Protein content of famous pea cultivars grown in various parts of the world.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9975",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Digital Libraries - Advancing Open Science",title:"Digital Libraries",subtitle:"Advancing Open Science",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Over the past decades, traditional academic library environments have transformed into digital libraries. This has resulted in many challenges for libraries in terms of the reinvention of libraries’ roles and organizations, the skill sets of librarians, and library infrastructure. At the same time, this profound transformation has opened the door to many new avenues, such as the support and advancement of Open Science. This book offers insights into the transformation of traditional library environments to digital libraries and details how digital libraries can contribute to Open Science, in particular to Open Access, FAIR and Open Data, and Open Education, by describing methods, criteria, strengths, and weaknesses as well as applications.",isbn:"978-1-83968-201-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-200-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-202-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87798",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"digital-libraries-advancing-open-science",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac50e32e9acf00b04326c35b0b8f62f9",bookSignature:"Sadia Vancauwenbergh",publishedDate:"June 30th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9975.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3061,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"235835",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Vancauwenbergh",slug:"sadia-vancauwenbergh",fullName:"Sadia Vancauwenbergh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/235835/images/system/235835.png",biography:"Sadia Vancauwenbergh is head of the Information Management and Strategic Data Analysis Unit at Hasselt University, Belgium, and Project Leader at ECOOM, an Expertise Centre for Research Development monitoring in Flanders, Belgium. She is president of euroCRIS, the International Organization for Research Information, and vice-chair of the International Society of Knowledge Organization – Low Countries Chapter. Dr. Vancauwenbergh’s research interests are focused on Open Science and CRIS systems, particularly semantic interoperability. She was a member of the EOSC Working Groups for Landscape and Skills and Training and is a convener of the EOSC Association Task Force Semantic Interoperability. She is also a member of the Commission International/Federal Cooperation on Open Science, Belgium; the Flemish Open Science Board; and chair of the FOSB Working Group Metadata & Standardization.",institutionString:"University of Hasselt",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Hasselt",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"576",title:"Digital Media",slug:"information-and-knowledge-engineering-digital-media"}],chapters:[{id:"76617",title:"Evaluating the Processes and Procedure of Digitalization Workflow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96851",slug:"evaluating-the-processes-and-procedure-of-digitalization-workflow",totalDownloads:442,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digitisation is the practice of converting physical information into a digital (computer-readable format), by using digital technologies to modify the existing structure by enhancing the efficiency of an organisational process, foster reliability, and quality. This is a method of incorporating conventional records into a digitised form by eliminating redundancies and limiting the communications chain. This will help to improve accessibility and simplify better information exchange for users. The beginning of a digital revolution in any establishment is to appraise the manual methods with the view to improve and graduate to a user-friendly modern system. Digital workflow is a progressive, reliable arrangement of data, procedures, and responsibilities that make information is more permanent and management easy to access and enable the preservation of crucial data. This research set out to support workflow audit by revealing specific indicators to assist in processes that will enhance digital migration.",signatures:"Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita, Oluwole O. Durodolu and Joseph Ngoaketsi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76617",authors:[{id:"301616",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwole O.",surname:"Durodolu",slug:"oluwole-o.-durodolu",fullName:"Oluwole O. Durodolu"},{id:"310274",title:"Mr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Ngoaketsi",slug:"joseph-ngoaketsi",fullName:"Joseph Ngoaketsi"},{id:"327927",title:"Dr.",name:"Collence Takaingenhamo",surname:"Chisita",slug:"collence-takaingenhamo-chisita",fullName:"Collence Takaingenhamo Chisita"}],corrections:null},{id:"75034",title:"The Interactive Applications (IAs) in Academic Libraries: Challenges and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95767",slug:"the-interactive-applications-ias-in-academic-libraries-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:449,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Presentation tools of academic content are increasing in popularity for educators in Higher Education Institutions (HEI) who want to share ideas and information in a more creative and interactive environment using more effective tools and demand to involve. Interactive Applications are becoming lot more common and is more integrated into our everyday activities, like using mobile apps. The features of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) began to emerge through Interactive Applications (IAs) such as the applications of Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), Mixed Reality (MR). Information resources development is no longer restricted and residing within the realm of speculative fiction. By using AR, VR and MR, academic libraries could already deliver a massive revolution in information retrieval. However, the biggest challenge that need to be tackled perhaps remains in how we could tune between these resources and the users so that the greatest possible benefit could be achieved in the light of accelerated technological development. This chapter uncovers the challenges and opportunities in using Interactive Applications (IAs) technologies and should be an eye opener for academic libraries that Interactive Applications technology are important to transform the use of traditional resources to interactive resources.",signatures:"Husain Ghuloum and Zuwainah Al-lamki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75034",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75034",authors:[{id:"327746",title:"Dr.",name:"Husain",surname:"Ghuloum",slug:"husain-ghuloum",fullName:"Husain Ghuloum"},{id:"328343",title:"Dr.",name:"Zuwainah",surname:"Al-lamki",slug:"zuwainah-al-lamki",fullName:"Zuwainah Al-lamki"}],corrections:null},{id:"77084",title:"Multiple Facets of Open: A Different View on Open Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97815",slug:"multiple-facets-of-open-a-different-view-on-open-science",totalDownloads:280,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Open – a well-known word, but with multiple facets: open, open-minded… In the publishing industry, “open” and “openness” describe a movement which has been setting the scene over the last decades, however the opening of science is not a new momentum. Writing down our thoughts and ideas is regarded as a first indicator of opening the human mind. To cope with information overload, paper slips were used as a favourite device - a precursor to modern index cards and card catalogs. The internet opens the doors to disseminate and share knowledge in a fast and easy way. Now, science is emerging in cyberspace and an innovative level of science is shaping, the evolution of Cyberscience. Science is shifting into the open, Open Science is developing as an additional form of doing research. These diverse perspectives are part of a colorful picture of an evolving scientific landscape, which will rise awareness of changing work behaviors.",signatures:"Anne-Katharina Weilenmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77084",authors:[{id:"327624",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Anne-Katharina",surname:"Weilenmann",slug:"anne-katharina-weilenmann",fullName:"Anne-Katharina Weilenmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"74582",title:"Overview of the Principles and Practices of Open Access Publishing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95355",slug:"overview-of-the-principles-and-practices-of-open-access-publishing",totalDownloads:665,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of the principles and practices of open access (OA) publishing. It discusses various aspects of this emerging mode of scholarly publishing, including the definition of Open Access and its different types and models in addition to its growth and impact. The chapter also highlights the implications of open access publishing on copyright issues and how creative commons licenses are used to deal with this issue. The main focus of the chapter is to outline and discuss the different advantages and benefits of open access publishing, refuting a number of myths and misconceptions about OA publishing, and to highlight how authors and researchers can benefit from publishing their intellectual works in an open access channel. The chapter adopts the literature review as a methodology and a tool of data collection.",signatures:"Omer Hassan Abdelrahman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74582",authors:[{id:"326361",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Omer Hassan",surname:"Abdelrahman",slug:"omer-hassan-abdelrahman",fullName:"Omer Hassan Abdelrahman"}],corrections:null},{id:"74524",title:"Origins and Developments of the Open Access Books",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95357",slug:"origins-and-developments-of-the-open-access-books",totalDownloads:515,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The open access books (OAB) are a product of the research that in recent years has gained its place in scientific publishing and open access (OA). Both have gone from initial diffidence (for different reasons) to a growing interest. In the first part of the article, we present the most recent data relating to this kind of publication while in the second one the OAB phenomenon is examined within a more general evolution of the OA. In this way there seems to be a link between the open access monographs and the diffusion of models increasingly distant from the original mission of the OA.",signatures:"Andrea Capaccioni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74524",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74524",authors:[{id:"327100",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Capaccioni",slug:"andrea-capaccioni",fullName:"Andrea Capaccioni"}],corrections:null},{id:"76148",title:"FAIR and Open Research Metadata as Leverage for Digital Libraries: The Flemish Case",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97192",slug:"fair-and-open-research-metadata-as-leverage-for-digital-libraries-the-flemish-case",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Since the advent of the digital age, academic libraries have been transforming from traditional libraries to digital libraries. While digitisation of published materials has been taking place in most libraries, research data is not yet a common good. However, in an era where the Open Science movement affectuates the modus operandi of the entire research ecosystem, it is paramount for digital libraries to include information on other digital objects such as research data. In fact, FAIR and Open research (meta)data can truly act as a leverage for digital libraries and broaden the scope of the library from a place for content consumption to a place for content creation. In order to take on this role, digital libraries must cooperate with ICT and the research community to ensure that the infrastructure is in place to store research (meta)data and that the librarians have the digital skill set for handling FAIR and Open research (meta)data. Throughout the chapter, we will elaborate on the essentials for creating a digital repository, with emphasis on the underlying metadata scheme using the Flemish application profile for research data as example. In addition, we will highlight the essential roles for operating digital libraries containing research data.",signatures:"Sadia Vancauwenbergh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76148",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76148",authors:[{id:"235835",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Vancauwenbergh",slug:"sadia-vancauwenbergh",fullName:"Sadia Vancauwenbergh"}],corrections:null},{id:"74737",title:"An Educational Project Based on a Digital Library of Filmed Courses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95549",slug:"an-educational-project-based-on-a-digital-library-of-filmed-courses",totalDownloads:401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter we describe the experience developed around OpenFING, a project based on a digital library of filmed courses. We highlight OpenFING as an initiative of students for students that has obtained the support of the Engineering School of Universidad de la República (Uruguay). Currently, OpenFING seeks its consolidation along with an undergraduate course of initiation to audiovisual and multimedia production. The project aims to be an engine to develop educational innovations and different computer tools to support teaching and learning. The objective is to transform OpenFING into an effective collaborative and interactive open learning platform. 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Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7213.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",middleName:null,surname:"Vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",email:"peviz2002@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"209329",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirabela Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Minciuna",fullName:"Mirabela Georgiana Minciuna",slug:"mirabela-georgiana-minciuna",email:"mirabela.minciuna@yahoo.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"245668",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragos Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Achitei",fullName:"Dragos Cristian Achitei",slug:"dragos-cristian-achitei",email:"dragos_adc@tuiasi.ro",position:null,institution:null},{id:"245669",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Perju",fullName:"Manuela Cristina Perju",slug:"manuela-cristina-perju",email:"cryss_ela@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7213",title:"Shape-Memory Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Shape-Memory Materials",slug:"shape-memory-materials",publishedDate:"September 26th 2018",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7213.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited 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\r\n\tThis book will explore how gender and sexual minorities have created communities of meaning and political expression around the world. Through a series of case studies, historical considerations, and reflections, different communities of gender and sexual minority groups will be explored. The book will give an overview of the wide variety of experiences that people who identify as gender and sexual minority group members have used in the formation of community, both online and in person. We will see that some of these creations of the community are a reaction to the exclusion by the larger society in which members are embedded. We will also see that people create a community in the face of oppression, engage in dialogue and activities (political and social), and create meaning in their identities. We will witness how these spaces give voice to change, resilience, and survival. For all of us who are queer and trans, community means at a minimum the place in which we can thrive and be seen.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-612-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-611-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-613-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e08bb222c250dcebf093b7ab595a14a7",bookSignature:"Dr. Deborah Woodman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11777.jpg",keywords:"Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Queer, Online Communities, Rural Communities, Historical Communities, Rural Communities, Urban Communities, Political Communities, Identity Based",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An active member of the queer community in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada, this work combines my research interests in the rural communities and my volunteer work advocating for members of the Queer and Trans communities.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"463750",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Woodman",slug:"deborah-woodman",fullName:"Deborah Woodman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/463750/images/system/463750.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deb Woodman (she/her) teaches at Algoma University, Ontario, Canada in the department of Sociology and Anthropology housed in the Faculty of Cross Cultural Studies. She identifies as a member of the Queer community and has been engaged with volunteer work for years, creating curriculum for Queer/Trans community events as well as working with public agencies. This publication brings her interests together by combining her doctoral work on rural communities with her advocacy work with Queer and Trans folk.",institutionString:"Algoma University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Algoma University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"74440",title:"Pea Seed Proteins: A Nutritional and Nutraceutical Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95323",slug:"pea-seed-proteins-a-nutritional-and-nutraceutical-update",body:'Vegetable seed proteins are widely used as ingredients in the food industry. Peas (
Proteins obtained from plant sources are expanding ingredient of the marketplace in part due to consumer preferences and their comparatively small cost in contrast to animal-derived proteins [4]. Pea ingredients additionally are attractive to the food market because of their low allergenicity, nutritional value and non-GMO status. While pea does consist of antinutritional components which can inhibit digestion and may have various prospective deleterious effects pea is still viewed as a too wholesome meal as well as is linked with total health benefits beyond elementary nutrition. The health benefits of pea seed proteins derive primarily from the qualities of starch, vitamins, fibre, protein, phytochemicals and minerals in peas. In this direction, mineral contents and the vitamin of peas may play crucial roles in the protection against deficiency-related diseases, particularly those regarding deficiencies of Folate or Selenium. Peas include a range of phytochemicals previously considered just as antinutritive factors. These contain polyphenolics, in coloured seed layer sorts particularly, that contains anticarcinogenic and antioxidant activity, saponins which might exhibit anticarcinogenic and hypocholesterolemic activity, as well galactose oligosaccharides which might exert beneficial prebiotic consequences within the large intestine [5, 6]. Many strategies for the extraction of protein from pea flours have been reported. Each extraction method might select for different protein sorts which consequently influences the final composition and functionality of the isolated product. In this chapter, we have compiled the information related to pea proteins targeting isolation methods, extraction, and of the seed proteins in pea.
Protein content in pea lies in a range of 21 to 30 per cent with an average of 23 per cent depending on genotype, growing environment and related factors [6]. The overall phenotypic expression of protein content is a result of environmental as well as genotypic components. The cultivars originating from various geographical areas show a range of protein content levels (Table 1). The heritability estimates show that pea protein content and quality is a heritable trait [10, 11], thus target for improvement through selection in breeding programs. Changes in environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, soil type result in a differential response in performance of pea cultivars; thus multi-location and multi-year data is required for final estimation of protein content [12, 13, 14]. Most of the nitrogen supplies during fruit development relies on assimilation after the flowering and only a portion of the collection of nitrogen depends on assimilation before flower development [15]. It has been reported that low rainfall and high temperature is positively correlated with high protein content in pea genotypes [13, 16]. A total of 7% high protein content was observed in pea crop raised in dry location than another location having 209 mm higher rainfall indicating role of low rainfall has a significant influence on protein content [13]. However, in another study, there was 1.5% rise in pea protein content between the crop raised in the periodic wilting moisture content of 10 percent versus 26 per cent moisture content at field capacity [17]. In addition, seed yield is known to be negatively correlated with protein content, and these conclusions were made by various independent studies in different years and locations [14, 16, 17]. The dry matter in seed constitutes approximately 50% starch [18, 19]. The dietary fibre and total protein content account for 20 and 24% of the dry matter, respectively. Whereas, 2.5% of dry matter is contributed by lipids [20]. Protein content and starch are highly variable, but other components show little variation [18]. It was found in a study that protein content was negatively correlated with lipid, starch, ash, fibre content and soluble sugar and among these variations in starch content had a significant effect on protein content levels [21]. This study was conducted at four locations in Canada using dehulled pea cultivar, and it was observed that protein content of the cultivar was variable across locations showing levels 14.5%, 18.3%, 24.3%, and 28.5%. The starch synthesis was reported to be a critical factor in determining pea protein content as smooth seeded pea having a higher content of amylopectin and starch showing lower protein levels (23–31%) than wrinkled pea seeds (26–33%) [22]. Recessive gene account for higher protein levels in wrinkled pea seeds.
Pea seeds | Protein content | Country | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
25.48 | Spain | [7] | |
21.17 | Spain | [7] | |
22.90 | Spain | [7] | |
24.21 | Serbia | [8] | |
27.70 | Serbia | [8] | |
22.31 | Serbia | [8] | |
23.98 | Turkey | [6] | |
23.26 | Turkey | [6] | |
23.9 | Canada | [9] | |
24.5 | Canada | [9] | |
24.0 | Canada | [9] | |
24.9 | Canada | [9] | |
24.9 | Hungry | [9] |
Protein content of famous pea cultivars grown in various parts of the world.
Peas are an excellent source of human nutrition owing to 25% protein in seeds [1], and it has a comparable amino acid (AA) profile to other legumes. Pea protein contains a lesser amount of sulphur amino acids, i.e., methionine and cystine and lower levels of tryptophan AA, whereas high levels of lysine AA [23]. The bioactive peptides of pulses are popularized due to affordable prices when compared with animal protein [24]. During the processing of food, microbial agents or digestive enzymes cause the hydrolysis of large proteins and release bioactive peptides which are usually 3–20 AA long [25]. Nutritional and functional properties food protein are studied using bioactive peptides obtained by hydrolysis through enzymatic action [26]. AA composition of a peptide is the key to its biological activity [24]. Oxidative stress damage in human beings can be prevented by developing nutraceuticals and foods using such peptides. High levels of antioxidants in natural foods can be even more appealing than synthetic counterparts [24, 27]. In a study by Amarakoon [28] the amino acid profile of pea showed that pea grown in central Europe was rich in leucine, lysine and arginine which were sufficient for a normal diet. The amino acid profiles of pea were compared with soybean and reference FAO/WHO requirements. The essential AA content was higher in pea in comparison to soybean. The lysine content was 6.39–6.93/16gN in pea, which was also higher than soybean. Another comparison of AA profile of flour and isolates and concentrates of protein of pea, soybean and lupin was made by Tomoskozi et al. [29]. They concluded that composition of AA was the same in all compounds with the highest amount of glutamine and comparatively lower amounts of aspartic acid, lysine and arginine and smallest contributions of methionine, cysteine and tryptophan.
In comparison to soybean and lupin, pea compounds had high levels of arginine, methionine and valine and comparatively low levels of cysteine and glumatic acid. The muscle development and growth in human body is dependent on postprandial essential amino acid availability particularly leucine [30]. AA composition, essential AA content and anti-nutritional factors regulate the availability of essential AA [31]. Thus, variation in AA composition particularly in essential AA are desirable for improving AA profile of pea proteins. Natural variation among varieties for AA profile is present as depicted in Table 2. Wide crosses and mutants can be searched for more desirable AA profile of pea proteins. Furthermore, introgression approach can be deployed for improvement of existing germplasm using a natural variation.
Amino acids | cv. | cv. | cv. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asp | 10.39 | 10.08 | 9.98 | 10.87 | 10.55 | 10.69 | 10.58 |
Glu | 17.09 | 16.49 | 15.43 | 15.07 | 16.19 | 15.96 | 16.16 |
Ser | 4.89 | 4.80 | 4.77 | 4.23 | 4.16 | 4.05 | 4.25 |
Gly | 8.16 | 8.26 | 7.85 | 4.11 | 4.0 | 3.98 | 3.92 |
Arg | 5.76 | 4.93 | 4.12 | 9.36 | 8.60 | 9.68 | 8.32 |
Ala | 5.17 | 6.35 | 5.75 | 4.19 | 3.88 | 3.83 | 3.79 |
Pro | 3.62 | 3.64 | 3.52 | 3.77 | 3.57 | 3.64 | 3.63 |
His | 1.07 | 1.13 | 1.03 | 2.22 | 2.16 | 2.18 | 2.16 |
Val | 3.85 | 3.89 | 3.61 | 4.72 | 4.29 | 4.34 | 4.32 |
Met | 0.65 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 5.0 | 1.08 | 1.05 | 0.99 |
Cys | 0.30 | 0.37 | 0.39 | 2.01 | 2.03 | 1.9 | 1.67 |
Ile | 3.51 | 2.64 | 2.52 | 4.23 | 3.86 | 3.77 | 3.9 |
Leu | 5.72 | 6.51 | 7.01 | 7.11 | 6.45 | 6.33 | 6.55 |
Phe | 5.07 | 5.06 | 4.59 | 4.87 | 4.59 | 4.33 | 4.56 |
Tyr | 3.98 | 3.76 | 3.77 | 2.79 | 3.18 | 2.87 | 3.18 |
Lys | 18.34 | 19.69 | 17.03 | 6.93 | 6.55 | 6.39 | 6.63 |
Thr | 3.04 | 4.22 | 6.92 | 3.45 | 3.64 | 3.34 | 3.53 |
Trp | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. |
Apart from protein comprising a major part of the seed, the other constituents include 1.5–2% fat, minerals, vitamins, polyphenols, oxalates, saponins and phytic acid [32, 33, 34]. Starch and dietary fibre account for 60 percent of carbohydrate content and rest include non-starch part of carbohydrates comprising sucrose, cellulose, and oligosaccharides (Figure 1) [34, 36]. Protein and the starch fraction of seed show high variations, whereas the other components remain comparatively constant [18]. Pea proteins are classified based on Osborne fractionation [37] into two different categories, i.e., globulins soluble in salt and albumins soluble in water which collectively account for 80% of the pea seed protein. Young embryos after germination of seed obtain nitrogen from globulins and some of the albumins which are also known as storage proteins. Globulins are further divided into two categories based on coefficients of sedimentation, i.e., legumin (11S fraction), vicilin and convicilin (7S fraction) as shown in Figure 2. The two classes differ from each other in structure and molecular weight. Legumin has a molecular mass ranging from 300 to 400 kDa and hexameric protein form. There are three polypeptide families of legumin, and sequence similarities differentiate them into various groups. The LegA polypeptide comprises of legA, legB, legA2, legC, and legE, LegJ polypeptide comprises leg J, legK, legL and legM whereas LegS is single member of family [39, 40]. The LegA and LegJ families comprise an apparent subdivision with the molecular mass of 65 kDa, and on the other hand, the apparent subdivision of LegS has *) kDa molecular mass. Only a single peptide of legumin is imported to the endoplasmic reticulum and removed during translation. Ultimately, trimers of legumin peptide are formed and moved to the pre-vacuolar compartment [41]. Furthermore, the peptides are processed into basic and acidic polypeptides of 20 and 40 kDa with the help of vacuole processing enzyme and the two peptides are linked by disulphide bridge. A complete protein structure is assembled from trimers to hexamers. The molecular weight of vicilin is 47–50 kDa and it forms trimers of 150 kDa molecular mass [42]. Only some vicilins undergo cleavage at post translational level [43]. Vicilin contains two cleavage regions which are separately processed. Three fragments of 13 kDa (â), 20 kDa (R) and 16 kDa (γ) are obtained by cleavage in both regions. Two fragments of 25 kDa (â + γ) and 20 kDa (R) are obtained, if site A is cleaved and two fragments of 16 kDa (γ) and 36 kDa (R + â) are obtained if site B is cleaved [43, 44]. Noncovalent bonds held processed peptides [40, 44]. Glycosylation takes place near to C terminus of γ subunit of vicilin polypepetides as they are glycosylated [45]. Trimers of 210 kDa molecular mass are formed by convicilin protein having a molecular mass of 70 kDa. Heteromeric trimers comprising convicilin and vicilin polypeptides also occur [2, 46]. Elimination of single peptide is only reported post translational modification in the case of convicilin and glycosylation is absent [47]. Convicilin and vicilin show sequence similarity of amino acids at C terminus whereas N terminal being highly charged have different sequences between two polpeptides [48, 49]. Based on isoform, sequence similarity occurs between 122 and 166 amino acid residues. Physiochemical properties of globulins are different, owing to variations in molecular weight and structure.
The average composition of pea seeds [
Size of subunits of pea proteins, including the cleavage site of (a) Legumin (b) Vicilin (c) Convicilin [
The water-soluble albumin proteins have 5–80 kDa molecular mass and consist of enzymes and anti-nutritional factors such as amylase inhibitors, lectins and protease inhibitors [32]. Further two classes are obtained in albumins, i.e., albumin protein with two polypeptides having 25 kDa molecular weight and another with 6 kDa molecular weight [46]. Minor portions include prolamins which are soluble in diluted alcohol and glutenins, which are soluble in diluted acid [32]. The protein structure can be altered by external factors such as temperature, pH and salts during the extraction process resulting in different surface features and conformations.
The globulin protein classes, i.e., vicilin and legumin in different concentrations, can make good gels, whereas convicilin is known to hinder gel formation [50]. The food industry needs raw material with desirable composition of globulin in peas like high levels of vicilin and legumin or low levels of convicilin [40]. Further, gel making property not only depends on the composition of globulins but also matter of isoforms of isolate [51, 52]. The genetic variation in the composition of globulins and decreased levels of anti-nutrients in albumin fraction of pea proteins are desirable material for development of new varieties using breeding techniques. Natural variation is reported in case of the protein content of pea and its composition, which can be used in breeding programs [53, 54, 55]. The r locus in the pea genome is known to control the starch synthesis, which shows pleiotropism with protein content and its composition [56, 57]. With the advancement of techniques for elucidating in planta processing of proteins, there will be more clues for the controlled composition of proteins using genome editing techniques.
Alkaline extraction/isoelectric precipitation (AE/IEP) – This method utilizes the high solubility of pea proteins in alkaline conditions and their minimal solubility at isoelectric point (pI) at pH between 4 to 5 [32]. This method is the most common for legume protein extraction, and it takes advantage of similar solubility characters for legumin and vicilin [33, 58]. The de-fatted flour of legume (with or without seed coat) is dispersed in water and pH is adjusted to an alkaline range using NaOH, KOH or Ca(OH)2, and further left for 30–180 mins for maximizing protein solubility [32, 33]. Without de-fatting process, the protein-lipid interaction limits the solubility of protein leading to decrease in the isolated yield, and the temperature can be increased to 50–60°C to aid solubilization [59, 60]. The protein denaturation can be limited by avoiding the higher temperatures. The mixture is further centrifuged, and supernatant is collected, and isoelectric pH is adjusted using HCl or H2SO4. The precipitated protein is collected after centrifugation and washed, neutralized, and dried by drum or freeze drying [32, 33]. The isolate yield can be increased up to 80–94% by optimal processing conditions and the conditions used in a process can affect the purity, yield and functionality of the isolate [58]. Hoang [58] evaluated that the extraction pH and flour: water ratio were most critical factors. The flour: water ratios of 1:5 to 1:20 (w/v) was reported [32] but Hoang [58] stated that the increase in concentration gradient between the solid and liquid phase in low ratio slurry can increase solubility. Although high alkalinity increases the isolate solubility and yield of protein, but the pH 11 and above are basically associated with increase in swelling of starch, leading to contamination of starch in isolate product [58]. Alkaline Extraction is also responsible for the adverse chemical reactions like the conversion of serine and cysteine residues to lysinoalanine compounds (nephrotoxic), decreased proteins bioavailability, and racemization of amino acids [61, 62]. The processes employing high alkaline pH, high temperature is associated with high yield of isolate, but there is high susceptibility of denaturation of isolate [61, 63]. The particle size of flour and solubilizing agent used can also affect the yield of isolate. The optimum particle size for flour is 100–150 μm and it was reported that NaOH and KOH generate more yield in comparison to Ca(OH)2 [64]. Also, there was protein loss of 6.2% from discarded supernatant from this extraction method [58] and in place of IEP, ultrafiltration (UF) or diafiltration membranes with specific molecular weight cutoffs can be utilized for isolating proteins of interest from the supernatant [32]. The efficiency of extraction can be improved by alteration in the molecular weight cutoffs, membrane type, concentration, and volume of the filtrate and addition of diafiltration to UF techniques [65]. The albumin proteins can be recovered by controlling these factors and further result in enhancing yield of isolate and alteration in isolate functionality leading to reduction in effluent losses. The use of UF can provide milder conditions for extracted proteins, so that their functionality can be enhanced and it gives higher yields in comparison to IEP [66].
Boye et al. [65] also confirmed that there were slightly higher protein levels in UF than the IEP process. Membrane filtration is also effective in reduction of anti-nutritional compounds in isolate [65]. Taherian et al. [67] conducted a study for functional properties of commercial and membrane-processed yellow pea protein isolates. The use of UF results in reduction of phytic acid upto 28–68% and possess improved functionality (e.g., solubility, rheology, foaming and emulsification) for commercially available isolates. The solubility of the commercial protein isolates was reported as ~20% vs. ~80% by using UF/diafiltration at pH 2.0. Fuhrmeister and Meuser [68] found the enhanced solubility, emulsifying, foaming and fat-holding properties by UF recovery of proteins from wrinkled pea relative to heat, acid, and heat/acid precipitation.
SE has advantage of the salting-in and out phenomenon of proteins which is followed by desalting for lowering the ionic strength of protein environment [32, 69]. In this process, the flour is stirred in salt solution of ionic strength (1:10 (w/v) ratio) for 10–60 mins and further followed by removal of insoluble matter by settling, screening, decanting, filtering or centrifugation. The supernatant is desalted and dried [32, 69, 70]. The choice or concentration of salts is selected according to salting-in and salting-out characteristics of the protein and any unwanted proteins, respectively because the proteins precipitate at an array of ionic strengths [71, 72]. The salting-in of proteins generally occurs at ionic strength (between 0.1 to 1 M) [60] and the other factors include interactions of salt and sample components and ensuring the use of food-grade salts [69, 73]. The major advantage for this technique is that extreme level of acidic or alkaline pH alongwith elevated temperature is not required. The extraction occurs at pH level of 5.5–6.5, but Crevieu et al. [74] reported slightly alkaline pH for increasing protein solubility [69]. The pH can be maintained by the addition of acid or base or a salt solution with buffering capacity can be used. The supernatant with extract of high-salt protein should have a protein concentration of 15 to 100 mg/mL [69] and many methods have been used for decreasing its ionic strength.
In the process of micellization, protein precipitation is induced by adding cold water at a ratio of 1:3 to 1:10 (v/v) of high-salt protein extract to water [69, 75]. The solubilized proteins can be adjusted to low ionic strength by the dilution of protein solution through different dissociation reactions which forms loosely associated and low molecular weight aggregates. After reaching a specific concentration of protein, the aggregates can re-associate into low molecular weight species, known as micelles [69]. The arrangement of micelles is as thermodynamical spheres with minimum interfacial energy by giving exposure to polar moieties in outer aqueous environment and hydrophobic moieties towards the center. The proteins possesing more surface hydrophobicity have more protein–protein interactions and are also more successful for creating large and uniform aggregates [69]. The diluted solution can be left to stand for certain time for increasing micelle formation. This is followed by centrifugation and further the pellet is dried, and the high salt aqueous solution is discarded [32, 69]. Mwasaru et al. [75] reported that after using 0.25 M NaCl solution at pH value of 6.5 and 6 hours of micellization standing time, the protein extractability for pigeon pea and cowpea was yielded a 40.2% and 36.7%, respectively and these values were further compared to alkaline-extracted samples at pH value of 10.5 and 8.5, respectively, where the yields increased with respect to alkalinity. Gueguen [36] evaluated that 95% yield can be attained using micellization method.
The another commonly used method for desalting is dialysis. It is the process of membrane separation driven by a potential gradient for diffusing water and other solutes with low molecular weight like, salt and this process carried out using semipermeable membrane [72]. Gueguen et al. [70] and Crevieu et al. [74] used pea protein membranes with cutoffs of 8000 Da and 12,000–14,000 Da, respectively. The diffusion requires time for causing equilibrium on both sides and is complete when the potential gradient becomes negligible [72]. The changes in fresh, precooled liquid against which the sample is dialyzed helps in ensuring that very low concentrations of solutes remain in the sample. Gueguen et al. [70] cited a process of 130 hours which requires five changes of water of 20 times the extract volume. Crevieu et al. [74] dialyzed solution of globulin against two changes of 10 times the extract volume of ammonium carbonate, that requires 70 hours and results in a yield of 66.8%. Dialysis can also be used for separation of gloulin and fractions. According to the protein classification of Osborne, the dialyzed sample is centrifugated and it results in dissolved albumin fractions in supernatant and precipitated fractions of globulin in the pellet [70]. The phenolic compounds present in pea can be reduced by additional steps during processing, like the use of alcohol washes and charcoal filters. The cross linkage of proteins can be improved by antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds which can negatively affect protein digestibility and enzymatic activity, leading to undesirable color and flavor compounds within the food product.
The application of bioactive ingredients (hydrophobic, hydrophilic compounds, minerals, and probiotics) is less due to their instability, less bioavailability, and unsuitable flavors in the food system. So, encapsulation can be a promising technique for solving these problems related to bioactive ingredients. Nowadays, there is an increase in research for pea protein as encapsulating materials, because of its health benefits, nil genetic modifications, and hypoallergenic issues [76]. As many researchers have recognized the importance of natural polymers for preparing biodegradable packaging and since pea protein acts as a biodegradable and biocompatible natural polymer, it can be used for producing biodegradable films. It can provide promising possibility for the application of pea proteins for making biodegradable films in industrial-scale food production.
There are extrusion techniques which include low-moisture extrusion (LME, 40%) and high-moisture extrusion (HME, >40%), these techniques are widely used in commercial food production. LME is generally used for preparation of snacks and HME is used basically for meat analogue preparation. The research of pea protein based extruded products is very common nowadays and many researchers reported that pea protein was used in different starches like rice starch [77, 78, 79] wheat starch [80] and corn grits [81] for preparing protein-fortified extruded snacks by LME, and the results concluded that pea protein-fortified extruded products exhibits high content of protein and possess balanced amino acid profile in comparison to pure extrudates of starch.
There are many studies which report that by the addition of pea protein in cereal products can improve the nutritional value of the product because pea protein provides the essential amino acids and improve the texture of cereal product [4, 82, 83, 84, 85]. The plant protein can be used as substitute for animal protein for meeting nutritional need of lacto-vegetarians and thus can make the food healthier. Several researchers are working on partly or fully substitution of dairy proteins with pea protein and the impact on taste and structure of these products [86, 87, 88, 89, 90].
Based on the literature reviewed in this chapter, we think that analogous research and advancement on pea proteins would be required if any significant boost in pea protein utilization is envisaged. While pea protein isolates have usually been discussed in the research literature as relatively mundane, you will find very few sensory analysis information to help the claim. The main limitation on the sales of pea protein meals components is the trouble in fighting with the well-established, versatile soy protein items which dominate the meals protein market. Soy proteins are already available for a very long time, and research by the main producing businesses has resulted in several tailored items for programs. Pea concentrates and flours are generally referred to as having a terrible taste (beany, bitter). The incorporation of pea concentrates and flours into meals products such as bread, is usually restricted by flavour problems. This truth is insignificant within the foods ingredient industry because proteins in this particular marketplace are sold primarily by functional qualities and price. Although to be used in food aid plans for developing nations, this’s of concern and demands that pea protein is together with a protein source that will offer a comprehensive source of sulfur amino acids. In pet feeding, the nutritional value of protein sources is likewise essential. Feeding studies show that pea protein requires supplementation with methionine to get it with the nutritional value of soy protein.
Olive oil occupied a key role in ancient Roman cooking and its culinary use expanded along with the Roman Empire, laying the foundation for what we now refer to as the Mediterranean diet. The culinary use of olive oil takes four basics forms: as a preservative, as a cooking medium, as an ingredient and as a condiment [1]. This chapter has a central focus on EVOO as a cooking medium.
As a cooking medium EVOO has a many functions, such as transferring heat from the heat source to the food, acting as a lubricant to prevent food from sticking to the cooking surface, adding flavour, crust and creating a more visually appealing look to the food [1]. It is an extremely healthy oil to use for all types of cooking and there is a lot of existing and emerging research related to the health benefits due to high levels of antioxidants (some of which are unique to EVOO) and the ability of the oil to enhance the health attributes of some ingredients once cooked [2, 3, 4].
However, myths related to cooking with EVOO have been prevalent from time to time, creating a lot of confusion for consumers.
Some of the prevalent myths related to cooking with EVOO are listed in Table 1.
Chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerisation are prone to occur when edible oils are heated. Heating oils at high temperatures or for long periods of time can generate decomposition products such as free fatty acids (FFAs), alcohols, cyclic compounds, and polymers. Several factors can affect or influence these reactions, such as the type and quality of the oil, the kind of food used in cooking, the time and temperature of cooking and the food/oil ratio. These chemical reactions can affect both the nutritional value and the organoleptic properties of the oil. In addition, some of the products formed through oil decomposition may have adverse effects on human health. Physical changes in oil occur during heating and include increased viscosity, darkening in colour, and increased foaming. At the same time, the smoke point of the oil decreases [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
There are two major properties of cooking oils commonly believed to dictate the behaviour of that oil, and subsequent safety when exposed to high cooking temperatures: smoke point and oxidative stability. While oxidative stability is a reasonable predictor of an oils’ ability to withstand heat, initial smoke point has proven to have very little correlation with the oils’ stability under heat while cooking, and the formation of polar compounds [5].
The smoke point is defined as the temperature at which a visible and continuous bluish smoke appears. At this point sufficient volatile compounds, such as FFAs and short chain oxidation products are emerging and evaporating from the oil.
The smoke point of an oil generally increases as the FFA content decreases, and the degree of refinement increases [19, 20].
The smoke point should not be considered a reliable measure of an oil’s stability and suitability for cooking for the following reasons:
The smoke point changes when an oil is heated, therefore it is not the same during the whole cooking process. The smoke point decreases faster when heating oils with a higher polyunsaturated fat content, such as in seed oils, than when heating oils with less poly-unsaturation and greater monounsaturated fat levels such as in EVOO [21].
The chemical fraction that mostly determines the smoke point of an oil is the FFA fraction which is under 1% of the total oil composition. This means that when the oil reaches the smoke point, only a minor part of it is evaporating and does not indicate the deterioration of the fat itself. In fact, studies have shown that the levels of FFA are not a reliable indication of deterioration of cooking fat [14].
When determining the smoke point, a small volume of oil is heated using a little brass cup in a confined and dark environment (Figure 1). Studies have shown that the smoke point rises when using a bigger container or a larger volume of oil in the presence of air. As a result, when cooking in a kitchen, smoke point temperatures could be greater than the ones that have been reported in the literature [22, 23, 24]. Thus, exact smoke point temperatures cannot be given [21, 24].
The standard procedure used to establish the smoke point relies heavily on the ability of the worker to determine visually the point at which the oil begins to smoke. This means that there can be analyst subjectivity when using this test procedure [19, 24].
The refining process used to produce other vegetable oils such as canola, peanut and rice bran oils involves high temperatures to neutralise FFAs. This gives the oils a higher smoke point but also produces secondary oxidation products which have been shown to have a detrimental effect on human health.
Smoke point determination equipment.
When heating oils, the process of fat oxidation is accelerated. Fat oxidation is where fat molecules interact with oxygen, leading to the potential formation of harmful compounds. Many authors agree that oxidative stability is the best predictor of the behaviour of oil during cooking [5, 16, 25].
Industrially and technically, the ability of an oil to withstand heat is measured by its resistance to the formation of polar compounds.
Non-volatile polar compounds, triacylglycerol (TAG) dimers and polymers are the main deterioration products of cooking oils. Several studies have associated these substances with certain types of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease [26, 27]. However, this negative effect on health is related to the dose of these components. National and International legislation has identified that no more than 24–27% of polar materials in the final oil is a safe limit for human consumption [27]. These limits are made to ensure the oils used in cooking operations are safe for human consumption. When storing food after being cooked is required, then the recommended end point of polar compounds in the oil is <10% [14, 27].
Laboratory research is extremely important to understand the frying process and what the toxicological limits are to establish guidelines for consumers. However, it is important to highlight that sometimes the research completed with cooking oils has been pushed to the point of abusing the oils. These are extreme heating conditions and the results obtained do not always represent real-life situations, especially during home cooking. Therefore, proper judgement when drawing conclusions needs to be made. When cooking at home, normally one does not reach excessive temperatures for prolonged periods of time that deteriorate either the food or the oil in a way that makes them inedible or unsafe [27].
Edible oils are composed of triacylglycerols (> 96%) and endogenous minor components. It is generally agreed that the inherent composition of edible oils exerts considerable influence on their heating stability [15, 18]. In the interest of understanding better why we can, and we should cook with EVOO, it is important to review first its chemical composition. EVOO has a high level of oxidative stability when compared to other types of cooking oil and is less likely to undergo oxidation. This is primarily attributed to the following factors:
EVOO contains high levels of oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) with just one double bond and low levels of linoleic and linolenic acids, which are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with multiple double bonds. This high MUFA/PUFA ratio confers good oxidative stability making it highly resistant to the production of harmful substances (such as polar compounds). The high levels of double bonds in PUFAs in seed oils make them sensitive to damage by heat [28, 29, 30].
The presence of natural antioxidants in EVOO, such as biophenols and Vitamin E, enhance the oil’s stability and resistance to oxidative degradation. Besides adding health benefits to the oil, these minor constituents boost EVOO’s stability reducing oxidative processes when the oil is heated [31, 32].
The phytosterols are a significant fraction of the unsaponifiable matter in EVOO. These substances add to the oil’s health profile. Some sterols have been shown to provide higher protection against lipid thermal deterioration by decreasing the production of TAG polymers [33]. These sterols are sometimes lost during oil refining and because EVOO does not require this manufacturing step, it retains high concentrations of phytosterols. It has been documented that phytosterols can be transferred to food while cooking, which could have a nutritionally positive impact on consumers [34].
In a comprehensive trial in Australia [5] conducted by an ISO 17025 accredited laboratory in 2018, ten of the most used cooking oils were selected from the supermarket to test their performance when heated. The oils tested were EVOO, virgin olive oil (VOO), olive, canola, rice bran, grapeseed, coconut, peanut, sunflower, and avocado oils.
Two different volumes of oils were heated in open pans (250 mL) for 20 minutes from 25–240°C and in deep fryers (3000 mL) at 180°C for 6 hours. Samples were collected at different intervals and then tested.
Authors specifically assessed the correlation between smoke point and other key chemical parameters related to an oils stability and likelihood to break down and form harmful compounds.
From this study, it was concluded that under different heating conditions, the generation of polar compounds with temperature and time was more pronounced for refined seed oils with higher initial values of smoke point, PUFAs, K232 and K270 (oxidative by-products). Reasonable predictors of how an oil will perform when heated have been oxidative stability, secondary products of oxidation, total level of PUFAs. EVOO was the most stable oil of those tested when heated, followed closely by coconut oil and other virgin oils such as avocado and high oleic acid seed oils. EVOO yielded lower levels of polar compounds and TFAs when compared with other oils.
This research also showed that an oil’s smoke point is not a relevant parameter to explain the oil’s behaviour when heated. Smoke point does not correlate with the stability of the oil during heating, as it showed a positive correlation with the increase in polar compounds (Table 2). That is to say that the higher the smoke point, the more polar compounds that are produced. PUFAs, K232 and K270 showed a positive correlation with polar compounds. Oxidative stability was negatively correlated with final content of polar compounds, demonstrating that a non-stable oil in terms of thermal degradation, will produce more polar compounds when heated (Table 2).
Myth | Assumptions based on the myth | Truth/reality based on scientific evidence |
---|---|---|
Smoke point is a relevant factor in determining how suitable an oil is to cook with. | EVOO is not suitable for cooking at high temperatures given its lower smoke point. | The utilisation of smoke point as an indicator of the ability of an oil to withstand heat, and to determine suitability for cooking is technically incorrect, and is not supported by scientific evidence. Recent evidence [5] shows that EVOO is the most stable oil when heated when compared to other edible oils with higher smoke points. Mediterranean cultures have used EVOO as their only source of cooking oil for centuries and their diet has the highest amount of scientifically proven health benefits [2, 6, 7]. |
Cooking with EVOO can ruin cookware, such as non-stick pans (e.g., Teflon coated pans). | EVOO could be damaging to cookware coating. | Although there is no published scientific evidence to support this, these beliefs are specifically supported by some cookware manufacturers’ specifications that oils with higher smoke points are more suitable for cooking with Teflon coated cookware [8, 9]. On the contrary, EVOO, like any other oil, acts as a lubricant, preventing the food from sticking to the pan [1]. Cooking with EVOO does not ruin non-stick Teflon coated pans at a different rate than other cooking oils. |
Heating olive oil will increase the amount of saturated or trans fats. | You cannot heat olive oil. | All oils will oxidise and hydrogenate to a minor degree when heated several times using high temperatures, such as those used in industrial frying processes [10]. It has been documented that olive oil is less prone to oxidation and hydrogenation when heated than other oils when heated because it is rich in monounsaturated fat [11, 12]. Cooking with EVOO does not produce significant traces of trans fatty acids. In fact, EVOO is less prone to hydrogenation than other vegetable oils. |
When you cook vegetables with EVOO, the vegetables lose antioxidants. | EVOO is not suitable to use when cooking vegetables. | This is incorrect. Recent evidence shows that when cooking with EVOO (including deep frying and sautéing), there is a resultant increase in total phenols (antioxidants) in the cooked food (particularly when cooking raw vegetables) [13]. Cooking with EVOO may in fact improve the nutritional properties of the food. |
Myths related to cooking with EVOO.
Initial Parameter | Correlation with final polar compounds levels (%) |
---|---|
Smoke Point | 83 |
Oxidative Stability | −65 |
FFA | −34 |
PUFAs | 74 |
UV Coefficient K232 | 80 |
UV Coefficient K270 | 54 |
Correlation between final polar compounds and initial oil’s chemical parameters.
These results are also supported by recent research carried out in New Zealand in 2019 [25]. The authors concluded that quality EVOO, in accordance with relevant olive oil standards, is the best cooking oil for use in the home from a stability and health viewpoint. These authors also recommended criteria to indicate an EVOO is stable for cooking:
Initial % free fatty acids (FFA) <0.2% (w/w as oleic acid)
Peroxide Value (PV) < 5.0 mEq/kg
Induction time in Rancimat >15 hours.
Total polar compounds after 8 hours heating at 180°C < 25%
p-Anisidine value after 8 hours at 180°C < 70
TFAs are formed during partial hydrogenation of oils. The interconversion from cis to trans requires a lot of energy (~65 kcal/mole), however the use of a high temperature or a catalyst can enhance the reaction [35]. Consumption of diets high in hydrogenated fat and/or TFAs has been shown to have an adverse effect on lipoprotein profiles with respect to cardiovascular disease risk [36, 37].
The formation of TFAs while cooking food using oil is closely related to the temperature and how many times oil is reused [38, 39]. Several European countries have determined that the frying oil temperature must not exceed 180°C. These measures not only contribute to decreased degradation of unsaturated fatty acids but also result in a lower formation of monounsaturated trans fatty acid (MTFAs) and polyunsaturated trans fatty acids (PTFAs) during frying.
Much research has been done to determine how typical cooking procedures used in food preparation affect TFAs formation in edible oils. Research suggests even applying normal and/or extreme temperatures when cooking does not significantly affect the amounts of TFAs in edible oils [40, 41]. Formation of minor amounts of trans-oleic acid, inferior to 0.2 g/100 g fatty acids was observed by [11, 12] for all the olive oil grades, which is lower than the trans amounts in other refined vegetable oils.
Recent research presented at the World Congress of Oils and Fats in 2020 [42] demonstrated that initially EVOO does not contain TFA and that the food TFA content decreased by approx. 70% or remained stable when using EVOO. The same behaviour was observed with oils: the lowest TFAs production was in EVOO in comparison with other vegetable oils.
Cooking with edible oils, such as deep frying, usually involves two phenomena. Firstly, when the oil, that acts as a heating medium to the food, reaches 100°C water starts to evaporate from the food. This in turn gives way to the oil being absorbed into the food which modifies the fatty acid composition of the food as it cooks. It has been proven that the fat content of the food after deep frying is more like the fat profile of the oil used to cook than the raw food itself [14]. In addition, although the antioxidant content is reduced somewhat during cooking many healthy substances still remain in EVOO and are absorbed by the food. The absorption of these antioxidants into the food gives the food a better nutritional profile. For this reason, the use of EVOO is a healthier option than using other oils with less bioactive components [13, 42, 43].
Frying is one of the oldest methods of food preparation. It improves the sensory quality of food by formation of aromatic compounds, attractive colour, crust and texture, which are all highly appreciated by consumers [44, 45]. The most common frying methods are deep-frying, being the food totally immersed in hot oil, and pan-frying, when the food is cooked in a pan with a little amount of oil [46, 47].
There is a higher degradation under pan-frying conditions for olive oil and other vegetable oils, that can be explained by the higher contact surface between the food and the oil, higher exposure to atmospheric oxygen, and lower temperature control under processing [46].
Frying with EVOO using a lower food:oil ratio presents lower total polar compound amounts than more unsaturated vegetable oils, and with apparently no interference by the presence of food [32, 48, 49]. Within olive oils, the higher the degree of polyunsaturation the higher the tendency for the formation of total polar compounds [50].
The volatile fraction formed during the heating process, apart from being important from the sensorial point of view, is rich in degradation compounds. The formation of low molecular weight volatile aldehydes has a clear dependence on the temperatures used, rather than frying time [51]. The high oleic acid content in olive oil, together with the presence of chlorophylls, pheophytins and carotenoids, seems to contribute to a reduced acrolein formation and lower amounts of toxic monoaromatic hydrocarbons, alkylbenzenes and alkenylbenzenes, in comparison with other vegetable oils with higher polyunsaturated acyl groups [51, 52, 53].
Furthermore, as mentioned previously, in comparison with other vegetable oils, the fried food is enriched with olive oil antioxidants, which improves the nutritional profile of the food [54].
Roasting with olive oil is common in both domestic and industrial food preparation in Mediterranean countries [55]. This procedure is highly prone to oxidation due to the higher surface area exposed to convention hot air and processing times. When comparing with other vegetable oils with a higher degree of unsaturation, olive oil is also more resistant to oxidation under these heating conditions [11, 56]. In opposition, the total polar compounds clearly increase with vegetable oils with higher unsaturation degrees such as sunflower and corn oil [57].
In general, heating olive oil using a microwave demonstrates an apparent higher oxidation when compared with conventional heating, despite being probably lower than those achieved with other vegetable oils [58]. Researchers have compared microwave and conventional heating (in an electric oven) in several vegetable oils including sunflower, high oleic sunflower and olive oil. Among the studied oils, the EVOO exhibited better performance against oxidation with both heating methods. This is mainly due to its composition, including minor compounds with antioxidant properties (phenolic compounds and tocopherols) and a lower percentage of linoleic acid [59]. Still, all studies were performed without the presence of food, meaning further studies using real processing conditions are required for correct inferences [15].
In 2019, Modern Olives Laboratory, an Australian oil specialist laboratory, conducted research to assess the suitability of various cooking oils, including EVOO, for use on Teflon coated (TC) pans.
To investigate the hypothesis of whether cooking with EVOO ruins pans, the researchers measured the release of elements and metals from the pans when separately heated with different oils. They used three different brands of TC pans. These pans were heated with an acidic solution of water vinegar (WV) both prior to and after 6 cycles of heating with different oils (EVOO, olive oil, canola oil, rice bran oil and grapeseed oil). The WV solutions were tested to study the release of various metals.
Combining all TC pans, the authors found no significant differences in the chemical elements content between the final WV solutions from TC pans treated with the different oils. This indicates there is no significant difference between the volume of metals released from the cookware when various cooking oils were used. Hence, the various cooking oils had no effect on the pans’ integrity and quality when cooking. However, differences of statistical significance for Ca, Cu, Fe, P, Zn and SiO2 were observed between the different TC pan types. Higher values of these metals were detected in the most expensive pan compared with the cheapest TC pan. For example, Ca average values (including initial and final treatment) in the most expensive pan were ~ 2.92 mg/L vs. ~1.75 mg/L in the cheapest pan and ~ 2.42 mg/L in the average price pan. When considering each brand of TC pan, phosphorus levels were significantly higher between treatments when using rice bran oil in the average priced TC pan (4.7 mg/L vs. 2.5 mg/L) versus a low- or high-priced TC pan. Silicon dioxide was not detected before treatment and significantly increased using olive (1.1 mg/L) and grapeseed (1.03 mg/L) oils only in the lowest priced TC pan.
After all treatments, no visual deterioration of any of the TC pans was observed. This investigation indicates that higher differences in metal leaching were between pans quality, rather than between the treatments with the different oils. In no case the use of EVOO lead to the release of significantly higher levels of metallic substances from the pan than when using any other oil.
Even though these results are limited considering the lifetime of the TC pan, they indicate no initial impact of the oils’ smoke point on the performance of the TC pan and that EVOO performs similarly to other oils under normal cooking conditions when it comes to TC pan degradation.
Sufficient research has been done to demonstrate that an oil’s smoke point is not a reliable measurement as an indicator of the ability of an oil to withstand heat, and to determine suitability for cooking. Reasonable predictors of how an oil will perform when heated are oxidative stability, secondary products of oxidation, and total level of PUFAs. EVOO has been demonstrated to be the most stable oil when heated given its unique chemical composition, which is rich in monounsaturated fatty acid and antioxidant content.
Experts have agreed that one of the most versatile and healthy oils to cook with is EVOO and many studies have linked it to better heart and overall health.
Food cooked with EVOO also had lower levels of undesirable products of degradation such as TFAs and polar compounds when compared with other vegetable oils such as canola, grapeseed, peanut, sunflower and rice bran oils, while deep-frying under normal cooking conditions.
Furthermore, based on scientific evidence EVOO does not deteriorate the coating when using Teflon cookware. On the contrary it acts as a lubricant to prevent food from sticking to the pans.
Selecting a true high quality EVOO, that is certified to meet EVOO grade and quality requirements is important to ensure high oxidative stability and safety while cooking.
We thank the Olive Wellness Institute (OWI) and Modern Olives Laboratory for their help during this work. To know more about OWI please visit https://olivewellnessinstitute.org/.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Thus, further research focusing on the AM -mediated promotion of crop quality and productivity is needed.",book:{id:"10249",slug:"mycorrhizal-fungi-utilization-in-agriculture-and-forestry",title:"Mycorrhizal Fungi",fullTitle:"Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry"},signatures:"Kavita Chahal, Vaishali Gupta, Naveen Kumar Verma, Anand Chaurasia and Babita Rana",authors:[{id:"327437",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Chahal",slug:"kavita-chahal",fullName:"Kavita Chahal"}]},{id:"48639",title:"Negative and Positive Staining in Transmission Electron Microscopy for Virus Diagnosis",slug:"negative-and-positive-staining-in-transmission-electron-microscopy-for-virus-diagnosis",totalDownloads:5167,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Visualization of virus particles and morphological features depends on the resolution of microscopes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is the starting point for obtaining the best resolution of images. Two different techniques are available and described in this paper. Firstly, negative staining of viral suspensions provides detailed information of virus particles' structure. It is a technique that can be quickly performed and is able to accommodate the highest magnifications of virus particles. Secondly, ultra-thin sections of virus-infected tissues or cell cultures, combined with a positive staining technique can provide information regarding the localization of viruses inside or around cells. These two complementary techniques for investigating the structure of a virus and its parasitic life cycle are presented in this paper.",book:{id:"4692",slug:"microbiology-in-agriculture-and-human-health",title:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health",fullTitle:"Microbiology in Agriculture and Human Health"},signatures:"Debora Ferreira Barreto-Vieira and Ortrud Monika Barth",authors:[{id:"174492",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Barreto-Vieira",slug:"debora-barreto-vieira",fullName:"Debora Barreto-Vieira"},{id:"175200",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortrud Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Barth",slug:"ortrud-monika-barth",fullName:"Ortrud Monika Barth"}]},{id:"18412",title:"C4 Plants Adaptation to High Levels of CO2 and to Drought Environments",slug:"c4-plants-adaptation-to-high-levels-of-co2-and-to-drought-environments",totalDownloads:26513,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"371",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants - Mechanisms and Adaptations"},signatures:"María Valeria Lara and Carlos Santiago Andreo",authors:[{id:"60504",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Andreo",slug:"andreo",fullName:"Andreo"},{id:"62008",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:"Valeria",surname:"Lara",slug:"maria-lara",fullName:"María Lara"}]},{id:"60831",title:"Introductory Chapter: Fusarium: Pathogenicity, Infections, Diseases, Mycotoxins and Management",slug:"introductory-chapter-fusarium-pathogenicity-infections-diseases-mycotoxins-and-management",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"6329",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",title:"Fusarium",fullTitle:"Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers"},signatures:"Tulin Askun",authors:[{id:"89795",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulin",middleName:null,surname:"Askun",slug:"tulin-askun",fullName:"Tulin Askun"}]},{id:"58344",title:"Fusarium Wilt: A Killer Disease of Lentil",slug:"fusarium-wilt-a-killer-disease-of-lentil",totalDownloads:1814,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus subsp. culinaris) is an important dietary source of protein and other essential nutrients in South and West Asia, North and East Africa. Lentil crops are vulnerable to a number of diseases caused by fungi, viruses, nematodes, insect pests, parasitic plants and abiotic stresses. Among them, the most significant and serious soil-borne disease is Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis: Fol). Fusarium wilt causes yield loss up to 50% in farmers’ fields. The pathogen showed high levels of phenotypic and genotypic diversity in India, Algeria, Syria and Iran. The disease thrives at 22–25°C temperature and affect lentil either at seedling and vegetative or the reproductive stages of the crop. To minimize yield losses, an integrated management strategy comprising resistant/partial resistant cultivars, adjusting sowing time, bio-control and chemical seed treatments is the best approach to reduce the incidence of the Fusarium wilt of lentil. This review covers past achievements in managing the disease, pathogen diversity and identify gaps in managing Fusarium wilt to improve productivity and production of the crop.",book:{id:"6329",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers",title:"Fusarium",fullTitle:"Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers"},signatures:"Neha Tiwari, Seid Ahmed, Shiv Kumar and Ashutosh Sarker",authors:[{id:"213094",title:"Dr.",name:"Neha",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"neha-tiwari",fullName:"Neha Tiwari"},{id:"213095",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",middleName:null,surname:"Sarker",slug:"ashutosh-sarker",fullName:"Ashutosh Sarker"},{id:"213176",title:"Dr.",name:"Seid Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Kemal",slug:"seid-ahmed-kemal",fullName:"Seid Ahmed Kemal"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"407",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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