesis by damaging DNA [72]. Nrf2 increases expression of antioxidant enzymes. Gene transcription profiles showed that not all genes around Nrf2 are transcriptionally regulated by Nrf2 binding. These genes require transcription factors, cofactors, and intermediaries for complete activation [73]. Antioxidant molecules such as glutathione (GSH), vitamin C and E, bilirubin, and antioxidant proteins such as thioredoxin (Trx), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), catalase, peroxiredoxin, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) are major antioxidant molecules that play a role in balancing oxidative stress. Nrf2 and its downregulatory effectors have been shown to be critically important regulators in the regulation of intracellular redox state and in protecting cells from oxidative stress and chemical damage in the lungs and liver [74, 75]. Nrf2 loss has been associated with advanced metastasis. For example, loss of Nrf2 initiates a harmful cascading of decreased GST expression and raises ROS level, ultimately leading to DNA damage and tumor formation [76]. The role of Nrf2 signaling as a tumor suppressor is due to a lot of in vivo studies comparing susceptibility to carcinogenicity chemically induced in Nrf2-knockout mice (Nfe2l2−/−) and wild-type mice. In this context, Nrf2-null mice were found to be more prone to developing bladder, stomach, and skin cancer when exposed to carcinogen substances compared with wild-type mice. This gene has a deficiency and susceptibility to oxidative damage, and chemical carcinogenesis increases in Nrf2-knockout mice [75]. Expression of antioxidant and phase II enzymes was found to be eliminated in mice with Nrf2 deficiency. Heavy quinone-induced made mice with Nrf2 deficiency more prone to skin cancer, while NQO1 and GST expression regulated by Nrf2 decreased compared with wild mice [77]. In addition, expression levels of ARE-mediated genes such as glutathione-
Nrf2 downstream targets are separated into three main groups: phase I and phase II drug metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and phase III drug carriers. Phase I enzymes oxidize drugs or xenobiotics such as aldo-ketoreductases (AKRs) and cytochrome P450s (CYPs) encoded by genes regulated by Nrf2; Phase II enzymes conjugate products of phase I reactions, while phase III enzymes carry final metabolites out of cells in collaboration to implement a cytoprotective function. Several phase I enzymes also play important roles in removal of xenobiotics through hydrolysis, reduction, and oxidation. Phase I, cytochrome P450 (CYP) family, aldehyde oxidase (ACO) contain modification of xenobiotics by enzymes such as aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs), aldo-ketoreductases (AKRs), alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs), esterase, flavins-containing monooxygenases (FMOs), and cyclooxygenases (COXs) [80]; (ii) phase II enzymes such as GST, UGT, Sulfotransferases (SULTs), N-acetyltransferases (NATs), and methyltransferases (MTs) add polar groups to phase I products to prepare them from excretion [81]; and (iii) carriers, ATP-binding cassette (ABC), and dissolved solute-carrier (SLC) export metabolites (modified) out of the cell [82].
Phase II drug metabolism or conjugation reactions involve a different group of enzymes, which often lead to water-soluble products that can be excreted with bile or urine. Conjugation reactions include: glucuronidation, acetylation, sulfation, methylation, amino acid and glutathione conjugation.
The protective effects of upregulation of Nrf2 signaling can be in various forms. Protection can be instantaneous by stimulation of genes that are directly regulated through Nrf2 binding to AREs in the target genes [83, 84]. Protective effects can be secondary through stimulation of macromolecular damage removal/repair mechanisms [84, 85]. Protective effects can be tertial through induction of tissue repair/regeneration pathways [86]. p53, which is a tumor suppressor, reduces Nrf2 activity, stopping cell growth and inducing apoptosis [87].
Regulation of Nrf2 can be unstable against the loss of inducible nature of Nrf2 signaling and acquisition of a structurally active phenotype. The constructive signal for expression of cytoprotective enzymes would give cells surviving chance under stress conditions. This seemingly positive condition would become a serious disadvantage in progression of cancer pathogenesis and treatment. Therefore, structural activation or increased signaling of Nrf2 pathway can be determined for destiny of cell during tumorigenesis and affect response to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Under these circumstances, Nrf2 can be described as an oncogene [32, 88].
Nrf2 protects cells from oxidative stress, in vivo studies with rats have shown that basal Nrf2 protein levels decrease with age and correlate with lower expression of Nrf2 target genes [89]. Increasing Nrf2 activity, which facilitates tumor formation and proliferation of K-Ras, B-Raf, and Myc in cancer cells, helps reduce intracellular ROS levels. Overexpression of Nrf2 also regulates cell proliferation by directing glucose and glutamine to anabolic pathways, increasing purine synthesis and affecting pentose phosphate pathway to promote cell proliferation [90]. In addition, under hypoxia/reoxygenation, Keap1 reduced expression and increased expression of Prx1, Nrf2, and peroxiredoxin-1 (Prx1) proteins, which reduce ROS levels and ultimately protect cancer cell [91]. In a study of Nrf2+/− mice exposed to diesel exhaust and N-nitroso butyl (4-hydroxybutyl) amine, increased pulmonary DNA adducts and bladder tumors were shown [92, 93].
Mutations that cause Keap1 loss of function and Nrf2 function gain and gene mutations that lead to electrophilic metabolite accumulation can also trigger continuous Nrf2 activity in cancer [94]. Nrf2 and its target gene expression levels can serve as biomarkers for diagnosis of lung cancers. Large-scale multi-tumor sequencing efforts by The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) project found that CUL3 and Keap1 function loss and Nrf2 functional gain mutations were significantly enriched in lung adenocarcinoma, pulmonary squamous cell carcinoma and lung squamous cell carcinoma, and bladder cancer [95, 96, 97].
Oncogene activation, including oncogenic mutants of K-Ras, B-Raf, and c-Myc, may cause upregulated expression of Nfe2l2 gene [98]. K-Ras and B-Raf activations induce transcription of Nrf2 through activation of Jun and Myc transcription factors. This activation of Nrf2 has been shown to be critical for increased chemoresistance and tumor growth of Ras mutant cancer cells [15, 99].
mRNA and protein levels of AKRs have been shown to be biomarkers for diagnosis of cancers activated by Nrf2 [100]. AKRs are detected with greater precision than Nrf2. Several studies have shown that cancer cells with high levels of Nrf2 are less susceptible to common chemotherapeutic agents such as etoposide, carboplatin, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, and doxorubicin [10, 11, 101, 102].
Nrf2-targeting agents with advanced specificity are needed to increase effectiveness of cancer treatment. In addition, controversial roles of Nrf2 in cancer prevention and progression suggest that more issues need to be addressed to determine optimal use of Nrf2 activators or inhibitors in the clinic [103]. Nrf2 may have both tumor-suppressive and -promoting effects (Figure 4). Nrf2 target genes regulate autophagy, mitochondrial physiology, redox homeostasis, proteasomal degradation, energy metabolism, iron metabolism, amino acid metabolism, survival, reproduction, DNA repair, and drug metabolism and excretion [104, 105, 106].
Involvement of Nrf2 in the hallmarks of cancer contributes directly or indirectly. (red is blocker and green is activator roles to promote tumorigenesis).
Overexpression of sMaf proteins results in a decrease in transcriptional activity of Nrf2. However, there are no studies that identify different gene expressions or mutations of sMaf family proteins in tumors [107].
Dysregulation of epigenetic mechanism is hallmark of cancer. It is shown that acetylation conditions resulted in promoting nuclear localization of Nrf2, while deacetylation promoting cytoplasmic rather than nuclear localization of Nrf2. Hypermethylation of Keap1 promoter has been detected in the breast, lung, brain, and colorectal [108, 109, 110] and causes a decrease in Keap1 mRNA production and therefore Nrf2 activation [111, 112, 113].
In general, the question of whether Nrf2 activation is bilateral role is explained via several contexts, levels, and mechanisms. The above data strongly suggest that inhibition or activation of Nrf2 alone or in combination can be a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. In numerous in vitro and in vivo studies, multiple genomic, transcriptional, and proteomic mechanisms related to Nrf2 activation in cancer have been explained in detail. Targeting one of redox signaling factors, such as Nrf2, seems like a crucial challenge for designing efficient cancer therapeutic strategies. Nrf2 is a well-known regulator that regulates antioxidant system and mediates tumorigenesis and suppression. Nrf2 should be considered an important therapeutic target. Nrf2 is in the focus of worldwide research, and we are expected to continue to see more research outputs in the future.
All figures are licensed and created with biorender.com.
There is no conflict of interest.
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The supplemental resources for all simulations in the present work are available online in http://jiangjinwu.org/sw, including a Fortran code to generate crystals’ structures, files for molecular dynamics simulations using LAMMPS, files for phonon calculations with the Stillinger-Weber potential using GULP, and files for phonon calculations with the valence force field model using GULP.",book:{id:"6638",slug:"handbook-of-stillinger-weber-potential-parameters-for-two-dimensional-atomic-crystals",title:"Handbook of Stillinger-Weber Potential Parameters for Two-Dimensional Atomic Crystals",fullTitle:"Handbook of Stillinger-Weber Potential Parameters for Two-Dimensional Atomic Crystals"},signatures:"Jin-Wu Jiang and Yu-Ping Zhou",authors:[{id:"228449",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin-Wu",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"jin-wu-jiang",fullName:"Jin-Wu Jiang"}]},{id:"71414",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91281",title:"Micro-/Nano-Structuring in Stainless Steels by Metal Forming and Materials Processing",slug:"micro-nano-structuring-in-stainless-steels-by-metal-forming-and-materials-processing",totalDownloads:693,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Austenitic stainless steel type AISI304 sheets and plates as well as fine-grained type AISI316 (FGSS316) substrates and wires were employed as a work material in the intense rolling, the piercing and the plasma nitriding. AISI304 sheet after intense rolling had textured microstructure in the rolling direction. Crystallographic state changed itself to have distorted polycrystalline state along the shearing plane by piercing, with the strain induced phase transformation. FGSS316 substrates were plasma nitrided at 623 K for 14.4 ks to have two-phase fine nanostructure with the average grain size of 100 nm as a surface layer with the thickness of 30 μm. FGSS316 wires were also plasma nitrided at the same conditions to form the nitrided surface down to the depth of 30 μm. This nitrided wire was further uniaxially loaded in tensile to attain more homogeneously nitrided surface nano-structure and to form the austenitic and martensitic fiber structure aligned in the tensile direction. Each crystallographic structure intrinsic to metals and metallic alloys was tailored to have preferable micro−/nano-structured cells by metal forming and nitrogen supersaturation. The crystallographic change by metal forming in a priori and posterior to nitriding was discussed to find out a new way for materials design.",book:{id:"9205",slug:"electron-crystallography",title:"Electron Crystallography",fullTitle:"Electron Crystallography"},signatures:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa, Tomomi Shiratori and Takafumi Komatsu",authors:[{id:"251217",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatsuhiko",middleName:null,surname:"Aizawa",slug:"tatsuhiko-aizawa",fullName:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa"},{id:"312068",title:"Dr.",name:"Takafumi",middleName:null,surname:"Komatsu",slug:"takafumi-komatsu",fullName:"Takafumi Komatsu"},{id:"313724",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomomi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiratori",slug:"tomomi-shiratori",fullName:"Tomomi Shiratori"}]},{id:"67682",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86865",title:"Simulation of Diamond Surface Chemistry: Reactivity and Properties",slug:"simulation-of-diamond-surface-chemistry-reactivity-and-properties",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The diamond material possesses very attractive properties, such as superior electronic properties (when doped), in addition to a controllable surface termination. During the process of diamond synthesis, the resulting chemical properties will depend not only on the adsorbed species but also on the type of substitutional doping element. The combination of adsorbate and dopant will thus have the ability to influence both the chemical and electronic properties of a diamond surface. All resulting (and interesting) properties of doped and terminated diamond surfaces make it clear that these types of material modifications are very important for a variety of applications that are based on photoactivated chemical processes. Theoretical modeling has been shown to act as an important scientific tool in explaining and predicting experimental results. Simulation of the dependence of, e.g. surface termination and doping on diamond material properties, is expected to give important information about various surface electronic properties (like photo-induced surface electrochemistry).",book:{id:"8506",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",fullTitle:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology"},signatures:"Karin Larsson",authors:[{id:"292193",title:"Prof.",name:"Karin",middleName:null,surname:"Larsson",slug:"karin-larsson",fullName:"Karin Larsson"}]},{id:"66249",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85349",title:"Development, Properties, and Applications of CVD Diamond-Based Heat Sinks",slug:"development-properties-and-applications-of-cvd-diamond-based-heat-sinks",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Heat sink is an essential component to nanoelectronics, microelectronics, and optoelectronics applications because it allows the thermal management of devices such as integrated circuits (ICs), microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs), and graphic unit processing. There are different materials being employed for heat sink production. Among them, diamond has stood out due to its excellent chemical and physical properties. This book chapter focuses on the development, properties, and applications of CVD diamond heat sinks. It covers the basic concepts of heat conduction applied to CVD diamond as a heat sink material and its production as freestanding CVD wafers of polycrystalline CVD diamond, since the literature about this topic is extensive, giving the reader a comprehensive overview. We will comprise the use and potential widening of applications of in CVD diamond heat sink technology, providing the reader with a substantial background at the current development of solutions and new frontiers in the practical use of CVD diamond thermal management devices.",book:{id:"8506",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",fullTitle:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology"},signatures:"José Vieira da Silva Neto, Mariana Amorim Fraga and Vladimir Jesus Trava-Airoldi",authors:[{id:"285413",title:"M.Sc.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"jose-vieira",fullName:"José Vieira"},{id:"285414",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana Amorim",middleName:null,surname:"Fraga",slug:"mariana-amorim-fraga",fullName:"Mariana Amorim Fraga"},{id:"285416",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Trava-Airoldi",slug:"vladimir-jesus-trava-airoldi",fullName:"Vladimir Jesus Trava-Airoldi"}]},{id:"70230",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90237",title:"Empires: The Nonlocal Properties of Quasicrystals",slug:"empires-the-nonlocal-properties-of-quasicrystals",totalDownloads:1105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In quasicrystals, any given local patch—called an emperor—forces at all distances the existence of accompanying tiles—called the empire—revealing thus their inherent nonlocality. In this chapter, we review and compare the methods currently used for generating the empires, with a focus on the cut-and-project method, which can be generalized to calculate empires for any quasicrystals that are projections of cubic lattices. Projections of non-cubic lattices are more restrictive and some modifications to the cut-and-project method must be made in order to correctly compute the tilings and their empires. Interactions between empires have been modeled in a game-of-life approach governed by nonlocal rules and will be discussed in 2D and 3D quasicrystals. These nonlocal properties and the consequent dynamical evolution have many applications in quasicrystals research, and we will explore the connections with current material science experimental research.",book:{id:"9205",slug:"electron-crystallography",title:"Electron Crystallography",fullTitle:"Electron Crystallography"},signatures:"Fang Fang, Sinziana Paduroiu, Dugan Hammock and Klee Irwin",authors:[{id:"302431",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Fang",slug:"fang-fang",fullName:"Fang Fang"},{id:"302434",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinziana",middleName:null,surname:"Paduroiu",slug:"sinziana-paduroiu",fullName:"Sinziana Paduroiu"},{id:"302436",title:"MSc.",name:"Dugan",middleName:null,surname:"Hammock",slug:"dugan-hammock",fullName:"Dugan Hammock"},{id:"308562",title:"Mr.",name:"Klee",middleName:null,surname:"Irwin",slug:"klee-irwin",fullName:"Klee Irwin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70590",title:"Strongly Fluorescent Heterocyclic Molecule: Crystallography, 3D Hydrogen-Bonded, Fluorescence Study and QTAIM/TD-DFT/MESP Theoretical Analysis",slug:"strongly-fluorescent-heterocyclic-molecule-crystallography-3d-hydrogen-bonded-fluorescence-study-and",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter we explored the fluorescence properties of the title compound 1–10 phenanthroline hydrate (phh), {(C12N2H8)·H2O}. The structure of phh is stabilized by strong as well as weak intermolecular interactions in the crystal. These interactions O▬H⋯O, O▬H⋯N, C▬H⋯O and C▬H⋯N hold the crystal structure in a three-dimensional network. Optical analysis (fluorescence) was performed on the test compound. The measurements in solvents of different polarities were carried out at ambient temperature (298 K). These results prompted us to investigate some photoluminescence applications for heterocyclic compounds as the sensing of blue-light luminescent materials. The time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations were performed on this compound, with the purpose to identify the origin of absorption and emission band, the nature of the electronic transitions. The atoms in molecules (AIM) theory and orbital analysis and molecular electrostatic potential (MESP) were applied to analyze the electron densities, their properties and the energy diagram of the molecular orbitals. The AIM and MESP analysis have been applied for part B of phh to demonstrate that the O1W▬H11W⋯N1B type of interaction has the strongest hydrogen bond.",book:{id:"9205",slug:"electron-crystallography",title:"Electron Crystallography",fullTitle:"Electron Crystallography"},signatures:"Ouahida Zeghouan, Seifeddine Sellami and Mohamed AbdEsselem Dems",authors:[{id:"308001",title:"Dr.",name:"Ouahida",middleName:null,surname:"Zeghouan",slug:"ouahida-zeghouan",fullName:"Ouahida Zeghouan"}]},{id:"68159",title:"Significance of Diamond as a Cutting Tool in Ultra-Precision Machining Process",slug:"significance-of-diamond-as-a-cutting-tool-in-ultra-precision-machining-process",totalDownloads:907,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the purpose of using diamond as a cutting tool in various ultra-precision machining applications. The complicated structures such as resin and ceramic mold used for making optical lenses are machined by the diamond tool to improve the precision of the finished product. It is difficult to machine hard and brittle materials such as glasses, ceramics, and composites with the assistance of diamond tool due to the complexity in the aspheric surfaces. Moreover, the tool wear is a major problem in machining these hard materials to a fine dimensional accuracy and tolerances. The microscopic defect forms at the cutting edge lead to the damage of the surface finish of the workpiece material. Therefore, the discussions are associated with the achievement of machining hard materials using a diamond tool in ultra-precision applications.",book:{id:"8506",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",fullTitle:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology"},signatures:"P. Suya Prem Anand",authors:[{id:"285029",title:"Dr.",name:"Suya Prem",middleName:null,surname:"Anand P",slug:"suya-prem-anand-p",fullName:"Suya Prem Anand P"}]},{id:"67682",title:"Simulation of Diamond Surface Chemistry: Reactivity and Properties",slug:"simulation-of-diamond-surface-chemistry-reactivity-and-properties",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The diamond material possesses very attractive properties, such as superior electronic properties (when doped), in addition to a controllable surface termination. During the process of diamond synthesis, the resulting chemical properties will depend not only on the adsorbed species but also on the type of substitutional doping element. The combination of adsorbate and dopant will thus have the ability to influence both the chemical and electronic properties of a diamond surface. All resulting (and interesting) properties of doped and terminated diamond surfaces make it clear that these types of material modifications are very important for a variety of applications that are based on photoactivated chemical processes. Theoretical modeling has been shown to act as an important scientific tool in explaining and predicting experimental results. Simulation of the dependence of, e.g. surface termination and doping on diamond material properties, is expected to give important information about various surface electronic properties (like photo-induced surface electrochemistry).",book:{id:"8506",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",fullTitle:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology"},signatures:"Karin Larsson",authors:[{id:"292193",title:"Prof.",name:"Karin",middleName:null,surname:"Larsson",slug:"karin-larsson",fullName:"Karin Larsson"}]},{id:"67995",title:"Polycrystalline Diamond Characterisations for High End Technologies",slug:"polycrystalline-diamond-characterisations-for-high-end-technologies",totalDownloads:905,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Characterisations of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) coatings have routinely been done over the past three decades of diamond research, but there is less number of reports on some of its very unique properties. For example, diamond is the hardest known material and, in probing such hard surfaces with any indenter tip, it may lead to damage of the instrument. Due to such chances of experimental accidents, researchers have performed very few attempts in evaluating the mechanical properties of PCDs. In the present work, some of these very special properties of diamond that are less reported in the literature are being re-investigated. PCDs were characterised by photoluminescence (PL), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscope (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The diamond surface was also polished to bring the as-grown micron level of surface roughness (detrimental for wear application) down to few hundreds of nanometer. The tribological properties of such polished and smooth surfaces were found to be appropriate for wear protective coating application. This chapter revisits some of the unreported issues in the synthesis and characterisation of PCD coatings grown on Si wafer by the innovative 915 MHz microwave plasma chemical vapour deposition (MPCVD) technique.",book:{id:"8506",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",fullTitle:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology"},signatures:"Awadesh Kumar Mallik",authors:[{id:"178218",title:"Dr.",name:"Awadesh",middleName:null,surname:"Mallik",slug:"awadesh-mallik",fullName:"Awadesh Mallik"}]},{id:"66249",title:"Development, Properties, and Applications of CVD Diamond-Based Heat Sinks",slug:"development-properties-and-applications-of-cvd-diamond-based-heat-sinks",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Heat sink is an essential component to nanoelectronics, microelectronics, and optoelectronics applications because it allows the thermal management of devices such as integrated circuits (ICs), microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs), and graphic unit processing. There are different materials being employed for heat sink production. Among them, diamond has stood out due to its excellent chemical and physical properties. This book chapter focuses on the development, properties, and applications of CVD diamond heat sinks. It covers the basic concepts of heat conduction applied to CVD diamond as a heat sink material and its production as freestanding CVD wafers of polycrystalline CVD diamond, since the literature about this topic is extensive, giving the reader a comprehensive overview. We will comprise the use and potential widening of applications of in CVD diamond heat sink technology, providing the reader with a substantial background at the current development of solutions and new frontiers in the practical use of CVD diamond thermal management devices.",book:{id:"8506",slug:"some-aspects-of-diamonds-in-scientific-research-and-high-technology",title:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology",fullTitle:"Some Aspects of Diamonds in Scientific Research and High Technology"},signatures:"José Vieira da Silva Neto, Mariana Amorim Fraga and Vladimir Jesus Trava-Airoldi",authors:[{id:"285413",title:"M.Sc.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"jose-vieira",fullName:"José Vieira"},{id:"285414",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana Amorim",middleName:null,surname:"Fraga",slug:"mariana-amorim-fraga",fullName:"Mariana Amorim Fraga"},{id:"285416",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Trava-Airoldi",slug:"vladimir-jesus-trava-airoldi",fullName:"Vladimir Jesus Trava-Airoldi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1170",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression"},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biochemistry",id:"11"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/72094",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"72094"},fullPath:"/profiles/72094",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()