\r\n\tRisk management aims to develop an efficient organizational development environment through risk planning, assessment, analysis, and control. This process will apply in all areas of activity, and the evaluation framework is the same regardless of the field. This volume will aim to appeal to chapters that address methods, models, evaluation frameworks, benefits, barriers, and other dimensions of risk management. \r\n\tSustainability and the circular economy are approaches approached by many companies and have become activities of global interest. Protecting the environment, streamlining the consumption of organizational resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and other activities are objectives of these efforts. The circular economy contributes to the sustainable development of the company or country and the achievement of the global objectives of sustainable development. This book will aim to collect various studies for organizational and global sustainability. \r\n\tLeadership has become a globally desirable approach that can help improve organizational competitiveness and reduce organizational risks. Risks and barriers in risk-free management can be well managed through effective organizational leadership. This book will aim to bring together chapters that explore different areas of leadership.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-218-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-991-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-219-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d9c14d51cb7e214a9093c454eab1404",bookSignature:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean and Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11937.jpg",keywords:"Technical Risk, Occupational Risk, Operational Risk Management, Economic Risk, Financial Risk, Thematic Mapping, Global Sustainability, Sustainability Models, Life Cycle Assessment, Critical Raw Materials, Global Leadership, Risks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ivascu obtained Ph.D. in Management and graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. 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1. Introduction
Today, the global population continues to grow by 83 million annually and is predicted to be 9.8 billion in 2050 [1]. This increase in population will lead to higher demands of food, water, and energy, which have already been constrained due to the competing needs for limited resources in many parts of the world [2]. The challenges presented by climate change, pollution, and developing economy are posing significant pressure on food, water, and energy systems [3]. Efficient and integrated management of energy, food, and water resources could help address several of the biggest global challenges, such as climate change, sustainable economy, food security, environmental and social security [4, 5]. In the future, we will need increased food production, clear water sources, as well as alternative energy options with minimum resource utilization and ideally decreasing environmental impacts [6]. Work is underway to improve the food production chain as well as develop new technologies for renewable energy. So far less focus has been given to the water, especially to the management of the wastewater. There is a need for shifting the paradigm in the case of wastewater management from treatment and disposal to reuse, recycle, and resource recovery. With growing water scarcity and the fact that uncontrolled disposal of wastewater to the freshwater system is causing depletion of the system also stresses toward a change in mindset about wastewater management. This approach will prevent detrimental impacts on human health and ecosystem caused by the current handling methods. The next step toward a sustainable future will be wastewater treatment serving multiple purposes of treatment and recovery of resources like water, nutrient, and energy. The efficient wastewater management approach will see a cascaded benefit in other sectors including production of fertilizers such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus is obtained from ore called phosphate rocks. The quality and accessibility of currently available phosphate rock reserves are declining, and the cost to mine, refine, store, and transport them is rising [7, 8]. Similarly, the production of nitrogen and other mineral fertilizers is energy intensive as well as contributes to environmental pollution [3, 9]. The nitrogen fertilizer can leach to nearby water bodies leading to the phenomenon of eutrophication. The richness of nutrients in the water results in excessive growth of macroalgae and could lead to anoxic events and loss of aquatic system. Recovery of these nutrients from wastewater helps to close the cycle and reduce the amount of chemical fertilizer, directly contributing to the sustainability of food production.
One of the first indications of intentional nutrient recycling is documented 5000 years ago in rural Asia, where human excreta was used for fertilization of fields called “night soil” [10]. In the nineteenth and twentieth century with the industrial revolution, the population density became high, which gave rise to “Sanitation Revolution,” a transition from land-based to water-based disposal of human wastes. This disposal system changed the nutrient cycle from reuse to complete discard. Following the Industrial and Sanitation Revolutions, the Green Revolution that reformed agriculture largely abandoned organic fertilizers and put forth the mineral fertilizers [10, 11]. Furthermore, owing to the excessive population growth, producing enough food with only organic sources of plant nutrients has become impossible. Therefore, the need for mineral fertilizers is a true fact. Thus, many urban areas have dedicated wastewater treatment plant to remove the nuisance of human waste. But, it is becoming evident that future changes, particularly those associated with urbanization and population growth-related increase in volume of wastewater, add more stress to the wastewater system performance [12].
The greater dependency on fossil fuels in every sector is heavily contributing to global warming and climate change [13]. As an alternative, abundant biomass could play an essential role in reducing the dependency on fossil fuel as well as contribute toward sustainable development. Pyrolysis of biomass produces biochar and bio-oil. The bio-oil could be used as fuel to substitute the petroleum products with some upgrading that includes catalytic esterification and hydrogenation. The biochar could be used for energy and soil application [14]. Soil application helps in sequestration of carbon dioxide and subsequently supports food production. At present, the biochar application in soil remediation is not cost-effective. The financial feasibility could be improved by developing a cascaded use of biochar, as discussed in this chapter. The inherent properties of biochar make it suitable for (a) recovering nutrients from the wastewater, (b) improving the activated sludge treatment to reduce the energy use for aeration and to improve the settling ability of sludge, (c) increasing the energy recovery from sludge through anaerobic digestion, and (d) enhancing the quality of the biosolids for soil application. There are reports of biochar application having agronomic benefits in fertilizer management, yield, and soil biota [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Biochar, as a sound absorbent, also holds promise for low-cost wastewater treatment as an alternative to activated carbon [21, 22, 23, 24]. The integrated use of biochar in wastewater treatment addresses the current issues with the management of wastewater. However, the benefit of using biochar varies with its type and characteristics, which depends on the biomass, and the pyrolysis conditions [25].
This chapter provides insights on the use of biochar in a wastewater treatment process to enhance the treatment as well as recover valuable byproducts. The chapter will discuss biochar production and properties, mechanisms involving removal of organic and inorganic compounds from the effluent phase, and role in activated sludge treatment and anaerobic digestion.
2. Biochar properties for wastewater treatment
Biochar is a carbon-rich solid material produced from biomass through a thermochemical process called pyrolysis. During pyrolysis, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, fat, and starch in the feedstock are thermally broken down forming three products: biochar (solid), bio-oil (partly condensed volatile matter), and non-condensable gases (CO2, CO, CH4, and H2) [26, 27]. The bio-oil and gases can be captured to produce energy and depending on the feed valuable coproducts like wood preservatives, food flavoring, adhesive, or biochemical compounds [28]. The yield of biochar and the properties, however, depends on the pyrolysis condition. Slow pyrolysis at moderate temperature (350–500°C) and slow heating rate results in higher yield (30%) of biochar than around 10% or less yield with fast pyrolysis (600–700°C and fast heating rate) or gasification (temperature 700°C or above) [29]. The feedstock type and pyrolysis condition used during the production of biochar notably change the physiochemical properties such as surface area, polarity, atomic ratio, pH, and elemental composition [25, 30, 31]. These properties determine the effectiveness of biochar in wastewater treatment.
Biochar has wide applications in water and wastewater treatment because of its distinctive characteristics, for example, adsorption capacity, specific surface area, microporosity, and ion exchange capacity [30, 32]. The removal mechanisms of different pollutants are governed by their interactions with various attributes of biochar, which depends on pyrolysis temperature and feedstock type [33]. Pyrolysis temperature greatly affects the properties of biochar. The increase in pyrolysis temperature results in higher carbon content, hydrophobicity, aromaticity, surface area, and microporosity in biochar [34]. Similarly, the pH of the biochar increases with increasing pyrolysis temperature due to enrichment of ash content in the biochar [35, 36]. High-temperature (>500°C) biochar has low polarity and acidity due to loss of O- and H-containing functional groups [34]. Lower pyrolysis temperature (<500°C) facilitates partial carbonization, thus yielding biochar with smaller pore size, lower surface area, and high O-containing functional groups [36]. Lower temperature biochar contains a higher content of dissolved organic carbon, relatively low polarity and C/N ratio [30, 34, 37].
Biochar often compromises of both positively and negatively charged surfaces (zwitterionic) [34, 35]. The negatively charged functional groups contribute to cation exchange capacity (CEC) whereas anion exchange capacity (AEC) is also exhibited by O-containing functional groups (oxonium heterocycles) in biochar [36, 38]. Oxygen (O) containing alcohol, carbonyl, and carboxylate functional groups are generally believed to contribute to biochar cation exchange capacity because they carry a negative charge and serve as Lewis bases for the sorption of cations. Whereas, it is believed that oxonium functional groups contribute to pH-independent anion exchange and that both pyridinic functional groups and nonspecific proton adsorption by condensed aromatic rings contribute to pH-dependent anion exchange capacity in biochars [38].
Biochar derived from woody biomass and crop residues has a higher surface area compared to that of solid municipal wastes and animal manure [30]. Apart from the usual pyrolysis method, different engineering methods have been developed and used to expand biochar’s applications. Engineered biochar is the derivative of biochar that is modified by physical, chemical, and biological methods to improve its physical, chemical, and biological properties (e.g., specific surface area, porosity, cation exchange capacity, surface functional group, pH etc.) and its adsorption capacity [37, 39, 40]. Some of the modification includes anaerobic digestion of feedstock before pyrolysis, steam/gas activation, pyrolysis using microwave heating, ball milling, magnetic modification, chemical modification using hydrogen peroxide, alkali or acid, and impregnation/coating with chemicals [41]. The detail about the modified biochar for wastewater treatment will be discussed in the following sections.
2.1 Biochar modification
Researchers have discussed several methods for modifying the properties of biochar [42]. These methodologies include treatments with steam, acids, bases, metal oxides, carbonaceous materials, clay minerals, organic compounds, and biofilms [43].
2.1.1 Physical activation of biochar
Physical activation methods such as steam activation involve high-temperature steam forced through the pores of the biochar. Steam activation, which is carried out after pyrolysis, is a common modification method used to increase the structural porosity of the biochar and remove impurities such as products of incomplete combustion. According to [44], higher water flow rates and longer activation times at 800°C increased the sorption of Cd, Cu, and Zn on the surface of biochar from poultry manure feedstocks pyrolyzed at 700°C. In another study, comparison of Cu2+ adsorption for biochar from Miscanthus before (500°C pyrolysis) and after (800°C) steam activation showed no significant change [45]. It was found that steam activation of the biochar increased the surface area and aromaticity alongside a decrease in the abundance of functional groups [45]. Similarly, steam-activated biochar from pine sawdust increased the surface area but had little effect on the surface functional group as a result of which adsorption capacity of biochar for phosphate was reduced due to electrostatic repulsion by the negatively charged surface of biochar [46]. The steam-activated invasive plant (Sicyos angulatus L.)-derived biochar produced at 700°C showed 55% increase in sorption capacity of veterinary antibiotics (sulfamethazine) compared to that of nonactivated biochar produced at the same temperature [47]. Hence, steam activation could be a process for increasing the porosity and surface area of biochar along with aromaticity to obtain better adsorption of inorganic material in the wastewater.
2.1.2 Chemical activation using acidic and alkaline solutions
The biochar activation using acidic solutions forms carboxylic groups on the biochar surface [48] and develops micropores, thus increasing the surface area [49]. The increase of oxygenated functional groups on biochar surfaces increases the potential of biochar to bind positively charged pollutants through specific adsorption chemically. The pH dependence of Cu2+ sorption capacity for HNO3-activated cactus fiber biochar indicated chemical sorption on oxygen-containing functional groups on the biochar surface [48]. Higher O/C ratio in the post-activation of rice straw with H2SO4 and HNO3 showed evidence of oxygen-containing functional group incorporated into the carbon structure [50]. Acid treatment of pine tree sawdust with diluted H3PO4 prior to pyrolysis increased the surface area, the total pore volume, and volume of micropores area along with P-O-P incorporation in the C structure [51]. This increased the Pb sorption capacity of the phosphoric-treated biochar by 20% in comparison to a nontreated sample, mainly due to phosphate precipitation and surface adsorption [51]. Similarly, almost double increase in cation exchange capacity was observed for pinewood biochar treated with 30% H2O2 because the oxygen-containing functional groups in the surface of biochar, which were more abundant in the activated biochar, exchanged with cations in solution [52]. Treating a hydrochar, a carbon-enriched solid produced from hydrothermal carbonization of peanut hull, with a 10% H2O2 solution increased Pb sorption capacity compared to the unmodified hydrochar, which can be attributed to a greater abundance of carboxyl functional groups that can form complexes with Pb [53]. However, the introduction of acid or oxidizing agents dissolves mineral components (CO32−, SiO42−, PO43−) in the biochar structure and removes them from the biochar matrix. These minerals in biochar are particularly important for the removal of metal cations from water due to precipitation [54], the affinity of which could be reduced by the acid treatment.
Activation of biochar using alkali (most commonly KOH and NaOH) increases adsorption by increasing porosity, surface and oxygenated functional group at the surface. Oxygenated functional groups provide proton-donating exchange sites where cation such as Pb2+ adsorbs chemically [55]. The activation of ipomoea plant biochar with KOH, followed by pyrolysis (350–550°C) demonstrated an increase adsorption of Cd from aqueous solution [56]. Further evidence of kinetics of sorption fitting a pseudo-second-order model and thermodynamic studies indicating spontaneous endothermic process showed that Cu sorption on KOH-activated biochar was due to chemical adsorption [57]. The adsorption capacity of As(V) on municipal solid waste biochar was increased by 1.3 times after activation with 2 M KOH [58]. It can be concluded that activation by alkali greatly enhanced the surface area and altercation of the functional group at the surface.
2.1.3 Biochar-based composites
The biochar composites are prepared by embedding different materials into the biochar structure pre- or post-pyrolysis. Generally, biochar has a higher surface area, high pH, and a negative surface charge. This facilitates specific adsorption of metal ions via oxygenated functional groups, electrostatic attraction to aromatic groups, and precipitation on the mineral ash components of the biochar. But at the same time biochar is usually a poor adsorbent for oxy-anions contaminants like NO3−, PO43−, and AsO43− [44]. This can be improved by the homogenous spread of metal oxide on biochar surfaces. It can be done by soaking biochars or the feedstocks in a solution of metal nitrate or chloride salt solution (common examples FeCl3, Fe, Fe(NO3)3, and MgCl2) and heated under atmospheric condition within a temperature range of 50–300°C. This process ensures removal of nitrite and chlorine leaving behind metals in the biochar matrix. Ca-, FeO-, and Fe3+-modified biochar from soaked rice husk and municipal biomass in CaO, iron powder, and FeCl3 respectively, increased the capability of biochar to remove As(V), but not as high for Cr(VI), from aqueous solution [59]. Taking into consideration that one of the main mechanisms for Cr(VI) removal is the electrostatic interaction to the positively charged functional groups on the surface of adsorbents, high Cr(VI) removal is observed at low pH values [60]. It is rather possible that the high pH values of the RH-Ca2þ, RH-Fe0, and SW-Fe0 solutions are related to the deprotonation of their functional groups and the repelling of the negatively charged Cr(VI) [60]. Similarly, a 20-time increase in the sorption of As(V) was observed when corncob biochar was modified with Fe(NO3)3 [61]. Despite the lower surface area, modification of biochars from garden wood waste and wood chips as well as corncob showed the increased PO43− sorption by a factor of 12–50% [58]. Further research has been carried out for preparing biochar-based composites by impregnation or coating the surface of the biochar with metal oxides of Al, Mn, and Mg [58]; clay minerals [62]; complex organic compounds, such as chitosan [63] or amino acids [64]; or inoculation with microorganisms [65].
Thus, the selection of biochar and modification methods for the application in wastewater treatment requires a considerable understanding of the biochar properties and mechanism by which it supports the treatment process at different stages of wastewater treatment.
3. Role of biochar use in wastewater treatment process
Biochar could be used at different stages of wastewater treatment (Figure 1) to improve the treatment efficiency and recovery of value-added byproducts. Biochar application in wastewater treatment could be governed by the mechanism of adsorption, buffering, and immobilization of microbial cells. If used on the treated effluents, suitably modified biochar could efficiently adsorb nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which can later be used as a nutrient-enriched material for soil remediation. When used in the activated sludge treatment process, biochar could play a role for improving the treatment and settling ability of the sludge by adsorption of inhibitors and toxic compounds or provide a surface for immobilization of microbes. Addition of biochar in the biological system could eventually help to improve the soil amendment properties of the biosolid as well. As interest grows in the use of biochar in soil applications, its use in wastewater treatment could expand the value chain and create additional economic benefits [66]. The following section will discuss the role of biochar for various applications in the wastewater treatment plant.
Figure 1.
Use of biochar at different stages of wastewater treatment.
3.1 Organic pollutant removal
In recent years, significant amount of research has been done to examine the application of biochar for removal of various organic compounds from water, which includes agrochemicals, antibiotics/drugs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds or (VOCs), cationic aromatic dyes [67, 68, 69, 70]. Similarly, removal of organic compounds present in specific waste streams such as estrogen compounds in animal manure and sewage, inhibitory compounds of biomass degradation (furfural, hydroxymethylfurfural, phenolic compounds), and toxic organic compounds in landfill leachate has been studied using biochar [71, 72]. Figure 2 schematically shows different interactions of the organic pollutant with biochar.
Figure 2.
Biochar interaction with organic and inorganic compounds in wastewater (adapted from Ahmad et al. [33]).
Biochar produced at higher pyrolysis temperature is found better for removal of nonpolar organic compounds due to higher surface area and microporosity [30, 73]. In contrast, biochar produced at a temperature below 500°C contains more O- and H-containing functional groups; thus, they are likely to have a high affinity to polar organic compounds [26]. For example, rice husk and soybean-derived biochar (600–700°C) facilitates removal of nonpolar carbofuran (pesticide) and trichloromethylene (VOC) from contaminated water [26]. Efficient removal of pyrimethanil and diesopropylatrazine (fungicide/pesticide) was observed with red-gum wood chips and broiler litter-derived biochar at temperature >700°C, whereas the same biochar at temperature <500°C was inefficient [74, 75]. On the other hand, removal of polar insecticide and herbicide like 1-naphthol, norflurazon, and fluridone was observed with biochar produced at <300°C, due to interaction of pollutant and the functional groups of biochar [76, 77]. Likewise, higher sorption of aromatic cationic dyes like methyl-violet and methyl-blue was observed with biochar containing more O- and H-functional groups (<400°C) but the mechanism was highly dependent on pH [70, 78]. The sorption of polar antibiotic sulfamethazine (SMZ) by hardwood/softwood-derived biochars (produced at 300–700°C) has pH-dependent interactions [79]. It can be said that pH is the most important factor for biochar interactions and removal of polar organic pollutants.
3.2 Inorganic pollutant removal
Inorganic pollutant in wastewater includes heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Pb, Cd, Hg, Fe, Zn, and As ions) and compounds like nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), ammonium (NH4), phosphorus (P), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that cause significant risk to public health and environment [80]. Biochar produced at lower pyrolysis temperature (<500°C) has properties that are better suited for removal of inorganic compounds. The chemical composition and the morphological structure play an important role in the sorption nature of biochar [81]. Figure 2 summarizes the interaction methods for inorganic pollutant and biochar.
3.2.1 Heavy metals
Biochar with high organic carbon content (at non-carbonized fraction), specific porous structure, and numerous functional groups interacts with heavy metals in many ways [82]. The sorption of heavy metals by biochar is mainly by surface interaction through ion exchange and complexation between biochar functional groups (e.g., OH, COOH, R-OH) and heavy metal ions [83, 84], moreover formation of metal precipitates with inorganic constituents [83, 84, 85] and coordination of metal ions with π electrons (C〓C) of biochar [74]. The physiochemical properties of biochar affect the adsorption throughout its matrix and are dependent on pyrolysis temperature, feedstock type, pH, and application rate. Cu2+ showed high affinity toward COOH▬ and OH▬ groups of hardwood and crop-derived biochars with dependency on pH and feedstock types [86]. Similarly, sida hermaphrodita-, guayule shrub-, soybean straw-, and wheat straw-derived biochars were effective for removal of Cd2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ along with Cu2+ [87]. The higher efficiency of the above-mentioned biochar was due to high C and O contents, high O/C molar ratio, and polarity index, which were mainly regulated by pH [88, 89]. Alkaline biochars derived from various agricultural residues (e.g., soybean straw, corncob, cocoa husk, corn stover, switchgrass) and manure were efficient for Hg2+ removal. Animal manure-derived and cocoa husk biochar was highly effective for Hg2+ removal due to high sulfur (SH groups and sulfate) to precipitate 90% of Hg2+ as Hg(OH)2 or HgCl2 mainly through coprecipitation with anions (Cl, O, S) of biochar [73, 90].
For Cd2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, and Cu2+ dosage of biochar also affects the removal of heavy metals. The higher removal efficiency is observed with increasing biochar loading in the aqueous system, due to increased pH and surface area with biochar addition [54, 91].
3.2.2 Nitrogen and phosphorus
The high surface charge density allows biochars to retain cations by cation exchange and the high surface area, internal porosity, and presence of both polar and nonpolar surface sites on biochar enable it to adsorb nutrients [92]. In the limited studies carried out without soil, biochar has shown the absorption NH4−, NO3−, and PO43− despite the different charges and properties of these nutrients [93]. Some examples include digested sugar beet tailing biochar pyrolyzed at 600°C that adsorbed PO4 ions most likely in binding sites contained in colloidal and nano sized MgO particles on the biochar surface [94]. Also, orange peel biochars pyrolyzed between 250 and 700°C removed between 8 and 83% of phosphate from solution [95]. NH4 was adsorbed to biochars produced from rice husk [96] and a mixture of tree trunks and branches [97], albeit weakly, as the partitioning coefficients between water and biochar were low (Freundlich coefficients of 0.251 mg g−1). Similarly, NO3− has been adsorbed to bamboo charcoal biochar in the concentration range of 0–10 mg L−1 [98].
3.3 Activated sludge treatment
One of the most utilized systems for treatment of municipal wastewater is biological treatment process like activated sludge system (ASS) because of its cost-effectiveness and comparatively more straightforward operation to advance systems. Activated sludge process is a suspended growth treatment where aerobic microorganism decomposes the organic matter in wastewater, which eventually settles as solids by gravity. Currently, increasing concerns are being raised about the presence of various micro-pollutants from pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PCPs), pesticides, disinfectants, and antiseptic in domestic and municipal wastewaters. These pollutants are alien to the biota in the system, and the conventional treatment process often leads to inadequate removal of these compounds. Correspondingly, discharge requirements are currently being stringent for protection of receiving waters from possible contamination and public health hazard. There have been several modifications and changes in the activated sludge system to address the problem. One such method is AS-PACT (Activated Sludge with Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment) where powdered activated carbon is added to the aeration basin of activated sludge system. The larger surface area of carbon provides various benefits including adsorption of toxic substances such as pharmaceuticals and industrial chemicals, immobilization of bacteria, and increased sedimentation of activated sludge [99, 100]. Such system, however, requires a continuous makeup of fresh carbon [101].
Despite the benefits, the higher cost of activated carbon limits its use in municipal wastewater treatment [101]. The biochar could be a low-cost substitute to activated carbon [102], but its merits are less known. The addition of biochar to a biological treatment system, such as within the aeration tank, could result in increased process stability by (a) adsorption of inhibitors (heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon), (b) increasing the buffering capacity of the system, and (c) immobilization of microbial cells [103]. Limited studies done on the use of biochar in the aeration tank showed increased settling ability of activated sludge [104]. Dissolved organic matter in the biochar could also provide additional carbon to promote denitrification [105]. The availability of organic matter, however, depends on the type of biomass and pyrolysis conditions used for producing biochar. Furthermore, the cascading benefits of using biochar in activated sludge treatment could also be seen on anaerobic digestion of the sludge and in the final quality of the biosolids.
3.4 Anaerobic digestion
In the case of anaerobic digestion, the addition of biochar has shown increases in the rate and amount of biogas production [106, 107, 108]. This is attributed to the buffering properties of biochar, promoting methanogenesis for higher biogas yield [109, 110]. Several studies have suggested increases in microbial metabolism and growth because of the support provided by the biochar [107, 111]. The biochar could also play a significant role in reducing the mobility or availability of the inhibitors like heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics, and other organic compounds by binding them in its porous structure and maintain proper microbial activity for the digestion process [103]. Further, the adsorption of nutrients in biochar and its slow release increase the availability of nutrients to the soil while preventing leaching to surrounding water bodies, as it is prevalent in the case of biosolids [103]. Therefore, the addition of biochar in the biological system could eventually help to improve the soil amendment properties of the biosolid as well.
4. Conclusion
Biochar is a unique renewable resource, which can be used in a wide variety of applications from addressing various environmental problems like climate change, remediation of pollutants in water and soil to an alternative fuel source. The cascading use of biochar as a byproduct of pyrolysis for wastewater treatment and nutrient recycling can synergistically improve soil and water quality, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient cycling, and fuel crisis. The approach perfectly fits the ideas of the circular economy: reuse and recycle of waste, keeping material and product in use. This approach is connected with three natural cycles: water, carbon, and nutrient and has a direct impact on energy, water, and food systems. While much work has been done in modifying the biochar for adsorption of desired organic or inorganic compounds, very less is known on its application in activated sludge treatment, anaerobic digestion, and the overall quality of the biosolids. As the benefits of the integrated use of biochar in wastewater treatment to soil application is established in this chapter, future experimental research work could verify its effectiveness.
\n',keywords:"biochar, wastewater treatment, activated sludge treatment, anaerobic digestion, nutrient recovery, waste valorization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71992.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71992.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71992",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71992",totalDownloads:1284,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:87,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 5th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 27th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 30th 2020",datePublished:"July 22nd 2020",dateFinished:"April 30th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Biochar is the solid byproduct of pyrolysis, and its cascading use can offset the cost of the production and its use in application such as soil remediation. A wide variety of research on biochar has highlighted its ability to absorb nutrients, metal and complex compounds, filter suspended solids, enhance microorganisms’ growth, retain water and nutrients as well as increasing the carbon content of the soil. Besides, sustainable biochar systems are an attractive approach for carbon sequestration and total waste management cycle. The chapter looks into such cascading use of biochar in wastewater treatment for recovering nutrients and improving the efficiency of activated sludge treatment and anaerobic digestion for producing biosolid with enhanced soil amendment properties.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71992",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71992",book:{id:"10005",slug:"applications-of-biochar-for-environmental-safety"},signatures:"Abhishek Pokharel, Bishnu Acharya and Aitazaz Farooque",authors:[{id:"317504",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:null,surname:"Acharya",fullName:"Bishnu Acharya",slug:"bishnu-acharya",email:"bacharya@upei.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"317505",title:"Mr.",name:"Abhishek",middleName:null,surname:"Pokharel",fullName:"Abhishek Pokharel",slug:"abhishek-pokharel",email:"apokharel@upei.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Prince Edward Island",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"317506",title:"Dr.",name:"Aitazaz",middleName:null,surname:"Farooque",fullName:"Aitazaz Farooque",slug:"aitazaz-farooque",email:"afarooque@upei.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Prince Edward Island",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biochar properties for wastewater treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Biochar modification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Physical activation of biochar",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Chemical activation using acidic and alkaline solutions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Biochar-based composites",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Role of biochar use in wastewater treatment process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Organic pollutant removal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Inorganic pollutant removal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.1 Heavy metals",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.2 Nitrogen and phosphorus",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3 Activated sludge treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Anaerobic digestion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. 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Dairy-manure derived biochar effectively sorbs lead and atrazine. Environmental Science & Technology. 2009;43(9):3285-3291'},{id:"B81",body:'Abdelhafez AA, Li J. Removal of Pb (II) from aqueous solution by using biochars derived from sugar cane bagasse and orange peel. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. 2016;61:367-375'},{id:"B82",body:'Oliveira FR, Patel AK, Jaisi DP, Adhikari S, Lu H, Khanal SK. Environmental application of biochar: Current status and perspectives. Bioresource Technology. 2017;246:110-122'},{id:"B83",body:'Lu H, Zhang W, Yang Y, Huang X, Wang S, Qiu R. Relative distribution of Pb2+ sorption mechanisms by sludge-derived biochar. Water Research. 2012;46(3):854-862'},{id:"B84",body:'Hsu NH, Wang SL, Liao YH, Huang ST, Tzou YM, Huang YM. Removal of hexavalent chromium from acidic aqueous solutions using rice straw-derived carbon. 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Chemistry International. 2017;3:268-277'},{id:"B102",body:'Lehmann J, Joseph S. Chapter 1: Biochar for environmental management: An introduction. In: Biochar for Environmental Management: Science, Technology and Implementation. 2nd edn. Routledge. 2015. ISBN: 9780415704151'},{id:"B103",body:'Fagbohungbe MO, Herbert BMJ, Hurst L, Ibeto CN, Li H, Usmani SQ , et al. The challenges of anaerobic digestion and the role of biochar in optimizing anaerobic digestion. Waste Management. 2017;61:236-249'},{id:"B104",body:'Sima X, Li B, Jiang H. Influence of pyrolysis biochar on settleability and denitrification of activated sludge process. Chinese Journal of Chemical Physics. 2017;30:357-364'},{id:"B105",body:'Jamieson T, Sager E, Gueguen C. Characterization of biochar-derived dissolved organic matter using UV-visible absorption and excitation-emission fluorescence spectroscopies. Chemosphere. 2014;103:197-204'},{id:"B106",body:'Luo C, Lü F, Shao L, He P. Application of eco-compatible biochar in anaerobic digestion to relieve acid stress and promote the selective colonization of functional microbes. Water Research. 2015;68:710-718'},{id:"B107",body:'Sunyoto NM, Zhu M, Zhang Z, Zhang D. Effect of biochar addition on hydrogen and methane production in two-phase anaerobic digestion of aqueous carbohydrates food waste. Bioresource Technology. 2016;219:29-36'},{id:"B108",body:'Viggi CC, Simonetti S, Palma E, et al. Enhancing methane production from food waste fermentate using biochar: The added value of electrochemical testing in pre-selecting the most effective type of biochar. Biotechnology for Biofuels. 2017;10:303. DOI: 10.1186/s13068-017-0994-7'},{id:"B109",body:'Cao G-L, Guo W-Q , Wang A-J, Zhao L, Xu C-J, Zhao Q-L, et al. Enhanced cellulosic hydrogen production from lime-treated cornstalk wastes using thermophilic anaerobic microflora. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2012;37:13161-13166'},{id:"B110",body:'Zhang J, Wang Q , Zheng P, Wang Y. Anaerobic digestion of food waste stabilized by lime mud from papermaking process. Bioresource Technology. 2014;170:270-277'},{id:"B111",body:'Cai J, He P, Wang Y, Shao L, Lü F. Effects and optimization of the use of biochar in anaerobic digestion of food wastes. Waste Management and Research. 2016;34:409-416'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Abhishek Pokharel",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Sustainable Design Engineering, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Canada
Faculty of Sustainable Design Engineering, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Canada
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Ilizaliturri-Hernández",authors:[{id:"96101",title:"Dr.",name:"César",middleName:"Arturo",surname:"Ilizaliturri-Hernández",fullName:"César Ilizaliturri-Hernández",slug:"cesar-ilizaliturri-hernandez"}]},{id:"64573",title:"Flow in Unsaturated Soils and Transport of Herbicides in Agricultural Areas",slug:"flow-in-unsaturated-soils-and-transport-of-herbicides-in-agricultural-areas",signatures:"Teresa María Reyna, María Lábaque, Santiago Reyna and Maria\nFernanda Funes",authors:[null]},{id:"64020",title:"Mitigation of Nitrous Oxide Emissions during Nitrification and Denitrification Processes in Agricultural Soils Using Enhanced Efficiency Fertilizers",slug:"mitigation-of-nitrous-oxide-emissions-during-nitrification-and-denitrification-processes-in-agricult",signatures:"Yoshitaka Uchida and Isabell von Rein",authors:[null]},{id:"65357",title:"Management of Paddy Soil towards Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sustainable Rice Production in the Changing Climatic Conditions",slug:"management-of-paddy-soil-towards-low-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sustainable-rice-production-in-the",signatures:"Muhammad Aslam Ali, Kazuyuki Inubushi, Pil Joo Kim and Sitara\nAmin",authors:[null]},{id:"63108",title:"Biopesticide of Neem Obtained by Enzyme-Assisted Extraction: An Alternative to Improve the Pest Control",slug:"biopesticide-of-neem-obtained-by-enzyme-assisted-extraction-an-alternative-to-improve-the-pest-contr",signatures:"Argel Flores Primo, Violeta T. 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Abbas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10005.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196849",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdelhafez",slug:"ahmed-abdelhafez",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelhafez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"82617",title:"A Review on Condensation Process of Refrigerants in Horizontal Microfin Tubes: A Typical Example",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105875",slug:"a-review-on-condensation-process-of-refrigerants-in-horizontal-microfin-tubes-a-typical-example",body:'
1. Introduction
The condensation procedure of refrigerant is an important issue in the refrigeration industry. It is strongly supported to the optimization of equipment by using the right refrigerant with the very good thermodynamics properties and friendly environment and also by applying the microfin tube to conceive, design, implement, and operate in order to improve the heat transfer performance of system and to reduce the size, weight of the system, and the amount of refrigerant used in the system. The best performances of microfin tubes are consequences of the increase of the heat transfer and the increase of the pressure drop. To understand this phenomenon, many researchers these days are demonstrating to analyze and create the new models for flow pattern map, heat transfer, and pressure drop.
The group research of Thome and Cavallini with their colleagues [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] is concentrated in condensation phenomena from the past to now. They presented so much information from experiments to empirical correlation for these fields, condensation on tubes (smooth, microfin tubes, micro channel, etc.) to consider about the formation of flow regime and also the penalization terms for heat transfer and pressure drop. With the group of Muzzio, Colombo and Lucchini [9, 10, 11, 12], they have been considering about an experimental facility to determine the flow patterns map and heat transfer performance of condensation on the difference geometries of microfin tubes with vary of refrigerant from R22 to R134a, and now they keep working with new refrigerant R1234ze and R1234yf. Besides, the group research of Sunden and Wu [13, 14, 15] is also focused on two-phase phenomena on microfin tube with some difference geometries for the current refrigerants by using their experimental data as well as collected data results from the others group to make an overview for their purposes.
More specific, about the flow pattern maps, until now is no new update of the maps for microfin tubes. Those are still presented the flow pattern map of condensation procedure of refrigerant on smooth horizontal tube, with the maps for condensation in microfin tubes are come from experimental map, it is not represented to build for other conditions. So that, apply the map on smooth tubes to estimate and get the stepping stone of the behavior and the changing of two-phase flow in the tube in circumstances. The map of Breber [16] was introduced in 1980 after 2 years the map of Tandon [17] was published, and in 2003 the map of Hajal [1], the group research of Thome and Cavallini, was presented.
About the performance of heat transfer, it cannot be denied that the outstanding performance of heat transfer in microfin tubes for condensation is normative to compare with smooth tubes. A huge number of experimental researches have been done to contribute to a lot of databases for establishing the predictive and empirical models to determine the heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop. General correlations for heat transfer of condensation processes on microfin tubes are published and used to estimate data results with an acceptable value to design condensers in refrigeration systems. Those are Yu and Koyama [18] Kedzieski and Goncalves [19], Han and Lee [20], Cavallini et al. [4]. Also, for the pressure drop of two-phase flow, some correlations were built for both evaporation and condensation procedure of Choi et al. [21], Goto et al. [22], and the others used for separated purposes. Some particular pressure drop correlations could be mentioned for condensation procedure of Kedzieski and Goncalves [19], Haraguchi et al. [23], and Cavallini et al. [24].
This chapter is focused on the condensation procedure of refrigerants in horizontal microfin tubes. Summary, the phenomenon, the effectiveness of fluid dynamics on the formation of flow pattern map, heat transfer coefficient, and pressure drop during condensation process under the empirical correlations are the examples to calculate condensation parameters.
2. Flow pattern map
With the aim of understanding the trend of increasing and decreasing heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop during the changing phase of refrigerants during condensation processes, the formation and transient of flow regime during the changing phase of condensation should be considered.
In order to draw a map of flow mechanism, there needs to be a classification of different regimes of flow in microfin tube, which relies on flow patterns such as slug, fully stratified, stratified wavy, helix, annular, and some regimes which are the combination of two or three flow pattern simultaneously happened. Many parameters have to define as an input parameter such as geometries of tube, refrigerants (consider about thermophysical and thermodynamic of refrigerant) heat flux, and mass flux that could take microfin tube from Colombo et al. as an example as shown in Figure 1, and the geometrical of microfin tube consists of number of fins, fin height, apex angle, and helix angle besides the inner and outer diameters of tubes.
Figure 1.
A geometrical parameter of microfin tube J60 [9].
It is could be considered about an experimental result of flow pattern map in microfin tube from the group of Colombo et al. [10], and they classified the pattern into five regimes: slug flow, stratified wavy flow, intermittent (slug, stratified wavy, and helix), helix flow, and annular flow. They showed their map as an indifferent dot of data points and compared it with the map of Hajal et al. as presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Flow pattern results observed from experiment of Colombo et al. [10] draw on the map of Hajal [9].
2.1 The flow pattern map of Breber et al.
Breber et al. [16] published their map in 1980, and the map could be used for smooth tube that divided into four quadrant zones based on two parameters: dimensionless gas velocity JG– and turbulent-turbulent Martinelli parameter Xtt (annular and mist-annular flow, wavy and stratified flow, slug and plug flow, and bubble flow) and some transition zones between each other.
Dimensionless gas velocity JG is given by:
JG=G.xg.d.ρGρL−ρGE1
Turbulent-turbulent Martinelli parameter Xtt is given by:
Xtt=1−xx0.9ρvρl0.5μlμv0.1E2
Transition criteria for flow regimes on the map:
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4
Annular flow
Wavy and stratified
Slug flow
Bubble (at high reduced pressure)
JG > 1.5 X < 1.0
JG < 0.5 X < 1.0
JG < 1.5 X > 1.5
JG > 1.5 X > 1.5
2.2 The flow pattern map of Tandon et al.
The map of Tandon et al. [17] is presented in five zones of patterns: spray, annular and semi-annular, wavy, slug, and plug. They used two dimensionless numbers to draw their map: gas velocity JG and (1 − α)/α with α is the void fraction.
Dimensionless gas velocity JG is given by:
JG=G.xg.d.ρGρL−ρGE3
Void fraction is defined from Smith’s equation (1970) is given as follows:
α=1+ρGρL1−xx0.4+0.6ρLρG+0.41−xx1+0.41−xx−1E4
Transition criteria for flow regimes on the map.
Spray
Annular and semi-annular
Wavy
Slug
Plug
JG ≥ 6 (1-α)/α ≤ 0.5
1 ≤ JG ≤ 6 (1-α)/α ≤ 0.5
1 ≤ JG (1-α)/α ≤ 0.5
0.01 ≤ JG ≤ 0.5 (1-α)/α ≥ 0.5
JG ≤ 0.01 (1-α)/α ≥ 0.5
2.3 The flow pattern map of Hajal et al.
The map of Hajal et al. [1] introduced the logarithmic mean void fraction instead of homogeneous void fraction to define the stratification of liquid and vapor and is based on the transient line between mass velocity and vapor quality to classify the regimes of patterns. The procedure to calculate step by step is shown as follows:
Step 1: Calculate logarithmic mean void fractions ε based on homogeneous and nonhomogeneous void fractions:
Step 4: Draw the flow pattern map of condensation in 2D with the transient lines of mass velocity and vapor quality. The result of Hajal flow pattern map of condensation R134a in a smooth tube of 8 mm diameter at 40°C temperature with initial value of mass velocity 300 kg/m2s is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Flow pattern map of Hajal et al. [1].
3. Two-phase heat transfer coefficient in condensation
3.1 The correlation of Cavallini et al.
The correlation of Cavallini et al. [4] was published in 2009 which derived 558 data points, experimental results, and validated databases from other researches. The working range of microfin tubes: h/D < 0.04 (fin height/fin tip diameter) and helix angle is from 0° to 30°.
D: fin tip diameter; ng: fins number; h: fin height; β: spiral angle; γ: apex angle.
Heat transfer coefficient of two phases could be determined from two zones as follows:
α=αA3+αD30.333E19
Heat transfer coefficient for the ΔT independent zone αA is given as follows:
Heat transfer coefficient correlation of Han et al. [20] was proposed in 2005, which was formed from a database of three various refrigerant R134A, R22, and R410A and four different inner diameter of microfin tubes di = 8.92, 6.46, 5.1, 4 mm. Some hypotheses were used to build this correlation as the uniform of liquid film thickness and turbulent flow in vapor core, neglect the radial temperature gradients and temperature in the vapor, and assume that the saturation temperature is constant at temperatures in the vapor core and at liquid-vapor interface.
Heat transfer coefficient of two-phase flow is given as follows:
h=ρcput0.904e+0.592Pr0.729+2.1335lnδ/eE36
Liquid film thickness is given as follows:
δ=1−λDi4E37
Void fraction from Yashar λ is given as follows:
λ=1+1−xxρgρl1+1.3Relo−0.19ρlρg0.72x1−x0.5−1E38
With Relo is Reynolds of liquid only, e+ is roughness Reynolds number and ut is turbulent friction (or shear velocity) and is given as follows
e+=eutvE39
ut=τρ0.5=Di4ρdPdzfr0.5E40
where e is the fin height, p = πDi/ntanβ is the axial fin pitch, Di is the inside tube diameter, n is the number of fins, and β is the spiral angle.
If liquid film thickness is less than fin height, the term of logarithm ln(δ/e) is neglected.
3.3 The correlation of Kedzieski and Goncalves
Kedzieski and Goncalves in 1999 [19] collected 1704 data points from their experimental database to regress correlation. Their experimental data recorded in various working conditions as from four different refrigerants R134a, R410A, R125, and R32 in one microfin tube that has 8.91 mm root diameter, 0.2 mm fin height, and 50°apex angle, and the model was derived as follows:
The correlation of Yu and Koyama [18] for microfin tubes was updated from the correlation of Haraguchi et al. for smooth tubes and was introduced in 1998. The procedure to determine heat transfer coefficient by Nusselt number is presented as follows:
The Nusselt number of two-phase flow is given by:
Nu=NuF2+NuB21/2E48
NuF=0.1520.3+0.1PrL1.1Φv/XttReL0.68E49
Φv=1.1+1.3GXttgdiρvρl−ρv0.35E50
NuB=0.725ηA14.HξGa.PrLPhL1/4E51
Hξ=ξ+Aξ1−ξE52
A=101−ξ0.1−8.0E53
where di is the mean inner diameter of tube, ηA is the enlargement ration of heat transfer area, and Ph_L is the phase change number.
ξ=1+ρvρl1−xx0.4+0.6ρvρl+0.41−xx1+0.41−xx−1E54
ReL=G1−xdiμLE55
Ga=gρL3di3μL2E56
PhL=CpLTsat−Twi∆hvlE57
4. Pressure drop
4.1 The correlation of Han et al.
Han et al. [20] not only presented the correlation for heat transfer coefficient as aforementioned but also introduced a new correlation to define pressure drop. It is could be considered as follows:
Friction pressure gradient of two phases is given as follows:
dPdzfr=Φl2flG1−x22DiρlE58
fl=0.193G1−xDiμl−0.024pe−0.539E59
Φl2=2.684Xtt−1.946E60
Xtt=1−xx0.9ρvρl0.5μlμv0.1E61
4.2 The correlation of Kedzieski and Goncalves
In 1999, Kedzieski and Goncalves [19] modified the correlation of Pierre 1964 with confirmation by their own experimental data from four refrigerants such as R134a, R410A, R125, and R32 in their microfin tube that has 8.91 mm root diameter, 0.2 mm fin height, and 50°apex angle, and presented the correlation as follows:
where dh is the hydraulic diameter, dfr is the fin root diameter, and e is the fin height.
4.3 The correlation of Harraguchi
Harraguchi et al. [23] presented their correlation for two-phase friction pressure drop from their experimental results with R134a, R123, and R22 in a horizontal smooth tube and a horizontal microfin tube in 1993.
Two-phase friction pressure drop is given as follows:
dPdzf=Φv2dPdzv=Φv22fe,vGx2/ρvdeE67
de=4AcπE68
fe,v=0.046Ree,v−0.2E69
Φv=1.1+1.3XttG/gdeρvρl−ρv0.50.35E70
Ree,v=Gxde/μvE71
Xtt=1−xx0.9ρvρl0.5μlμv0.1E72
5. Example
The condensation of refrigerant R1234ze inside horizontal microfin tube at 35°C, heat flux of 8.62 kW/m2, and mass flux of 222 kg/m2s using the microfin tube J60 with the geometrical parameters: 60 number of fins, 8.96 mm inner surface diameter, 0.2 mm fin height, 18o of helix angle, and 40o of apex angle is considered. Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop during condensation process are determined. Saturation to wall temperature difference is kept constant (5°C).
Solve:
Thermal properties of refrigerant R1234ze at saturation temperature tsat = 35°C is listed in Table 1.
Microfin tube: N = 60 number of fins, dr = 8.96 mm, h = 0.2 mm, β = 18o; γ = 40o
5.1 Heat transfer coefficients
Quality x = 0.5 could be taken as an example to present the procedure to calculate heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of boiling refrigerant inside horizontal microfin tube, with the data point of quality x from 0 to 1 that can be determined with the same method.
Applied the correlation of Cavallini et al. to calculate heat transfer coefficient as below:
Heat transfer coefficient of two phases could be determined from two zones as follows:
α=αA3+αD30.333
Heat transfer coefficient for the ΔT independent zone αA is give as follows:
Heat transfer coefficient of condensation at x = 0.5 is given as follows:
α=αA3+αD30.333
α=5242.2133+634.5130.333=5200.58W/m2K
5.2 Pressure drop
5.2.1 The correlation of Harraguchi
Harraguchi et al. [23] presented their correlation for two-phase friction pressure drop from their experimental results with R134a, R123, and R22 in a horizontal smooth tube and a horizontal microfin tube in 1993.
Two-phase friction pressure drop is given as follows:
Condensation process of R1234ze at 35°C inside horizontal microfin tube J60 with quality change from x = 0.99 to x = 0.01 could be estimated with heat transfer performance which are performed in heat transfer and pressure drop in Table 2.
Property
Unit
Value
Property
Unit
Value
Tsat
[°C]
35
Psat
[MPa]
0.66756
ρL
[kg/m3]
1129
λL
[W/m-K]
7.098E−02
ρV
[kg/m3]
35.32
λV
[W/m-K]
1.452E−02
νL
[m3/kg]
8.857E−04
μL
[Pa-s]
1.772E−04
νv
[m3/kg]
2.831E−02
μV
[Pa-s]
1.269E−05
hLV
[kJ/kg]
159.86
PrL
[−]
3.548
CpL
[kJ/kg-K]
1.421
PrV
[−]
0.904
CpV
[kJ/kg-K]
1.034
σ
[N/m]
7.578E−03
Table 1.
Properties of R1234ze.
x
α
dP/dz
[−]
[W/m2K]
[Pa/m]
0.99
8160.4
2448.5
0.95
7930.4
2968.4
0.90
7641.1
3151.4
0.85
7349.0
3173.8
0.80
7053.8
3112.0
0.75
6755.3
2996.4
0.70
6453.0
2843.2
0.65
6146.9
2662.9
0.60
5836.4
2462.4
0.55
5521.1
2247.4
0.50
5200.6
2022.1
0.45
4874.1
1790.4
0.40
4541.0
1555.5
0.35
4200.2
1320.5
0.30
3850.1
1088.6
0.25
3489.1
862.8
0.20
3114.7
646.6
0.15
2722.8
444.1
0.10
2306.4
260.7
0.05
1849.2
104.9
0.01
1413.8
13.1
Table 2.
Heat transfer performance of condensation.
6. Conclusions
An overview of the condensation procedure of refrigerant inside microfin tubes has been done with the flow pattern maps and heat transfer performance. The list of some correlations to determine heat transfer and pressure drop during the condensation process has been presented. Besides, an example has been introduced step by step to define heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of condensation process with refrigerant R1234ze inside horizontal microfin tube J60. Until now, this field is still not getting too much data to get the general correlation for all types of microfin tubes and all kinds of refrigerants. Therefore, these fields are strongly attracted by scientists around the world.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the support of time and facilities from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCM for this study.
\n',keywords:"condensation, microfin tube, flow pattern, heat transfer coefficient, pressure drop",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82617.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82617.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82617",totalDownloads:10,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 1st 2022",dateReviewed:"June 14th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 11th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"July 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Heat transfer performance of refrigerant on the condensation process is very important in the designing of condensation equipment, especially in air conditioning and refrigeration systems. The outstanding advantages of microfin tubes are reducing the weight and size of condensers and also reducing the amount of refrigerant on the system. Reviewing the general concept of condensation and detailing the formation of flow pattern map that is also the procedure to determine heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop during condensation process of refrigerant inside the horizontal microfin tubes would be considered. Also, a typical example will be presented to illustrate a detailed procedure to calculate the value of heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop during the condensation process in horizontal microfin tubes. The data results show that microfin tube J60 with 60 number of fins inside 8.96 mm inner diameter, 0.2 mm height of fin, 40o of apex angle and 18o of helix angle, the condensation procedure of R1234ze at 35°C, heat flux of 8.62 kW/m2, and mass flux of 222 kg/m2s that could be estimated with heat transfer coefficient would be reduced from 8160.4 [W/m2 K] to 1413.8 [W/m2 K] follow with quality x changes from 0.99 to 0.01, and the maximum pressure drop of this process is 3173.8 [Pa/m].",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82617",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82617",signatures:"Thanh Nhan Phan",book:{id:"11161",type:"book",title:"Heat Transfer",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Heat Transfer",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Md Salim Newaz Kazi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11161.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-940-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-939-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-941-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"93483",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"md-salim-newaz-kazi",fullName:"Md Salim Newaz Kazi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"416218",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh Nhan",middleName:null,surname:"Phan",fullName:"Thanh Nhan Phan",slug:"thanh-nhan-phan",email:"phannhan@hcmut.edu.vn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Flow pattern map",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The flow pattern map of Breber et al.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 The flow pattern map of Tandon et al.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 The flow pattern map of Hajal et al.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Two-phase heat transfer coefficient in condensation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 The correlation of Cavallini et al.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 The correlation of Han et al.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 The correlation of Kedzieski and Goncalves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 The correlation of Yu and Koyama 1998",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Pressure drop",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 The correlation of Han et al.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2 The correlation of Kedzieski and Goncalves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3 The correlation of Harraguchi",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Example",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.1 Heat transfer coefficients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.2 Pressure drop",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'el Hajal J, Thome JR, Cavallini A. Condensation in horizontal tubes, part 1: Two-phase flow pattern map. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2003;46(18):3349-3363. DOI: 10.1016/S0017-9310(03)00139-X'},{id:"B2",body:'Cavallini A, del Col D, Matkovic M, Rossetto L. Frictional pressure drop during vapour-liquid flow in minichannels: Modelling and experimental evaluation. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow. 2009;30(1):131-139. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2008.09.003'},{id:"B3",body:'Thome JR, el Hajal J, Cavallini A. Condensation in horizontal tubes, part 2: New heat transfer model based on flow regimes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2003;46(18):3365-3387. DOI: 10.1016/S0017-9310(03)00140-6'},{id:"B4",body:'Cavallini A, del Col D, Mancin S, Rossetto L. Condensation of pure and near-azeotropic refrigerants in microfin tubes: A new computational procedure. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2009;32(1):162-174. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.08.004'},{id:"B5",body:'Cavallini A et al. Condensation in horizontal smooth tubes: A new heat transfer model for heat exchanger design. Heat Transfer Engineering. 2006;27(8):31-38. DOI: 10.1080/01457630600793970'},{id:"B6",body:'Cavallini A, Bortolin S, del Col D, Matkovic M, Rossetto L. Condensation and Vaporization of Halogenated Refrigerants Inside a Circular Minichannel. International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference. 2008. p. 886. Available online: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/iracc/886'},{id:"B7",body:'Cavallini A, Censi G, del Col D, Doretti L, Longo GA, Rossetto L. Condensation of halogenated refrigerants inside smooth tubes. HVAC and R Research. 2002;8(4):429-451. DOI: 10.1080/10789669.2002.10391299'},{id:"B8",body:'Cavallini A, Brown JS, del Col D, Zilio C. In-tube condensation performance of refrigerants considering penalization terms (exergy losses) for heat transfer and pressure drop. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2010;53(13–14):2885-2896. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.02.007'},{id:"B9",body:'Colombo LPM, Lucchini A, Molinaroli L, Niro A, Phan TN, Pittoni PG. Flow patterns during flow boiling and convective condensation of R1234ze (E) inside a microfin tube. In: 5-6th Thermal and Fluids Engineering Conference (TFEC), ASTFE Digital Library. 2021. pp. 109-119. DOI: 10.1615/TFEC2021.boi.032115'},{id:"B10",body:'Muzzio A, Niro A, Garavaglia M. Flow patterns and heat transfer coefficients in flow-boiling and convective condensation of R22 inside a microfin tube of new design. Heat Transfer Conference. 1998;2:291-296'},{id:"B11",body:'Muzzio A, Niro A, Arosio S. Heat transfer and pressure drop during evaporation and condensation of R22 inside 9.52-mm O.D. microfin tubes of different geometries. Journal of Enhanced Heat Transfer. 1998;5:39-52. DOI: 10.1615/JEnhHeatTransf.v5.i1.40'},{id:"B12",body:'Colombo LPM, Lucchini A, Muzzio A. Flow patterns, heat transfer and pressure drop for evaporation and condensation of R134A in microfin tubes. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2012;35(8):2150-2165. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2012.08.019'},{id:"B13",body:'Wu Z, Sundén B, Wadekar V, Li W. Heat transfer correlations for single-phase flow, condensation, and boiling in Microfin tubes. Heat Transfer Engineering. 2015;36(6):582-595. DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2014.939531'},{id:"B14",body:'Wu Z, Sundén B. Frictional pressure drop correlations for single-phase flow, condensation, and evaporation in microfin tubes. Journal of Heat Transfer. 2015;138(2):022901. DOI: 10.1115/1.4031268'},{id:"B15",body:'Guo SP et al. Condensation and evaporation heat transfer characteristics in horizontal smooth, herringbone and enhanced surface EHT tubes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2015;85:281-291. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.01.115'},{id:"B16",body:'Breber G, Palen JW, Taborek J. Prediction of horizontal tubeside condensation of pure components using flow regime criteria. Journal of Heat Transfer. 1980;102(August):471. DOI: 10.1115/1.3244325'},{id:"B17",body:'Tandon TN, Varma HK. A new flow regimes l a p for condensation inside horizontal tubes. Journal of Heat Transfer. 1982;104(November):763'},{id:"B18",body:'Yu J, Koyama S. Condensation Heat Transfer of Pure Refrigerants in Microfin Tubes. International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference. 1998. p. 431. Available online: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/iracc/431'},{id:"B19",body:'Kedzierski MA, Goncalves JM. Horizontal convective condensation of alternative refrigerants within a micro-fin tube. Journal of Enhanced Heat Transfer. 1999;6(2):161-178. DOI: 10.1615/JEnhHeatTransf.v6.i2-4.90'},{id:"B20",body:'Han D, Lee KJ. Experimental study on condensation heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop penalty factors in four microfin tubes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2005;48(18):3804-3816. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2005.02.041'},{id:"B21",body:'Choi J, Kedzierski M, Domanski P. Generalized pressure drop correlation for evaporation and condensation in smooth and micro-fin tubes. Proceedings of the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR). Thermophysical Properties and Transfer Processes of New Refrigerants, Paderborn, 1, GE. 2001;1:986. Available online: https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=860849'},{id:"B22",body:'Goto NIM, Inoue N. Condensation and evaporation heat transfer of R410A inside internally grooved horizontal tubes. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2001;24(1):528-538. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2009.09.008'},{id:"B23",body:'Haraguchi TFH, Koyama S. Condensation heat transfer of refrigerants HFC134a, HCFC123 and HCFC22 in a horizontal smooth tube and a horizontal microfin tube. In: Proc. 30th National Heat Transfer Symp. of Japan; Yokohama. 1993. pp. 343-345'},{id:"B24",body:'Cavallini A, Del Col D, Doretti L, Longo GA, Rossetto L. Heat transfer and pressure drop during condensation of refrigerants inside horizontal enhanced tubes. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2000;23(1):4-25. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-7007(99)00032-8'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Thanh Nhan Phan",address:"phannhan@hcmut.edu.vn",affiliation:'
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
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All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
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IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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The developed systems have been tested in a mass-spring-damper system to illustrate the effectiveness of the design.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Chieh-Chuan Feng",authors:[{id:"29268",title:"Dr.",name:"Chieh-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"chieh-chuan-feng",fullName:"Chieh-Chuan Feng"}]},{id:"51089",title:"Sliding Mode Speed and Position Control of Induction Motor Drive in Cascade Connection",slug:"sliding-mode-speed-and-position-control-of-induction-motor-drive-in-cascade-connection",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter deals with sliding mode application in control of an induction motor (IM) torque, speed, and position. Classical, direct approaches to control mentioned variables are described. Their drawbacks are presented and analyzed. Direct control structures are then compared with the proposed cascade sliding mode control structures. These structures allow to control all of the IM variables effectively, simultaneously ensuring supervision of all remaining variables. All of the analyzed structures are illustrated with block diagrams, as well as with simulation and experimental test results.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Grzegorz Tarchała and Teresa Orłowska-Kowalska",authors:[{id:"182057",title:"Dr.",name:"Grzegorz",middleName:null,surname:"Tarchała",slug:"grzegorz-tarchala",fullName:"Grzegorz Tarchała"},{id:"185730",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Orłowska-Kowalska",slug:"teresa-orlowska-kowalska",fullName:"Teresa Orłowska-Kowalska"}]},{id:"50689",title:"Event-Triggered Static Output Feedback Simultaneous H∞ Control for a Collection of Networked Control Systems",slug:"event-triggered-static-output-feedback-simultaneous-h-control-for-a-collection-of-networked-control-",totalDownloads:1557,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter considers the design of event-triggered static output feedback simultaneous H∞ controllers for a collection of networked control systems (NCSs). It is shown that conventional point-to-point wiring delayed static output feedback simultaneous H∞ controllers can be obtained by solving linear matrix inequalities (LMIs) with a linear matrix equality (LME) constraint. Based on an obtained simultaneous H∞ controller, an L2-gain event-triggered transmission policy is proposed for reducing the network usage. An illustrative example is presented to verify the obtained theoretical results.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Sheng-Hsiung Yang and Jenq-Lang Wu",authors:[{id:"2648",title:"Dr.",name:"Jenq-Lang",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"jenq-lang-wu",fullName:"Jenq-Lang Wu"},{id:"194140",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheng-Hsiung",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"sheng-hsiung-yang",fullName:"Sheng-Hsiung Yang"}]},{id:"50489",title:"Robust Adaptive Repetitive and Iterative Learning Control for Rotary Systems Subject to Spatially Periodic Uncertainties",slug:"robust-adaptive-repetitive-and-iterative-learning-control-for-rotary-systems-subject-to-spatially-pe",totalDownloads:1247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This book chapter reviews and summarizes the recent progress in the design of spatial‐based robust adaptive repetitive and iterative learning control. In particular, the collection of methods aims at rotary systems that are subject to spatially periodic uncertainties and based on nonlinear control paradigm, e.g., adaptive feedback linearization and adaptive backstepping. We will elaborate on the design procedure (applicable to generic nth‐order systems) of each method and the corresponding stability and convergence theorems.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Cheng‐Lun Chen",authors:[{id:"26775",title:"Prof.",name:"Cheng-Lun",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"cheng-lun-chen",fullName:"Cheng-Lun Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"965",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; 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