\r\n\tnano-optics, nonlinear plasmonics, and nonlinear metamaterials emerged in the last decades due to the progress in nanotechnology.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe essential subject of this book is the publication of novel theoretical and experimental results concerning the nonlinear optical phenomena in photonic and plasmonic nanostructures, nonlinear metamaterials including liquid crystals, and devices based on nonlinear optical waveguides. In particular, the following topics will be considered: the interaction of solid-state nanostructures with the intense electromagnetic fields, the surface plasmon polariton propagation and interaction near the metal-dielectric interface, active nano-photonic devices for lasing and optical sources, nonlinear metamaterials, the nonlinear optics of liquid crystals and the possible combination of liquid crystals with plasmonic and metamaterials. We do not limit the book to these topics.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe novel results in other fields of nonlinear optics would be also welcome. We hope that the proposed book will be interesting for researchers and engineers occupied in optical fiber telecommunications, optical signal processing, novel active materials, and devices.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-836-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-835-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",bookSignature:"Dr. Boris I. Lembrikov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",keywords:"Nonlinear Optics, Nano-Photonics, Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP), Plasmonics, Plasmonic Nanostructure, Plasmonic Waveguide, Metamaterial, Nonlinearity, Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC), TE Mode, TM Mode, Cholesteric Liquid Crystals (CLC)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Lembrikov actively participated in numerous international scientific conferences, he is an author of a book, a large number of papers, and chapters in scientific books. He was an invited researcher at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2359/images/system/2359.jpg",biography:"Boris I. Lembrikov is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Electronics, Electrical and Communication Engineering of the Holon Institute of Technology (HIT), Holon, Israel. B. I. Lembrikov received his Ph.D. in Nonlinear Optics at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in 1996. Since then he was an invited researcher at the Haifa University, at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France, at the Technion, Haifa, Israel. Dr. B. I. Lembrikov is an author of the book \\Electrodynamics of Magnetoactive Media\\, a number of chapters in scientific books, a large number of papers in international peer reviewed journals and reports delivered at the international scientific conferences. He actively participated in a number of research projects concerning optics of nanoparticles, optical communications, UWB communications. The main research fields of interest of Dr. B. I. Lembrikov are nonlinear optics, optical and UWB communications, nanostructures, quantum dot lasers.",institutionString:"Holon Institute of Technology (HIT)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Holon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"345821",firstName:"Darko",lastName:"Hrvojic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345821/images/16410_n.",email:"darko@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3674",title:"Ultra Wideband",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"ultra-wideband",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"189",title:"Novel Applications of the UWB Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed2f8e92a107244ca4c22888843e374f",slug:"novel-applications-of-the-uwb-technologies",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/189.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65509",title:"Atomic Scale Magnetic Sensing and Imaging Based on Diamond NV Centers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84204",slug:"atomic-scale-magnetic-sensing-and-imaging-based-on-diamond-nv-centers",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Understanding magnetic properties at the microscopic level plays an important role in the development of modern science and technology [1, 2]. For instance, writing and reading information using nanometer size magnetic bits is the heart of massive data storage indispensable in the modern information technology [1]. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which is an important medical tool of imaging the inner structures of human body is also based on sensing the magnetic response of minuscule protons with respect to radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic waves [2]. For fundamental research, on the other hand, studying magnetic phases and spin textures at the nanometer scale are one of the hottest topics in solid-state physics due to the recent discovery of exotic materials and topological phases [3, 4, 5]. Therefore, it is not too much to say that the continuous advances in modern science and technology strongly reply on the precise sensing and control of magnetism at the atomic level.
\n
The paradigm of modern science and technology seems to shift from charge-based devices to spin-based systems. Nonetheless studying spins is a lot more difficult than electric charges mainly due to the lack of sensitive measurement techniques of magnetic field. For instance, the size of magnetic bits used in MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) and STT-MRAM (Spin-Transfer Torque Magnetic Random-Access Memory) are less than 10 nanometers and eventually reaches at the level of single spins requiring sensitive detection of individual spins with high spatial resolution [6, 7]. However, detecting single electron spin takes more than 13 hours even with the best magnetometer [8], while sensing single electron charge takes only 1 picosecond [9, 10]. This motivates to develop new magnetic sensors with high magnetic field sensitivity and high spatial resolution.
\n
Existing magnetometers are insufficient to satisfy both requirements especially when trying to measure minute magnetic fields at the length scale of 100 nm or below. For instance, SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices), atomic vapor cell and Hall bar are very sensitive magnetometers but their spatial resolutions are typically limited to tens of micrometers [11, 12]. On the other hand, scanning probe type tools such as SP-STM (Spin-Polarized Scanning Tunneling Microscope) and MFM (Magnetic Force Microscope) exhibit very high spatial resolution but their sensitivity is relatively low and not quantitatively defined [13, 14]. Moreover, magnetic films coated at the tips may produce unwanted stray field affecting the magnetic samples to be measured.
\n
Here, we introduce a novel magnetometer enabling non-invasive, extremely sensitive magnetic sensing and imaging at the nanometer scale. It is based on diamond NV (nitrogen-vacancy) center which is an atomic size point defect in the diamond crystal providing high spatial resolution. It is also a spin qubit (i.e. quantum bit) possessing remarkable magnetic and quantum properties satisfying high field sensitivity [15, 16]. Since it can also operate over a wide range of temperature from room temperature down to cryogenic temperatures and is chemically inert and non-toxic, the NV center already has been applied in various experiments including magnetic imaging of solid-state materials and biomedical samples [17, 18]. In this chapter, we will discuss basic working principles of diamond NV centers (Section 2) and their sensing mechanisms (Section 3). Furthermore, we will provide two examples of imaging applications; scanning probe type imaging (Section 4.1) and wide field-of-view optical imaging (Section 4.2) (\nFigure 1\n).
\n
Figure 1.
Comparison of various magnetometers in terms of spatial resolution and magnetic field sensitivity. The diamond NV center is a promising candidate to realize the goal of highly sensitive sensing with nanometer-scale resolution. The data are adopted from [19]; MRFM [8]; SQUID [20, 21, 22]; Hall probe [23, 24]; BEC [25]; Vapor Cell [26].
\n
\n
\n
2. Background of diamond NV center
\n
The diamond NV center is a hetero-molecular defect in a diamond crystal consisting of a substitutional nitrogen defect combined with an adjacent carbon vacancy [15, 16] (\nFigure 2a\n). It is a color center as it absorbs photons in the visible range of wavelength (e.g. 532 nm) and emits photons of a broad range of wavelength (e.g. 632–800 nm). The NV center can exist in a natural diamond, but it can be created in more controllable fashion, for instance, by implanting nitrogen ions into the diamond. Subsequent high temperature annealing (e.g. at 800°C) results in the thermal migration of carbon vacancies and NV centers are formed once the vacancies meet the implanted nitrogen impurities. The density and location of NV centers in diamond are well controlled with various techniques. \nFigure 2b\n shows an example of precise positioning of NV centers less than a few hundred of nanometers uncertainty [27].
\n
Figure 2.
Physical properties of diamond NV center. (a) Crystal structure of NV center in a diamond lattice. NV center consists of nitrogen substitutional defect and carbon vacancy. (b) Precise formation of NV centers using focused ion beam (FIB) implantation of nitrogen. Reprint with permission from [27]. Copyright (2013) Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Reproduced with permission.
\n
When negatively charged, the NV center has total six electrons (i.e. three electrons from three carbons, two electrons from the substitutional nitrogen and one electron from the diamond lattice). Four of them form pairs and the remaining two unpaired electrons make spin triplet states (i.e. S = 1) in the ground energy level. The spin triplet states are split into ms = 0 and ms = \n\n±\n\n1 whose separation is about 2.9 GHz at room temperature due to the crystal field and spin–spin interaction [17, 18] (this is called zero-field splitting). As shown in \nFigure 3a\n, the degenerated ms = \n\n±\n\n1 states are split further if there is non-zero magnetic field along the NV crystal axis (i.e. the quantized axis of NV spin). Sensing magnetic field (i.e. magnetic field component along the NV axis) is realized by measuring the amount of Zeeman splitting [17, 18] (e.g. 5.6 MHz splitting per 1 Gauss field).
\n
Figure 3.
Electronic properties of diamond NV center. (a) Energy levels and optical transitions are illustrated. The spin triplet ground states are used to realize a spin qubit for the magnetic field sensing. (b) Photoluminescence signal as a function of microwave frequency reveals the Zeeman splitting providing information about the external magnetic field. This method is called CW-ESR measurement.
\n
The optical response of the NV center varies depending on its spin states. When it is in the ms = 0 state, almost 100% cycling transition occurs upon optical pumping. On the other hand, for the case of ms = \n\n±\n\n1 states, 10–30% of the excited electrons undergo intersystem crossing (ISC) to the spin singlet states and relax into the ms = 0 ground state. This dark transition results in the reduction of the number of emitted photons relative to the ms = 0 state. Furthermore, the transition via the shelving states produces spin flip from the ms = \n\n±\n\n1 states to the ms = 0 state. The spin-sensitive fluorescence and spin-flip transition allow optical readout of the spin states as well as optical initialization of the qubit state [15, 16, 17, 18].
\n
The energy levels of NV center are located well within the bandgap of diamond (i.e. 5.3 eV) making it effectively isolated from the hosting material and enabling to preserve its intrinsic quantum properties. Thus, the NV center has exceptionally long spin coherence times even at room temperature [28] (e.g. T2 > 1 ms). In addition, the NV spin is highly sensitive to various fields, including temperature, magnetic, electric and strain fields [18]. For example, the magnetic field sensitivity for a single NV center is on the order of \n\n1\n\nnT\n/\n\nHz\n\n\n which is about 105 smaller than typical earth magnetic field [16, 17, 18]. Higher sensitivity can be also possible using either NV ensembles [29] (e.g. <\n\n1\n\npT\n/\n\nHz\n\n\n) or advanced sensing protocols [30]. The high magnetic field sensitivity is one of the key ingredients of realizing novel magnetometer introduced in this chapter.
\n
\n
\n
3. Sensing mechanism
\n
In this section, we will discuss various sensing methods specifically designed to study magnetism in different spectral regimes from static spin distributions to high frequency magnetic excitations. Sections 3.1 and 3.2 elucidate basic mechanisms used for sensing static and dynamic magnetic fields. The section ends with a brief outlook on advanced sensing techniques (Section 3.3).
\n
\n
3.1 Sensing dc magnetic field
\n
Probing static field from magnetic textures or current flow in transport devices is an important capability to study microscopic magnetism in condensed matter physics. The diamond NV centers already have been used to study a diverse set of magnetic systems including skyrmions [31], superconducting vortices [32, 33], domain walls [34], magnetic nanowires [35], and steady-state current distributions in graphene [36]. Various experimental methods have been implemented to detect static dc magnetic field and we will examine the two most common protocols; continuous wave electron spin resonance (CW-ESR) and Ramsey interferometry.
\n
As seen in \nFigure 3b\n, the ground spin states of NV center are subject to change by external magnetic field via the Zeeman effect. Upon continuous illumination of the pumping laser and gigahertz microwave photons, ESR transitions of ms = 0 \n\n↔\n\n ms = −1 and ms = 0 \n\n↔\n\n ms = \n\n+\n\n1 occurs. The ESR signals appear as negative peaks in the photoluminescence (PL) measurement due to the dark transitions associated with the ms = \n\n±\n\n1 states. Since the ESR spectrum is obtained by optical means, this method is often called as optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR).
\n
The amount of dc magnetic field is extracted from the ESR splitting of \n\n∆\nf\n=\n2\nγ\n\nB\nNV\n\n\n, where \n\n∆\nf\n\n is the frequency difference of the two transitions, \n\nγ\n\n is the gyromagnetic ratio (i.e. 2.8 MHz/G) and \n\n\nB\nNV\n\n\n is the magnetic field along the NV axis. The CW-ESR signal can be analyzed by fitting the spectrum with a Lorentzian peak,
where \n\n\nI\n0\n\n\n is the photon count rate, \n\nC\n\n is the optical contrast between the spin states, \n\n\nf\n0\n\n\n is the ESR central frequency, and \n\n\nf\nFWHM\n\n\n is the full width half maximum of the resonance. The sensitivity of dc magnetic field based on this method is determined by the minimum resolvable frequency shift (\nFigure 4\n) which is defined as \n\nΔ\nf\n=\n\n\nΔ\nN\n\n\n∂\nN\n/\n∂\nf\n\n\n\n, where \n\nN\n\n is total number of photons during the measurement time, T, i.e. \n\nN\n=\nI\n\nf\n\nT\n\n. For the shot noise limited photon measurement, \n\nΔ\nN\n≈\n\nN\n\n\n and the minimum detectable magnetic field and the sensitivity become [16].
Sensing dc magnetic field based on CW-ESR measurement. Continuous wave of laser and microwave photons are used. The shift in frequency gives an information about the magnitude and direction of external magnetic field.
\n
As seen in Eq. (2), the sensitivity is limited by the ESR linewidth and in principle it can be as narrow as the inverse of NV’s inhomogeneous dephasing time, \n\n\nT\n2\n∗\n\n\n. However, practical linewidth suffers from the power broadening due to continuous laser and microwave excitation. Therefore, typical magnetic sensitivity based on CW-ESR is limited to on the order of \n\n1\n\nμT\n/\n\nHz\n\n\n.
\n
The power broadening problem can be avoided by using pulsed laser and microwave photons. Ramsey interferometry is one of the basic pulse techniques used to measure the free induction decay of a spin qubit. \nFigure 5a\n shows Ramsey pulse sequences used in the NV measurement. The two laser pulses are used for optical initialization and readout while the two \n\nπ\n/\n2\n\n microwave pulses are used to make qubit superposition state and to project it back to the initial state. The basic idea of Ramsey interferometry is very similar with Michelson interferometry. The first laser pulse polarizes the NV center to the ms = 0 state and the subsequent \n\nπ\n/\n2\n\n microwave pulse rotates the spin into the equal superposition of ms = 0 and ms = +1 (or ms = −1) state. This works as a 50:50 beam splitter used in the Michelson interferometry experiment. Under external magnetic field, the two spin states evolve together but with different phases each other and the amount of accumulated phase depends on the magnitude of dc field. If the microwave frequency is detuned from the qubit energy by \n\nδ\n\n, the Ramsey signal oscillates at the frequency of \n\nδ\n\n and is written as
Sensing dc magnetic field based on Ramsey interferometry. (a) Schematics of laser and microwave pulse used for the measurement. (b) A close view of the resonance peak in CW-ESR reveals three sub-features resulting from the NV’s hyperfine coupling with 14N nuclear spin. (c) Ramsey measurement with the detunings in (b) shows the beatings of three oscillations. Subset presents the FFT of the Ramsey signal showing three peaks corresponding to the detunings.
\n
where \n\nt\n\n is the free induction time. Shift in the oscillation frequency gives the information about static magnetic field and the resolvable frequency shift is now limited by \n\n\nT\n2\n∗\n\n\n. The minimum detectable magnetic field and the sensitivity are written as.
where \n\n\nt\nr\n\n\n is the single shot readout time (e.g. a few hundreds of nanoseconds) and \n\nn\n\n is the total number of measurement cycles [16]. Based on this method, the dc field sensitivity from a single NV center can be as high as \n\n\nη\nB\n\n∼\n10\n\nnT\n/\n\nHz\n\n\n for \n\n\nT\n2\n∗\n\n∼\n100\n\nμs\n\n [16].
\n
\n\nFigure 5b\n and \nc\n shows an example of the Ramsey measurement. The ESR resonance exhibits three hyperfine structures due to the dipole-dipole interaction between NV electron spin and 14N nuclear spin (I = 1). Therefore, the beatings of three oscillations appear in the Ramsey signal (\nFigure 5c\n) which is defined as,
where \n\n\nδ\ni\n\n\n\n\ni\n=\n1\n\n2\n3\n\n\n are the detunings of three hyperfine levels and \n\n\nϕ\ni\n\n\n are the phase offsets. The fast Fourier transformation (FFT) of the signal also reveals three frequencies (subset in \nFigure 5c\n) whose shifts are used to probe static field.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Sensing ac magnetic field
\n
The NV center can also detect ac magnetic field up to gigahertz. The large bandwidth sensing capability is important to study spin dynamics in solid-state systems and biological samples. For example, nuclear spin precession in biomolecules occurs at 100 kHz–MHz regime while spin excitations or charge fluctuations in solids happen at higher frequency of MHz–GHz [30]. Various sensing methods with its detection bandwidth are listed in \nFigure 6\n and, in this section, we will explain two basic dynamical decoupling methods such as spin Hahn echo and Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG).
\n
Figure 6.
Detection bandwidth of various sensing methods. NV center can measure magnetic field from dc to gigahertz ac frequency. Reprint with permission from Ref. [30]. Copyright (2017) Reviews of Modern Physics.
\n
Spin Hahn echo measurement consists of a similar pulse sequence as Ramsey interferometry but having an extra \n\nπ\n\n pulse in the middle of the sequence (\nFigure 7a\n). This additional pulse flips the sign of accumulated phase during the free induction evolution resulting in the cancelation of dc and low frequency magnetic field. When the pulse duration matches to the period of ac magnetic field, however, the phase survives and continues to be accumulated. In this way, one can selectively probe ac magnetic field.
\n
Figure 7.
Sensing ac magnetic field based on spin Hahn echo measurement. (a) Schematics of the Hahn echo pulses. (b) Bloch representations of the spin status according to the numbers indicated in (a).
\n
This can be better viewed with the Bloch sphere representation shown in \nFigure 7b\n. In the rotating frame at the qubit frequency, the spin rotates around the equator by an angle, \n\nθ\n\n, which is determined by the free precession time, \n\nτ\n\n, between \n\nπ\n/\n2\n\n and \n\nπ\n\n pulses (② and ⑤ in \nFigure 7b\n). The angles from the first (②) and the second period (⑤) of the echo pulse are written as,
This difference determines the projected probability of the qubit and becomes non-zero if the sign of \n\n\nB\nAC\n\n\n flips before and after the\n\n\nπ\n\n pulse. The probabilities of the \n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\n1\n\n\n\n states after a single echo sequence are obtained as,
Finally, an average probability of the qubit state after repeated Hahn echo cycles (but with random phase offset,\n\n\nα\n\n) can be expressed as the first order Bessel function,
\n\nFigure 8\n shows an example of the spin Hahn echo measurement as a function of the free precession time, \n\nτ\n\n, and the ac field strength, \n\n\nB\nAC\n\n\n. For the experiment, external field at 500 kHz frequency is applied with a wire. Compared to a monotonic exponential decay in \nFigure 8a\n, the first order Bessel functions discussed in Eq. (9) are clearly observed for the cases of non-zero ac fields (\nFigure 8b\n and \nc\n). The field sensitivity can be determined from the maximum change of the PL signal with respect to \n\n\nB\nAC\n\n\n. For instance, \nFigure 8d\n shows the normalized PL as a function of \n\n\nB\nAC\n\n\n measured at the time, \n\n2\nτ\n=\n2\n\nμs\n\n. The minimum detectable field (or sensitivity) is obtained from the ratio of the maximum slope over the noise level in the PL signal (shot noise limited in this measurement) which is \n\n\nB\nmin\n\n=\n0.84\n±\n0.02\n\nμ\nT\n\n at 500 kHz.
\n
Figure 8.
Examples of the Hahn echo measurement as a function of ac field strength. (a–c) Hahn echo signals with various strengths of ac magnetic field at 500 kHz. (a) no field, (b) 14.1 \n\nμ\nT\n\n, and (c) 28.2 \n\nμ\nT\n\n. (d) Hahn echo signals as a function of the magnetic field strength measured at \n\n2\nτ\n=\n2\n\nμs\n\n. Minimum detectable magnetic field of \n\n\nB\nmin\n\n=\n0.84\n±\n0.02\n\nμ\nT\n\n is obtained from the dashed line of the maximum slope.
\n
By adding more periodic microwave pulses in the sequence, one can extend the spin coherence time and realize improved sensitivity. For example, CPMG sequence utilizes n pairs of two \n\nπ\n\n pulses separated by \n\n2\nτ\n\n (\nFigure 9\n) which prolong the spin coherence by \n\n\nT\n2\n\n∝\n\nn\n\n2\n3\n\n\n\n. The axis of \n\nπ\n\n pulse can be also alternated between x and y in the Bloch sphere which can mitigate potential pulse error. Such dynamical decoupling sequences are called XY4 or XY8.
\n
Figure 9.
Sensing ac magnetic field based on CPMG measurement. (a) Schematics of the CPMG pulses. (b) CPMG signals with two different ac magnetic fields at 500 kHz, i.e. \n\n8.6\n\n\nand 17.2 \n\nμT\n\n.
\n
The ac field sensitivity is similar as the dc field sensitivity in Eq. (4) but now the intrinsic spin dephasing time, \n\n\nT\n2\n\n\n, limits the sensitivity i.e. \n\n\nη\n\nB\n,\nAC\n\n\n≈\n\nη\n\nB\n,\nDC\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n2\n∗\n\n\nT\n2\n\n\n\n\n. The ac field sensitivity based on as a single NV center can be as high as \n\n\nη\nB\n\n∼\n1\n\nnT\n/\n\nHz\n\n\n for \n\n\nT\n2\n\n∼\n1\n\nms\n\n [16].
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Current limitations and advanced sensing protocols
\n
In general, the bandwidth of dynamical decoupling methods is limited to ∼ 10 MHz (\nFigure 6\n). Higher frequency ac field (∼GHz) can be measured by \n\n\nT\n1\n\n\n relaxometry [18, 30]. Dynamic field fluctuation around the qubit frequency can directly affect the qubit relaxation time which can be measured by the relaxometry technique. For instance, \nFigure 10\n shows that gigahertz spin fluctuations of Gd3+ ions result in much faster relaxation of the qubit [37].
\n
Figure 10.
An example of \n\n\nT\n1\n\n\n relaxometry. Fast fluctuation of Gd3+ spins results in the reduction of NV’s \n\n\nT\n1\n\n\n time enabling sensing of gigahertz frequency ac field. Reprint with permission from Ref. [37]. Copyright (2014) Physical Review Applied.
\n
In terms of the field sensitivity, higher sensitivity can be realized using either ensembles of NV center or advanced sensing protocols. The former is possible since the sensitivity is proportional to \n\n\nN\n\n\n where \n\nN\n\n is the number of NV centers. For instance, sub-picotesla sensitivity has been demonstrated based on an ensemble of \n\nN\n∼\n\n10\n11\n\n\n NV centers [29]. The latter relays on advanced sensing methods utilizing various quantum techniques such as sensing assisted by entanglement or auxiliary qubits [30]. For example, nuclear spins typically exhibit 1000 times longer coherence time compared to electron spins such NV center. By using a nuclear spin as an auxiliary qubit via entanglement with the NV electron spin, one can realize extended coherence time and obtain enhanced sensitivity. This method is called quantum memory and an example is shown in \nFigure 11\n [38].
\n
Figure 11.
An example of quantum memory measurement. Spin coherence time is extended by using a neighboring nuclear spin as a memory qubit. Reprint with permission from [38]. Copyright (2016) Nature Communications.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Imaging applications
\n
In this section, we will introduce magnetic imaging techniques based on the diamond NV center. The combined properties of atomic-scale size and high field sensitivity make the NV center as a novel imaging tool to study nanoscale magnetism in the field of condensed matter physics and biology. Multiple imaging techniques have been implemented in several experiments and we will discuss two examples of the diamond imaging techniques; scanning magnetometry and wide field-of-view optics.
\n
\n
4.1 Scanning magnetometry for solid-state systems
\n
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a versatile tool to image sample surface with high spatial resolution. The probe tip can scan over the surface with nanometer step size while maintaining vertical distance with feedback techniques. Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and atomic force microscope (AFM) are the most common SPM methods used in various experiments. In NV-based imaging applications, different geometries of SPM are possible depending on the position of NV center either on tip or on surface. For example, magnetic molecules that are attached at the end of AFM tip are scanned over a bulk diamond surface where NV centers are located underneath the surface [37] (e.g. 5–20 nm). On the other hand, the NV center can be positioned at the apex of AFM tip and is scanned over magnetic samples [31, 32, 33, 34]. There are several benefits of the former geometry. A simple SPM design is possible and there are no needs for complicated diamond fabrication. Moreover, one can use NV centers in a bulk diamond which typically possess good coherence properties. However, this method is not suitable to image large area of sample since it is not easy to be prepared on the tip. Therefore, the geometry of NV-on-tip is more suitable to study solid-state materials.
\n
\n\nFigure 12a\n shows a schematic of the NV-on-tip geometry. A fabricated diamond probe with pillar structures or a diamond nano-particle is glued at the end of an AFM tuning fork. An objective lens focuses on the NV center at the tip apex for the optical excitation and readout. A scanning stage maneuvers the sample in three dimensional directions with nanometer step size. In this way, the NV center can effectively scan over the sample and detects local magnetic fields at every scan position on the surface. \nFigure 12b\n shows examples of the scan images on various magnetic samples including superconducting vortex [32, 33], and multiferroic materials [39]. Since the NV center can operate from room temperature down to cryogenic temperatures, this novel method provides an efficient way to study temperature-dependent evolution of magnetic orders in exotic materials.
\n
Figure 12.
Scanning magnetometry based on diamond NV center. (a) A schematic of diamond scanning magnetometer. A diamond probe scans over a magnetic sample while an objective lens collects NV photons and a wire produces microwave excitations. (b) Examples of magnetic imaging on various magnetic samples such as superconducting vortex, multiferroic magnetic orders (following from the top image to the bottom image). Reprint with permissions from [39] Copyright (2017) Nature, [32] Copyright (2017) Nature Nanotechnology.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Wide field-of-view optics for life science
\n
The diamond SPM method provides high resolution imaging but is quite slow due to the scanning process (e.g. a few hours per image) and is not an efficient method to study dynamical features. Fast magnetic imaging can be realized by simultaneous mapping the sample with wide field-of-view optics. While confocal optics used in the SPM collects photons only from a focused spot, wide field-of-view optics records optical signals from every point within the optical field-of-view (e.g. \n\n100\n×\n100\n\nμm\n\n) with a CCD (Charge-coupled device) camera. Even though the spatial resolution is not as good as the SPM methods and is diffraction limited, the faster imaging capability gives more advantages when one studies biological samples.
\n
In the diamond wide field-of-view optics experiment, ensembles of NV center are typically used to enhance the field sensitivity and biological samples are placed on a bulk diamond containing NV ensembles. Simultaneous excitation of a number group of NV centers within the field-of-view requires high power of pumping laser. In order to avoid potential damage to the bio-sample due to the high power laser beam, total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) technique is typically adopted [40]. With the TIRF configuration, the excitation laser from the backside of the diamond is totally reflected at the interface between the diamond and the sample and is only illuminated onto the NV ensembles.
\n
\n\nFigure 13a\n shows an example of the wide field-of-view magnetic imaging on biological samples e.g. bacteria called magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) [40]. MTB contain magnetic nano-particles in the body forming one dimensional chain that and are aligned along the external magnetic field. The diamond wide field-of-view optics successfully maps the stray field produced by a single MTB and identifies orientations of the magnetic chains from the field distribution.. Motivated by this work, scientists try to identify cancer cells among normal cells by selectively dosing magnetic nano-particles into the target cells and imaging the resulting magnetic field [43].
\n
Figure 13.
Examples of magnetic sensing and imaging on biological samples. (a) Magnetic imaging on a single magnetotactic bacterium. Reprint with permission from [40] Copyright (2013) Nature (b) sensing of induced magnetic field due to the action potential in an axon. Reprint with permission from [41] Copyright (2016) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (c) MRI imaging of a particle of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). Reprint with permission from [42] Copyright (2015) Nature Nanotechnology.
\n
Owing to the capability of bio-imaging, the NV center gets increasing attentions in the field of neural science. Since neurons communicate each other via the motions of ions, it can be viewed as current flows in a conducting wire which produces magnetic field around it. By mapping the induced magnetic field with the NV center, therefore, one can study brain activities in the neural networks. As a first step toward this goal, recent experiment successfully demonstrates detection of magnetic field due to the action potential along an axon (\nFigure 13b\n) [41]. The NV center is also used to probe nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal from a single protein [44] which opens up the possibilities of MRI at the nanometer-scale [42] (\nFigure 13c\n).
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
In this chapter, we introduce the diamond NV center as a novel magnetometer satisfying high magnetic field sensitivity and high spatial resolution. We review the basic working principles of sensing dc and ac magnetic field and discuss two imaging applications which are based on scanning magnetometry and wide field-of-view optics techniques. The excellent properties of NV centers such as sub-nanotesla sensitivity, nanometer-scale resolution, gigahertz range of detection bandwidth, wide range of the operation temperature, non-toxic and bio-friendly host material position the NV center as a unique tool of sensing and imaging microscopic magnetic phenomena. Improving sensing protocols and imaging techniques is on-going efforts in this field. In conclusion, the novel magnetometer introduced in this chapter has a promising potential to be used in various research fields particularly solid-state physics and life science.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors acknowledge the support from the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2016R1D1A1A02937119) and the Korea University Future Research Grant (K1822781).
\n
\n',keywords:"magnetic sensor, diamond NV center, quantum sensing, scanning magnetometry, wide field-of-view optics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65509.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65509.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65509",totalDownloads:1061,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 7th 2019",datePrePublished:"February 6th 2019",datePublished:"October 28th 2020",dateFinished:"February 6th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The development of magnetic sensors simultaneously satisfying high magnetic sensitivity and high spatial resolution becomes more important in a wide range of fields including solid-state physics and life science. The nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond is a promising candidate to realize nanometer-scale magnetometry due to its excellent spin coherence properties, magnetic field sensitivity, atomic-scale size and versatile operation condition. Recent experiments successfully demonstrate the use of NV center in various sensing and imaging applications. In this chapter, we review the basic sensing mechanisms of the NV center and introduce imaging applications based on scanning magnetometry and wide field-of-view optics.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65509",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65509",book:{slug:"magnetometers-fundamentals-and-applications-of-magnetism"},signatures:"Myeongwon Lee, Jungbae Yoon and Donghun Lee",authors:[{id:"272952",title:"Prof.",name:"Donghun",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Donghun Lee",slug:"donghun-lee",email:"donghun@korea.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"273772",title:"Mr.",name:"Myeongwon",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Myeongwon Lee",slug:"myeongwon-lee",email:"mwxxxx@korea.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"273773",title:"Mr.",name:"Jungbae",middleName:null,surname:"Yoon",fullName:"Jungbae Yoon",slug:"jungbae-yoon",email:"yjb4174@korea.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background of diamond NV center",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sensing mechanism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Sensing dc magnetic field",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Sensing ac magnetic field",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Current limitations and advanced sensing protocols",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Imaging applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Scanning magnetometry for solid-state systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Wide field-of-view optics for life science",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSoaldin NA. Magnetic materials. 2nd ed. Fundamentals and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010. pp. 177–188. ISBN-13:978–0521886697\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nShenton ME, Hamoda HM, Schneiderman JS, Bouix S, Pasternak O, Rathi Y, et al. A review of magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging findings in mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Imaging and Behavior. 2012;6(2):137-192. DOI: 10.1007/s11682-012-9156-5\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nHsieh D, Qian D, Wray L, Xia Y, Hor YS, Cava RJ, et al. A topological Dirac insulator in a quantum spin hall phase. Nature. 2008;452:970-974. DOI: 10.1038/nature06843\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nEerenstein W, Mathur ND, Scott JF. Multiferroic and magnetoelectric materials. Nature. 2006;442:759-765. DOI: 10.1038/nature05023\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nNagaosa N, Tokura Y. Topological properties and dynamics of magnetic skyrmions. Nature Nanotechnology. 2013;8:899-911. DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2013.243\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nKuhn K, Kenyon C, Kornfeld A, Liu M, Maheshwari A, Shih W, et al. Managing process variation in Intel\'s 45 nm CMOS technology. Intel Technology Journal. 2008;12:93-109. DOI: 10.1535/itj.1202\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nParkin S, Jiang X, Kaiser C, Panchula A, Roche K, Samant M. Magnetically engineered spintronic sensors and memory. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2003;91:661-680. DOI: 10.1109/JPROC.2003.811807\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nRugar D, Budakian R, Hamin HJ, Chui BW. Single spin detection by magnetic resonance force microscopy. Nature. 2004;430:329-332. DOI: 10.1038/nature02658\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nSchoelkopf RJ, Wahlgren P, Kozhevnikov AA, Delsing P, Prober DE. The radio-frequency single-electron transistor (RF-SET): A fast and ultrasensitive electrometer. Science. 1998;280:1238-1242. DOI: 10.1126/science.280.5367.1238\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nAassime A, Johansson G, Wendin G, Schoelkopf RJ, Delsing P. Radio-frequency single-electron transistor as readout device for Qubits: Charge sensitivity and Backaction. Physical Review Letters. 2001;86:3376-3379. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.3376\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nHasselbach K, Veauvy C, Mailly D. MicroSQUID magnetometry and magnetic imaging. Physica C. 2000;332:140-147. DOI: 10.1016/S0921-4534(99)00657-7\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nOral A, Bending SJ. Real-time scanning Hall probe microscopy. Applied Physics Letters. 1996;69:1324-1326. DOI: 10.1063/117582\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nWiesendanger R. Spin mapping at the nanoscale and atomic scale. Reviews of Modern Physics. 2009;81:1495-1550. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1495\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nHartmann U. Magnetic force microscopy. Annual Review of Materials Science. 1999;29:53-87. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.matsci.29.1.53\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nChildress L, Hanson R. Diamond NV centers for quantum computing and quantum networks. MRS Bulletin. 2013;38:134-138. DOI: 10.1557/mrs.2013.20\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nTaylor JM, Cappellaro P, Childress L, Jiang L, Budker D, Hemmer PR, et al. High-sensitivity diamond magnetometer with nanoscale resolution. Nature Physics. 2008;4:810-816. DOI: 10.1038/nphys1075\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nRondin L, Tetienne JP, Rohart S, Thiaville A, Hingant T, Spinicelli P, et al. Stray-field imaging of magnetic vortices with a single diamond spin. Nature Communications. 2013;4:1-5. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3279\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nSchrhagl R, Chang K, Loretz M, Degen CL. Nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond: Nanoscale sensors for physics and biology. Annual Review of Physical Chemistry. 2014;65:83-105. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physchem-040513-103659\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nMaze JR. Quantum Manipulation of Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Diamond: From Basic Properties to Applications. Harvard University; 2010. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Thesis Global: https://search.proquest.com/docview/612776202?accountid=14558 [Accessed: 2019-02-01]\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nVengalattore M, Higbie JM, Leslie SR, Guzman J, Sadler LE, Stamper-Kurn DM. High-Resolution Magnetometry with a Spinor Bose-Einstein Condensate. Physical Review Letters. 2017;98:200801. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.200801\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nFaley MI, Poppe U, Urban K, Paulson DN, Fagaly RL. A new generation of the HTS multilayer DC-SQUID magnetometers and gradiometers. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2006;43:1199-1202. DOI:: 10.1088/1742-6596/43/1/292\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nBaudenbacher F, Fong LE, Holzer JR, Radparvar M. Monolithic low-transition-temperature superconducting magnetometers for high resolution imaging magnetic fields of room temperature samples. Applied Physics Letters. 2003;82:3487-3489. DOI: 10.1063/1.1572968\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nSANDHU A, Okamoto A, Shibasaki I, Oral A. Nano and micro Hall-effect sensors for room-temperature scanning hall probe microscopy. Microelectronic Engineering. 2004;73-74:524-528. DOI: 10.1016/j.mee.2004.03.029\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nSandhu A, Kurosawa K, Dede M, Oral A. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 2004;43:777-778. DOI: 10.1143/JJAP.43.777\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nVengalattore M, Higbie JM, Leslie SR, Guzman J, Sadler LE, Stamper-Kurn DM. High-Resolution Magnetometry with a Spinor Bose-Einstein Condensate. Physical Review Letters. 2007;98:200801. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.200801\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nShah V, Knappe S, Schwindt PDD, Kitching J. Subpicotesla atomic magnetometry with a microfabricated vapour cell. Nature Photonics. 2007;1:649-652. DOI: 10.1038/nphoton.2007.201\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nLesik M, Spinicelli P, Pezzagna S, Happel P, Jacques V, Salord O, et al. Maskless and targeted creation of arrays of colour centres in diamond using focused ion beam technology. Physica Status Solidi (a). 2013;210:2055-2059. DOI: 10.1002/pssa.201300102\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nBar-Gill N, Pham LM, Jarmola A, Budker D, Walsworth RL. Solid-state electronic spin coherence time approaching one second. Nature Communications. 2013;4:1743. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms2771\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nWolf T, Neumann P, Nakamura K, Sumiya H, Ohshima T, Isoya J, et al. Subpicotesla diamond magnetometry. Physical Review X. 2015;5:041001. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevX.5.041001\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nDegen CL, Reinhard F, Cappellaro P. Quantum sensing. Reviews of Modern Physics. 2017;89:035002. DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.89.035002\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nDovzhenko Y, Casola F, Schlotter S, Zhou TX, Büttner F, Walsworth RL, et al. Magnetostatic twists in room-temperature skyrmions explored by nitrogen-vacancy center spin texture reconstruction. Nature Communications. 2018;9:2712. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05158-9\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nThiel L, Rohner D, Ganzhorn M, Appel P, Neu E, Müller B, et al. Quantitative nanoscale vortex imaging using a cryogenic quantum magnetometer. Nature Nanotechnology. 2016;11:677-681. DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2016.63\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nPelliccione M, Jenkins A, Ovartchaiyapong P, Reetz C, Emmanouilidou E, Ni N, et al. Scanned probe imaging of nanoscale magnetism at cryogenic temperatures with a single-spin quantum sensor. Nature Nanotechnology. 2016;11:700-705. DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2016.68\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nTetienne JP, Hingant T, Kim JV, Diez LH, Adam JP, Garcia K, et al. Nanoscale imaging and control of domain-wall hopping with a nitrogen-vacancy center microscope. Science. 2014;344:1366-1369. DOI: 10.1126/science.1250113\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nLee M, Jang B, Yoon J, Mathpal MC, Lee Y, Kim C, et al. Magnetic imaging of a single ferromagnetic nanowire using diamond atomic sensors. Nanotechnology. 2018;29:405502. DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aad2fe\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nTetienne JP, Dontschuk N, Broadway DA, Stacey A, Simpson DA, Hollenberg LCL. Quantum imaging of current flow in graphene. Science Advances. 2017;3:e1602429. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1602429\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nPelliccione M, Myers BA, Pascal LMA, Das A, Bleszynski Jayich AC. Two-dimensional nanoscale imaging of gadolinium spins via scanning probe relaxometry with a single spin in diamond. Physical Review Applied. 2014;2:054014. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevApplied.2.054014\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nZaiser S, Rendler T, Jakobi I, Wolf T, Lee S-Y, Wagner S, et al. Enhancing quantum sensing sensitivity by a quantum memory. Nature Communications. 2016;7:12279. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12279\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nGross I, Akhtar W, Garcia V, Martínez LJ, Chouaieb S, Garcia K, et al. Real-space imaging of non-collinear antiferromagnetic order with a single-spin magnetometer. Nature. 2017;549:252-256. DOI: 10.1038/nature23656\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nLe Sage D, Arai K, Glenn DR, DeVience SJ, Pham LM, Rahn-Lee L, et al. Optical magnetic imaging of living cells. Nature. 2014;496:486-489. DOI: 10.1038/nature12072\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nBarry JF, Turner MJ, Schloss JM, Glenn DR, Song Y, Lukin MD, et al. Optical magnetic detection of single-neuron action potentials using quantum defects in diamond. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2016;113:14133-14138. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1601513113\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nRugar D, Mamin HJ, Sherwood MH, Kim M, Rettner CT, Ohno K, et al. Proton magnetic resonance imaging using a nitrogen-vacancy spin sensor. Nature Nanotechnology. 2015;10:120-124. DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2014.288\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nGlenn DR, Lee K, Park H, Weissleder R, Yacoby A, Lukin MD, et al. Single-cell magnetic imaging using a quantum diamond microscope. Nature Methods. 2015;12:1-5. DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.3449\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nLovchinsky I, Sushkov AO, Urbach E, de Leon NP, Choi S, De Greve K, et al. Nuclear magnetic resonance detection and spectroscopy of single proteins using quantum logic. Science. 2016;351:836-841. DOI: 10.1126/science.aad8022\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Myeongwon Lee",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Physics, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Department of Physics, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7430",title:"Magnetometers",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications of Magnetism",fullTitle:"Magnetometers - Fundamentals and Applications of Magnetism",slug:"magnetometers-fundamentals-and-applications-of-magnetism",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",bookSignature:"Sergio Curilef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7430.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-096-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-095-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-097-6",editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"72814",title:"Introductory Chapter: Statistical and Theoretical Considerations on Magnetism in Many-Body Systems",slug:"introductory-chapter-statistical-and-theoretical-considerations-on-magnetism-in-many-body-systems",totalDownloads:144,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sergio Curilef",authors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef"}]},{id:"68043",title:"Modeling the Magnetocaloric Effect of Nd0.67Ba0.33Mn0.98 Fe0.02O3 by the Mean Field Theory",slug:"modeling-the-magnetocaloric-effect-of-nd-sub-0-67-sub-ba-sub-0-33-sub-mn-sub-0-98-sub-fe-sub-0-02-su",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mohamed Hsini and Sadok Zemni",authors:[{id:"266019",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsini",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",fullName:"Hsini Mohamed",slug:"hsini-mohamed"}]},{id:"70418",title:"The Magnetometry—A Primary Tool in the Prospection of Underground Water",slug:"the-magnetometry-a-primary-tool-in-the-prospection-of-underground-water",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Héctor López Loera",authors:[{id:"182629",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez Loera",fullName:"Hector Lopez Loera",slug:"hector-lopez-loera"}]},{id:"65509",title:"Atomic Scale Magnetic Sensing and Imaging Based on Diamond NV Centers",slug:"atomic-scale-magnetic-sensing-and-imaging-based-on-diamond-nv-centers",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Myeongwon Lee, Jungbae Yoon and Donghun Lee",authors:[{id:"272952",title:"Prof.",name:"Donghun",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Donghun Lee",slug:"donghun-lee"},{id:"273772",title:"Mr.",name:"Myeongwon",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Myeongwon Lee",slug:"myeongwon-lee"},{id:"273773",title:"Mr.",name:"Jungbae",middleName:null,surname:"Yoon",fullName:"Jungbae Yoon",slug:"jungbae-yoon"}]},{id:"65416",title:"SQUID Magnetometers, Josephson Junctions, Confinement and BCS Theory of Superconductivity",slug:"squid-magnetometers-josephson-junctions-confinement-and-bcs-theory-of-superconductivity",totalDownloads:468,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Navin Khaneja",authors:[{id:"249371",title:"Prof.",name:"Navin",middleName:null,surname:"Khaneja",fullName:"Navin Khaneja",slug:"navin-khaneja"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"9729",title:"Thermodynamic Properties of Nano-Silver and Alloy Particles",slug:"thermodynamic-properties-of-nano-silver-and-alloy-particles",signatures:"Wangyu Hu, Shifang Xiao, Huiqiu Deng, Wenhua Luo and Lei Deng",authors:[null]},{id:"9731",title:"Linear and Nonlinear Optical Properties of Aligned Elongated Silver Nanoparticles Embedded in Silica",slug:"linear-and-nonlinear-optical-properties-of-aligned-elongated-silver-nanoparticles-embedded-in-silica",signatures:"Raul Rangel-Rojo, J.A. Reyes-Esqueda, C. Torres-Torres, A. Oliver, L. Rodriguez-Fernandez, A. Crespo-Sosa, J.C. Cheang-Wong, J. McCarthy, H.T. Bookey and A.K. Kar",authors:[null]},{id:"9724",title:"The Applicability of Global and Surface Sensitive Techniques to Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles for Ink-Jet Printing Technology",slug:"the-applicability-of-global-and-surface-sensitive-techniques-to-characterization-of-silver-nanoparti",signatures:"M. Puchalski, P.J. Kowalczyk, Z. Klusek and W. Olejniczak",authors:[null]},{id:"9721",title:"In Situ Photochemically assisted Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles in Polymer Matrixes",slug:"in-situ-photochemically-assisted-synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles-in-polymer-matrixes",signatures:"Lavinia Balan, Jean-Pierre Malval and Daniel-Joseph Lougnot",authors:[null]},{id:"9732",title:"Linear and Nonlinear Optical Properties of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized in Dielectrics by Ion Implantation and Laser Annealing",slug:"linear-and-nonlinear-optical-properties-of-silver-nanoparticles-synthesized-in-dielectrics-by-ion-im",signatures:"Andrey L. Stepanov",authors:[null]},{id:"9719",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles with Laser Assistance",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles-with-laser-assistance",signatures:"A. Pyatenko",authors:[null]},{id:"9735",title:"Synthesis of Ag Nanoparticles by Through Thin Film Ablation",slug:"synthesis-of-ag-nanoparticles-by-through-thin-film-ablation",signatures:"P. Terrence Murray and Eunsung Shin",authors:[null]},{id:"9720",title:"O-Phenylenediamine Encapsulated Silver Nanoparticles and Their Applications for Organic Light-Emitting Devices",slug:"o-phenylenediamine-encapsulated-silver-nanoparticles-and-their-applications-for-organic-light-emitti",signatures:"Chang-Sik Ha, Jin-Woo Park and Habib Ullah",authors:[null]},{id:"9722",title:"High Surface Clay-Supported Silver Nanohybrids",slug:"high-surface-clay-supported-silver-nanohybrids",signatures:"Jiang-Jen Lin, Rui-Xuan Dong and Wei-Cheng Tsai",authors:[null]},{id:"9723",title:"Silver Nanoparticles in Oxide Glasses: Technologies and Properties",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-in-oxide-glasses-technologies-and-properties",signatures:"N.V. Nikonorov, Sidorov A.I. and Tsekhomskii V.A.",authors:[null]},{id:"9730",title:"Silver Nanoparticles: Sensing and Imaging Applications",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-sensing-and-imaging-applications",signatures:"Carlos Caro, Paula M. Castillo, Rebecca Klippstein, David Pozo and Ana P. Zaderenko",authors:[null]},{id:"9734",title:"Silver Nanoparticles as Optical Sensors",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-as-optical-sensors",signatures:"Chien Wang, Marta Luconi, Adriana Masi and Liliana Fernandez",authors:[null]},{id:"9725",title:"Biosynthesis and Application of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles",slug:"biosynthesis-and-application-of-silver-and-gold-nanoparticles",signatures:"Zygmunt Sadowski",authors:[null]},{id:"9733",title:"On-Paper Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles for Antibacterial Applications",slug:"on-paper-synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles-for-antibacterial-applications",signatures:"Hirotaka Koga and Takuya Kitaoka",authors:[null]},{id:"9727",title:"The Silver Nanoparticle (Nano-Ag): a New Model for Antifungal Agents",slug:"the-silver-nanoparticle-nano-ag-a-new-model-for-antifungal-agents",signatures:"Juneyoung Lee, Keuk-Jun Kim, Woo Sang Sung, Jong Guk Kim and Dong Gun Lee",authors:[null]},{id:"9728",title:"Silver Nanoparticles Interactions with the Immune System: Implications for Health and Disease",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-interactions-with-the-immune-system-implications-for-health-and-disease",signatures:"Rebecca Klippstein, Rafael Fernandez-Montesinos, Paula M. Castillo, Ana P. Zaderenko and David Pozo",authors:[null]},{id:"9726",title:"Potential Use of Silver Nanoparticles as an Additive in Animal Feeding",slug:"potential-use-of-silver-nanoparticles-as-an-additive-in-animal-feeding",signatures:"Manuel Fondevila",authors:[null]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"64455",title:"Cyanobacteria for PHB Bioplastics Production: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81536",slug:"cyanobacteria-for-phb-bioplastics-production-a-review",body:'
1. Introduction
Bioplastics [1, 2, 3] are either biodegradable, e.g., according to the standard EN13432 [4], or at least partly made from renewable raw materials, e.g., according to ASTM D6866 [5]. Although their market share today is only approx. 2%, they see two-digit growth figures [6]. The sustainability of bioplastics is reviewed in [7]. Plastics in general and their composites are a large and important class of materials. The global production volume exceeds 300 million tons/year [8]. For a bioplastics material to have a major impact, it has to match the key properties of one of the commodity plastics such as PP, PE, PVC, PS or PET. This is the case with polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which have the potential to replace mass polymer PP in many applications. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is the most important representative of PHA.
Cyanobacteria [9, 10, 11] are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, and they are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes that can produce oxygen. The name “cyanobacteria” is derived from the Greek word for “blue,” which is the color of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes, and they are also called “blue-green algae,” though the term “algae” is not correct technically, as it only includes eukaryotes.
It was discovered that cyanobacteria can produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) photoautotrophically [12], with the potential for CO2 recycling and bioplastics production. This chapter is an up-to-date review on PHB production from cyanobacteria, since the last review article on this topic [13] was written already 5 years ago.
2. PHB, a commodity bioplastics for mass market products?
Today, thermoplastic starch (TPS) and polylactic acid (PLA) are the two dominant biodegradable bioplastics materials. Partly, bio-based PET (see, for example, the PlantBottle™ project) and “Green PE,” a polyethylene made from sugarcane-derived ethanol in Brazil, are the two most common nondegradable, but bio-based plastics. PHB has striking similarities to PP and has therefore been envisaged as potential replacement candidate for PP by Markl et al. [14], for instance, in biomedical, agricultural, and industrial applications [15]. The following Table 1 shows a comparison of PHB and PP.
Table 1.
Properties of PHB compared to those of PP (source: [16]).
The low elongation and break and the brittleness of PHB are limitations. These, however, can be overcome by using other PHA, blends of copolymers, see Table 2.
Table 2.
Property modification by copolymerization (source: [13]).
Apart from short-chain-length PHA, there are medium- and long-chain-length variants, too, [17], so that material properties can be tailored in a wide spectrum.
The majority of PP is used in short-lived plastic products such as rigid packaging, which partly end up in nature. A biodegradable alternative can be a sensible material solution. Since PHA can be selected and customized for various applications, and also blended, co-polymerized and compounded, it is estimated that up to 90% of all PP applications can be covered by PHA and to a large extent thereof by PHB. A disadvantage of PHB is its high production cost. In [15], ways to make PHA production more cost-competitive are listed (see Table 3).
Table 3.
Technology to be developed to lower PHA production cost (reproduced with permission from [15]).
Avoiding feedstock costs and using CO2 as sole carbon source are described as strong potential here.
In general, organic carbon feedstocks can yield high PHB contents in microorganisms. For instance, Bhati et al. produced 78% PHB of dry well weight with Nostoc muscorum Agardh [18].
An alternative production pathway for PHB is a catalytic one [19, 20]. Both the fermentation and the catalytic process yield an expensive PHB product, which is hard to sell as it competes with low-price commodities such as PE and PP for packaging applications, which are very cost-sensitive.
3. PHB production by cyanobacteria: current state of knowledge
It is known that cyanobacteria can produce PHB as an intracellular energy and carbon storage compound [21] (see Figure 1).
Figure 1.
PHB granules in cyanobacteria. Left: Wild type. Right: Mutant (reproduced with permission from [22]).
Reference [23] discusses the use of cyanobacteria to produce chemicals. Cyanobacteria show several industrially relevant benefits compared to their plant counterparts, including a faster growth rate, higher CO2 utilization and greater amenability to genetic engineering [24, 25].
Table 4 shows compounds that can be produced by cyanobacteria photoautotrophically [26].
Table 4.
Compounds that could be produced by cyanobacteria (reproduced with permission from [26]).
In 2013, a review on the production of poly-β-hydroxybutyrates from cyanobacteria for the production of bioplastics was published [13]. Meanwhile, significant improvements have been implemented.
In 2018, Troschl et al. could report 12.5% PHB cry well weight [21]. In the same year, Kamravamanesh et al. have shown that the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6714 can produce up to 37% dry cell weight of PHB with CO2 as the only carbon source [27, 28], which is significantly above the other reported values from literature. The strain had been subjected to UV light mutations to increase the PHB productivity. Prior to that work, the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. MA19, was reported to have achieved 27% of dry cell weight PHB [29]. It was reported that, originally, the MA 19 was isolated from a hot spring in Japan (Miyakejima). However, neither the authors of this paper nor other researchers [30] were able to obtain a sample from that strain in 2016–2018, despite high efforts, so currently, Kamravamanesh’s strain Synechocystis sp. PCC 6714 can be considered the cyanobacterium with the highest PHB content. A high PHB content is advantageous for downstream processing in terms of energy efficiency, for instance, or product quality.
Genetic engineering is commonly deployed to increase the yield of PHB compared to wild types [26, 31, 32]. Also, bioprocess optimization is carried out [27, 28]. Growth is typically followed by nitrogen and/or phosphorous limitation. Also, “feast and famine” strategies concerning the carbon source are applied [33].
Reference [34] discusses the use of consortia of cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria for stable PHB production.
The modeling of cyanobacterial PHB production is discussed in [35].
A possible growth system for PHB from cyanobacteria is presented in [18], see Figure 2 below.
Figure 2.
Operation mode for PHB production from cyanobacteria. The ripening tank is used for PHB production at a later stage, where no CO2 is consumed, but glycogen gets converted into PHB (reproduced with permission from [18]).
The study in [18] uses long-term, non-sterile cultivation of Synechocystis sp. CCALA192 in a tubular photobioreactor for PHB production. Another concept would be open pond photobioreactors like open pond raceways. Different photobioreactor setups are reviewed in [18, 36, 37, 38, 39]. A promising alternative is an integrated algae-based biorefinery, e.g., for the production of biodiesel, astaxanthin and PHB as presented by [40] or [41].
4. PHB production by cyanobacteria: an outlook
A major unsolved issue is the downstream processing of the cyanobacteria, i.e., how to get the bioplastics material out of the cyanobacteria (see Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Schematic illustration of factors impacting sustainability of PHA production (reproduced with permission from [42]).
In Ref. [23], photomixotrophic conditions to increase cyanobacterial production rate and yield are reviewed. Supplementation with fixed carbon sources gives additional carbon building blocks and energy to speed up production. Photomixotrophic production was found to increase titers up to fivefold over traditional autotrophic conditions [23], so there is a strong future potential in this mode for cyanobacteria.
5. Conclusions
This chapter has presented an update on PHB production by cyanobacteria, a process route which can be more sustainable than catalytic production from CO or fermentation from sugar compounds. It is expected that PHB and its compounds will gradually replace PP in many large volume applications. Genetic engineering can increase the yield of PHB in cyanobacteria; however, the downside is that approval for large-scale cultivation in (cost- and energy-efficient) open growth systems will be difficult to obtain in most countries, so technologies avoiding genetic engineering seem to be most promising for commercial development.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from Wirtschaftsagentur Wien is gratefully acknowledged.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), bioplastics, EN13432, biodegradability, organic carbon content, microplastics, cyanobacteria",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64455.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64455.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64455",totalDownloads:1442,totalViews:419,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"March 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 20th 2018",datePublished:"May 29th 2019",dateFinished:"November 20th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, can be used as host to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which are promising bioplastic raw materials. The most important material thereof is polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), which can replace the commodity polymer polypropylene (PP) in many applications, yielding a bio-based, biodegradable alternative solution. The advantage from using cyanobacteria to make PHB over the standard fermentation processes, with sugar or other organic (waste) materials as feedstock, is that the sustainability is better (compare first-generation biofuels with the feed vs. fuel debate), with CO2 being the only carbon source and sunlight being the sole energy source. In this review article, the state of the art of cyanobacterial PHB production and its outlook is discussed. Thirty-seven percent of dry cell weight of PHB could be obtained in 2018, which is getting close to up to 78% of PHB dry cell weight in heterotrophic microorganisms in fermentation reactors. A good potential for cyanobacterial PHB is seen throughout the literature.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64455",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64455",signatures:"Erich Markl, Hannes Grünbichler and Maximilian Lackner",book:{id:"6889",title:"Algae",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Algae",slug:"algae",publishedDate:"May 29th 2019",bookSignature:"Yee Keung Wong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6889.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-563-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-562-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-723-8",editors:[{id:"227706",title:"Dr.",name:"Yee Keung",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"yee-keung-wong",fullName:"Yee Keung Wong"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251081",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximilian",middleName:null,surname:"Lackner",fullName:"Maximilian Lackner",slug:"maximilian-lackner",email:"kontakt@drlackner.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255232",title:"Prof.",name:"Erich",middleName:null,surname:"Markl",fullName:"Erich Markl",slug:"erich-markl",email:"erich.markl@technikum-wien.at",position:null,institution:null},{id:"277237",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Grünbichler",fullName:"Hannes Grünbichler",slug:"hannes-grunbichler",email:"hannes.gruenbichler@technikum-wien.at",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. PHB, a commodity bioplastics for mass market products?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. PHB production by cyanobacteria: current state of knowledge",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. PHB production by cyanobacteria: an outlook",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lackner M. Bioplastics—Biobased plastics as renewable and/or biodegradable alternatives to petroplastics. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. New York, USA: Wiley; 2015'},{id:"B2",body:'Ashter SA. Introduction to Bioplastics Engineering. Oxford, UK: William Andrew; 2016. ISBN: 978-0323393966'},{id:"B3",body:'Kabasci S, editor. Bio-Based Plastics: Materials and Applications. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley VCH; 2013. ISBN: 9781119994008'},{id:"B4",body:'DIN EN 13432-2000. Packaging—Requirements for Packaging Recoverable Through Composting and Biodegradation—Test Scheme and Evaluation Criteria for the Final Acceptance of Packaging; German Version EN 13432:2000. https://www.beuth.de/de/norm/din-en-13432/32115376 Accessed: August 1, 2018'},{id:"B5",body:'ASTM D6866-18. Standard Test Methods for Determining the Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis. https://www.astm.org/Standards/D6866.htm Accessed: August 1, 2018'},{id:"B6",body:'Endres H-J. Engineering Biopolymers: Markets, Manufacturing, Properties and Applications. Munich, Germany: Hanser Pubn; 2010. ISBN: 978-1569904619'},{id:"B7",body:'Thakur S, Chaudhary J, Sharma B, Verma A, Thakur VK. Sustainability of bioplastics: Opportunities and challenges. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. 2018;13:68-75'},{id:"B8",body:'Plastics Europe, The Facts 2017. https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/5715/1717/4180/Plastics_the_facts_2017_FINAL_for_website_one_page.pdf'},{id:"B9",body:'Sharma NK, Rai AK, Stal LJ. Cyanobacteria: An Economic Perspective. Malden, USA: Wiley-Blackwell; 2014. ISBN: 978-1119941279'},{id:"B10",body:'Nienaber MA, Steinitz-Kannan M. A Guide to Cyanobacteria: Identification and Impact Kindle Edition. Lexington, USA: University Press of Kentucky; 2018. ISBN: 978-0813175591'},{id:"B11",body:'Tiwari A. Cyanobacteria Nature, Potentials and Applications. Lexington, USA: Astral; 2014. ISBN-13: 978-8170359128'},{id:"B12",body:'Asada Y, Miyake M, Miyake J, Kurane R, Tokiwa Y. Photosynthetic accumulation of poly-(hydroxybutyrate) by cyanobacteria—The metabolism and potential for CO2 recycling. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 1999;25(1-3):37-42'},{id:"B13",body:'Balaji S, Gopi K, Muthuvelan B. A review on production of poly β hydroxybutyrates from cyanobacteria for the production of bio plastics. Algal Research. 2013;2(3):278-285'},{id:"B14",body:'Markl E, Grünbichler H, Lackner M. PHB—Biobased and biodegradable replacement for PP: A review. Novel Techniques in Nutrition and Food Science (NTNF). 2018;2(4):1-4'},{id:"B15",body:'Możejko-Ciesielska J, Kiewisz R. Bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates: Still fabulous? Microbiological Research. 2016;192:271-282'},{id:"B16",body:'Kaplan DL. Biopolymers from Renewable Resources. New York, USA: Springer; 1998. ISBN: 978-3540635673'},{id:"B17",body:'Singh AK, Mallick N. Enhanced production of SCL-LCL-PHA co-polymer by sludge-isolated Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 7925. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2008;46(3):350-357. DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02323.x'},{id:"B18",body:'Bhati R, Mallick N. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) copolymer production by the diazotrophic cyanobacterium Nostoc muscorum Agardh: Process optimization and polymer characterization. Algal Research. 2015;7:78-85. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2014.12.003'},{id:"B19",body:'Wang Y, Yin J, Chen G-Q. Polyhydroxyalkanoates, challenges and opportunities. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2014;30:59-65'},{id:"B20",body:'Reichardt R, Rieger B. Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) from carbon monoxide. In: Rieger B, Künkel A, Coates GW, Reichardt R, Dinjus E, Zevaco TA, editors. Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers. New York, USA: Springer; 2012 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/12_2011_127. ISBN 978-3-642-27154-0'},{id:"B21",body:'Troschl C, Meixner K, Fritz I, Leitner K, Drosg B. Pilot-scale production of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate with the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. CCALA192 in a non-sterile tubular photobioreactor. Algal Research. 2018;34:116-125'},{id:"B22",body:'Damrow R, Maldener I, Zilliges Y. The multiple functions of common microbial carbon polymers, glycogen and PHB, during stress responses in the non-diazotrophic cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016;7:966. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00966'},{id:"B23",body:'Matson MM, Atsumi S. Photomixotrophic chemical production in cyanobacteria. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2018;50:65-71'},{id:"B24",body:'Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P. Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components. Science. 1998;281:237-240'},{id:"B25",body:'Heidorn T, Camsund D, Huang HH, Lindberg P, Oliveira P, Stensjo K, et al. Synthetic biology in cyanobacteria engineering and analyzing novel functions. Methods in Enzymology. 2011;497:539-579'},{id:"B26",body:'Carroll AL, Case AE, Zhang A, Atsumi S. Metabolic engineering tools in model cyanobacteria. Metabolic Engineering. In press, corrected proof, Available online 26 March 2018'},{id:"B27",body:'Kamravamanesh D, Pflügl S, Nischkauer W, Limbeck A, Lackner M, Herwig C. Photosynthetic poly-β-hydroxybutyrate accumulation in unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6714. AMB Express. 2017;7(1):143. DOI: 10.1186/s13568-017-0443-9. Epub 2017 Jul 6'},{id:"B28",body:'Kamravamanesh D, Pflügl S, Kovacs T, Druzhinina I, Kroll P, Maximilian L, et al. Increased poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate production from CO2 in randomly mutated cells of cyanobacterial strain Synechocystis sp. PCC 6714: Mutant generation and characterization. Bioresource Technology. 2018;266:34-44. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.06.057'},{id:"B29",body:'Miyake M, Erata M, Asada Y. A thermophilic cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. MA19, capable of accumulating poly-β-hydroxybutyrate. Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering. 1996;82(5):512-514'},{id:"B30",body:'Fritz I. Universität für Bodenkultur Wien. BOKU, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Private Communication. 2018'},{id:"B31",body:'Hondo S, Takahashi M, Osanai T, Matsuda M, Asayama M. Genetic engineering and metabolite profiling for overproduction of polyhydroxybutyrate in cyanobacteria. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 2015;120(5):510-517'},{id:"B32",body:'Angermayr SA, Gorchs Rovira A, Hellingwerf KJ. Metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria for the synthesis of commodity products. Trends in Biotechnology. 2015;33(6):352-361'},{id:"B33",body:'Arias DM, Fradinho JC, Uggetti E, García J, Reis MAM. Polymer accumulation in mixed cyanobacterial cultures selected under the feast and famine strategy. Algal Research. 2018;33:99-108'},{id:"B34",body:'Weiss TL, Young EJ, Ducat DC. A synthetic, light-driven consortium of cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria enables stable polyhydroxybutyrate production. Metabolic Engineering. 2017;44:236-245'},{id:"B35",body:'Carpine R, Raganati F, Olivieri G, Hellingwerf KJ, Marzocchella A. Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) production by Synechocystis PCC6803 from CO2: Model development. Algal Research. 2018;29:49-60'},{id:"B36",body:'Diehl S, Zambrano J, Carlsson B. Analysis of photobioreactors in series. Mathematical Biosciences. In press, accepted manuscript, Available online 27 July 2018'},{id:"B37",body:'Wolf J, Stephens E, Steinbusch S, Yarnold J, Hankamer B. Multifactorial comparison of photobioreactor geometries in parallel microalgae cultivations. Algal Research. 2016;15:187-201'},{id:"B38",body:'Perez-Castro A, Sanchez-Moreno J, Castilla M. PhotoBioLib: A Modelica library for modeling and simulation of large-scale photobioreactors. Computers & Chemical Engineering. 2017;98:12-20'},{id:"B39",body:'Acién FG, Molina E, Reis A, Torzillo G, Masojídek J. Photobioreactors for the production of microalgae. In: Microalgae-Based Biofuels and Bioproducts. Duxford, UK: Woodhead Publishing; 2017. pp. 1-44'},{id:"B40",body:'García Prieto CV, Ramos FD, Estrada V, Villar MA, Soledad Diaz M. Optimization of an integrated algae-based biorefinery for the production of biodiesel, astaxanthin and PHB. Energy. 2017;139(15):1159-1172'},{id:"B41",body:'Meixner K, Kovalcik A, Sykacek E, Gruber-Brunhumer M, Drosg B. Cyanobacteria biorefinery—Production of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) with Synechocystis salina and utilisation of residual biomass. Journal of Biotechnology. 2018;265:46-53'},{id:"B42",body:'Koller M, Maršálek L, de Sousa Dias MM, Braunegg G. Producing microbial polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolyesters in a sustainable manner. New Biotechnology. 2017;37(Part A):24-38. DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2016.05.001'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Erich Markl",address:"erich.markl@technikum-wien.at",affiliation:'
University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien, Hoechstaedtplatz, Vienna, Austria
University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien, Hoechstaedtplatz, Vienna, Austria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6889",title:"Algae",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Algae",slug:"algae",publishedDate:"May 29th 2019",bookSignature:"Yee Keung Wong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6889.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-563-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-562-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-723-8",editors:[{id:"227706",title:"Dr.",name:"Yee Keung",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"yee-keung-wong",fullName:"Yee Keung Wong"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"71480",title:"Dr.",name:"Melanie",middleName:null,surname:"Laschinger",email:"laschinger@chir.med.tu-muenchen.de",fullName:"Melanie Laschinger",slug:"melanie-laschinger",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Technical University Munich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Potential of Heterotopic Cardiac Transplantation in Mice as a Model for Elucidating Mechanisms of Graft Rejection",slug:"potential-of-the-model-of-heterotopic-cardiac-transplantation-in-mice-for-elucidating-the-mechanisms",abstract:null,signatures:"Melanie Laschinger, Volker Assfalg, Edouard Matevossian, Helmut Friess and Norbert Hüser",authors:[{id:"69957",title:"Dr.",name:"Norbert",surname:"Hüser",fullName:"Norbert Hüser",slug:"norbert-huser",email:"hueser@chir.med.tu-muenchen.de"},{id:"71480",title:"Dr.",name:"Melanie",surname:"Laschinger",fullName:"Melanie Laschinger",slug:"melanie-laschinger",email:"laschinger@chir.med.tu-muenchen.de"},{id:"71482",title:"Dr.",name:"Volker",surname:"Aßfalg",fullName:"Volker Aßfalg",slug:"volker-assfalg",email:"assfalg@chir.med.tu-muenchen.de"},{id:"80963",title:"Prof.",name:"Helmut",surname:"Friess",fullName:"Helmut Friess",slug:"helmut-friess",email:"friess@chir.med.tu-muenchen.de"},{id:"122344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edouard",surname:"Matevossian",fullName:"Edouard Matevossian",slug:"edouard-matevossian",email:"matevossian@chir.med.tu-muenchen.de"}],book:{title:"Cardiac Transplantation",slug:"cardiac-transplantation",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"54196",title:"Prof.",name:"Edimar Alcides",surname:"Bocchi",slug:"edimar-alcides-bocchi",fullName:"Edimar Alcides Bocchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"64604",title:"Prof.",name:"Guilherme Veiga",surname:"Guimaraes",slug:"guilherme-veiga-guimaraes",fullName:"Guilherme Veiga Guimaraes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"65315",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Schweiger",slug:"martin-schweiger",fullName:"Martin Schweiger",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deutsches Herzzentrum Berlin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"66700",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",surname:"Ensor",slug:"christopher-ensor",fullName:"Christopher Ensor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Johns Hopkins Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"68029",title:"Dr.",name:"Paloma",surname:"Posada Moreno",slug:"paloma-posada-moreno",fullName:"Paloma Posada Moreno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"70072",title:"Dr.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Khush",slug:"kiran-khush",fullName:"Kiran Khush",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stanford University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"74928",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas Nobilo",surname:"Pascoalino",slug:"lucas-nobilo-pascoalino",fullName:"Lucas Nobilo Pascoalino",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"74930",title:"Mrs",name:"Aline Cristina",surname:"Tavares",slug:"aline-cristina-tavares",fullName:"Aline Cristina Tavares",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"74931",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitor Oliveira",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"vitor-oliveira-carvalho",fullName:"Vitor Oliveira Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"118520",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina",surname:"Doligalski",slug:"christina-doligalski",fullName:"Christina Doligalski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tampa General Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5822},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5288},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1761},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10549},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15941}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119467},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"6"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10741",title:"Synthetic Genomics - From Natural to Synthetic Genomes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eb1cebd0b9c4e7e87427003ff7196f57",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miguel Fernández-Niño and Dr. Luis H. Reyes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10741.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"158295",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Fernández-Niño",slug:"miguel-fernandez-nino",fullName:"Miguel Fernández-Niño"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10794",title:"Potassium in Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0fbab5c7b5baa903a6426e7bbd9f99ab",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jie Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10794.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"181267",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",surname:"Tang",slug:"jie-tang",fullName:"Jie Tang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10801",title:"Uric Acid",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d947ab87019e69ab11aa597edbacc018",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"40482",title:"Prof.",name:"Rizwan",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10837",title:"Peroxisomes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0014b09d4b35bb4d7f52ca0b3641cda1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Tutar and Dr. Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"64617cf21bf1e47170bb2bcf31b1fc37",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10886",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms - New Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a71558dd7dfd16ad140168409f887f7e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10886.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11026",title:"Chromosomal Abnormalities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f965c2c559eb781f068e327f804c866e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Subrata Kumar Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11026.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:28},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:52},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:11},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9559",title:"Teamwork in Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0053c2ff8d9ec4cc4aab82acea46a41e",slug:"teamwork-in-healthcare",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Stanislaw P. Stawicki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9559.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7016",title:"Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7937d2c640c7515de372282c72ee5635",slug:"cardiovascular-risk-factors-in-pathology",bookSignature:"Alaeddin Abukabda, Maria Suciu and Minodora Andor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7016.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"307873",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaeddin",middleName:null,surname:"Abukabda",slug:"alaeddin-abukabda",fullName:"Alaeddin Abukabda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9873",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59b5ceeeedaf7449a30629923569388c",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9873.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9893",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09ba24f6ac88af7f0aaff3029714ae48",slug:"automation-and-control",bookSignature:"Constantin Voloşencu, Serdar Küçük, José Guerrero and Oscar Valero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9893.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10405",title:"River Basin Management",subtitle:"Sustainability Issues and Planning Strategies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e5ddd0f2eda107ce19c4c06a55a8351",slug:"river-basin-management-sustainability-issues-and-planning-strategies",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10405.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"245",title:"Anthrobotics",slug:"anthrobotics",parent:{title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:23,numberOfWosCitations:184,numberOfCrossrefCitations:154,numberOfDimensionsCitations:290,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"anthrobotics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6106",title:"Human-Robot Interaction",subtitle:"Theory and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ca5e5f52657369cf282d9ccb46a599f3",slug:"human-robot-interaction-theory-and-application",bookSignature:"Gholamreza Anbarjafari and Sergio Escalera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6106.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206023",title:"Dr.",name:"Gholamreza",middleName:null,surname:"Anbarjafari",slug:"gholamreza-anbarjafari",fullName:"Gholamreza Anbarjafari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3624",title:"Robot Soccer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"robot-soccer",bookSignature:"Vladan Papić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3624.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"34038",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladan",middleName:null,surname:"Papić",slug:"vladan-papic",fullName:"Vladan Papić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3376",title:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2d4a8a52495443e514262bd26b5d35f",slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction",bookSignature:"Vladimir A. Kulyukin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3376.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"134137",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Kulyukin",slug:"vladimir-kulyukin",fullName:"Vladimir Kulyukin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3609",title:"Mobile Robots",subtitle:"State of the Art in Land, Sea, Air, and Collaborative Missions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"mobile-robots-state-of-the-art-in-land-sea-air-and-collaborative-missions",bookSignature:"XiaoQi Chen, Y.Q. Chen and J.G. Chase",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3609.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81536",title:"PhD.",name:"XiaoQi",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"xiaoqi-chen",fullName:"XiaoQi Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6111",title:"Mobile Robots",subtitle:"towards New Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75544814a08a51504dd52ee155eff99d",slug:"mobile_robots_towards_new_applications",bookSignature:"Aleksandar Lazinica",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59",doi:"10.5772/4695",title:"Interactive Robots as Facilitators of Childrens Social Development",slug:"interactive_robots_as_facilitators_of_childrens_social_development",totalDownloads:3556,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:35,book:{slug:"mobile_robots_towards_new_applications",title:"Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Mobile Robots: towards New Applications"},signatures:"Hideki Kozima and Cocoro Nakagawa",authors:null},{id:"63",doi:"10.5772/4699",title:"An Active Contour and Kalman Filter for Underwater Target Tracking and Navigation",slug:"an_active_contour_and_kalman_filter_for_underwater_target_tracking_and_navigation",totalDownloads:3624,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,book:{slug:"mobile_robots_towards_new_applications",title:"Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Mobile Robots: towards New Applications"},signatures:"Muhammad Asif and Mohd Rizal Arshad",authors:null},{id:"6611",doi:"10.5772/6992",title:"The State-of-Art of Underwater Vehicles - Theories and Applications",slug:"the-state-of-art-of-underwater-vehicles-theories-and-applications",totalDownloads:4653,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"mobile-robots-state-of-the-art-in-land-sea-air-and-collaborative-missions",title:"Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Mobile Robots - State of the Art in Land, Sea, Air, and Collaborative Missions"},signatures:"W.H. Wang, R.C. Engelaar, X.Q. Chen and J.G. Chase",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"6440",title:"Pen-type Sensor for Surface Texture Perception",slug:"pen-type-sensor-for-surface-texture-perception",totalDownloads:3145,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction",title:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Xianming Ye, Byungjune Choi, Hyouk Ryeol Choi, and Sungchul Kang",authors:null},{id:"6447",title:"Quantitative Analysis of Leg Movement and EMG signal in Expert Japanese Traditional Dancer",slug:"quantitative-analysis-of-leg-movement-and-emg-signal-in-expert-japanese-traditional-dancer",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction",title:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Woong Choi, Tadao Isaka, Hiroyuki Sekiguchi and Kozaburo Hachimura",authors:null},{id:"58386",title:"Review on Emotion Recognition Databases",slug:"review-on-emotion-recognition-databases",totalDownloads:1234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"human-robot-interaction-theory-and-application",title:"Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Human-Robot Interaction - Theory and Application"},signatures:"Rain Eric Haamer, Eka Rusadze, Iiris Lüsi, Tauseef Ahmed, Sergio\nEscalera and Gholamreza Anbarjafari",authors:[{id:"206023",title:"Dr.",name:"Gholamreza",middleName:null,surname:"Anbarjafari",slug:"gholamreza-anbarjafari",fullName:"Gholamreza Anbarjafari"}]},{id:"6449",title:"Toward Human Like Walking – Walking Mechanism of 3D Passive Dynamic Motion with Lateral Rolling – Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",slug:"toward-human-like-walking-walking-mechanism-of-3d-passive-dynamic-motion-with-lateral-rolling-advanc",totalDownloads:2689,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction",title:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Tomoo Takeguchi, Minako Ohashi and Jaeho Kim",authors:null},{id:"9346",title:"The Real-Time and Embedded Soccer Robot Control System",slug:"the-real-time-and-embedded-soccer-robot-control-system",totalDownloads:3191,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"robot-soccer",title:"Robot Soccer",fullTitle:"Robot Soccer"},signatures:"Ce Li, Takahiro Watanabe, Zhenyu Wu, Hang Li and Yijie Huangfu",authors:null},{id:"6456",title:"Anticipative Generation and In-Situ Adaptation of Maneuvering Affordance in a Naturally Complex Scene",slug:"anticipative-generation-and-in-situ-adaptation-of-maneuvering-affordance-in-a-naturally-complex-scen",totalDownloads:1553,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction",title:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Kohji Kamejima",authors:null},{id:"9353",title:"FIRA Mirosot Robot Soccer System Using Fuzzy Logic Algorithms",slug:"fira-mirosot-robot-soccer-system-using-fuzzy-logic-algorithms",totalDownloads:2737,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"robot-soccer",title:"Robot Soccer",fullTitle:"Robot Soccer"},signatures:"Elmer A. Maravillas and Elmer P. Dadios",authors:null},{id:"47",title:"Biped without Feet in Single Support: Stabilization of the Vertical Posture with Internal Torques",slug:"biped_without_feet_in_single_support__stabilization_of_the_vertical_posture_with_internal_torques",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"mobile_robots_towards_new_applications",title:"Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Mobile Robots: towards New Applications"},signatures:"Formalsky Alexander and Aoustin Yannick",authors:null},{id:"6444",title:"Making a Mobile Robot to Express its Mind by Motion Overlap",slug:"making-a-mobile-robot-to-express-its-mind-by-motion-overlap",totalDownloads:1489,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-human-robot-interaction",title:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Advances in Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Kazuki Kobayashi and Seiji Yamada",authors:null},{id:"6605",title:"Mobiles Robots - Past Present and Future",slug:"mobiles-robots-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:5195,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"mobile-robots-state-of-the-art-in-land-sea-air-and-collaborative-missions",title:"Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Mobile Robots - State of the Art in Land, Sea, Air, and Collaborative Missions"},signatures:"X.Q. Chen, Y.Q. Chen and J.G. Chase",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"anthrobotics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/71480/melanie-laschinger",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"71480",slug:"melanie-laschinger"},fullPath:"/profiles/71480/melanie-laschinger",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()