Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Furthermore, in the last few years, such microstrip antennas found numerous applications in both the military and the commercial sectors. Therefore, microstrip patch antenna has become a major focus to the researchers in the field of antenna engineering. In this book, some recent advances in microstrip antennas are presented. This book contains mainly three sections. In the first section, some new approaches to modern analytical techniques rather than the conventional cavity model, transmission line model, or spectral domain analysis have been discussed. In the second section of the book, a light has been showered on some new techniques for bandwidth enhancement of microstrip radiators. In the last section of the book, the recent trends in microstrip antenna research have been showcased. Some newfangled application-oriented approach to this field is vividly discussed. The book’s main objective is to facilitate the microstrip antenna researchers for exploring the subject in more vibrant manner and also to revolutionize wireless communications. A sufficient number of topics have been covered, some for the first time in a research handbook. I hope that the book will surely be beneficial for scientists, practicing engineers, and researchers working in the field of microstrip antennas.",isbn:"978-953-51-3602-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3601-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4611-7",doi:"10.5772/65580",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"trends-in-research-on-microstrip-antennas",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"351227e37c8525ecf982ef45c2dea655",bookSignature:"Sudipta Chattopadhyay",publishedDate:"November 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5833.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15154,numberOfWosCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:74,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 10th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 31st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 27th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 26th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"188270",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipta",middleName:null,surname:"Chattopadhyay",slug:"sudipta-chattopadhyay",fullName:"Sudipta Chattopadhyay",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188270/images/6422_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sudipta Chattopadhyay received his BSc degree (Physics Honours) from the University of Calcutta and did BTech, MTech, and PhD degrees from the Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics, University of Calcutta in 1999, 2001, and 2011, respectively. Since then, he has started his independent research in the field of Antenna Engineering. He is currently working as an associate professor and head at the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Mizoram University (a Central University, Government of India), Mizoram, India. Before joining Mizoram University, he served Siliguri Institute of Technology, West Bengal, India, for 15 years as a faculty member. His area of research includes microwave antennas, microstrip and integrated antennas, defected ground structures, and computer-aided design of patch antennas. He regularly serves as the reviewer of IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine; IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters; IET Microwaves, Antennas, & Propagation journal, UK; IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation; International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer-Aided Engineering, Wiley; International Journal of Microwave and Wireless Technologies, Cambridge; and also Taylor and Francis journal. He has more than 60 publications in referred international journals and international conferences. He has contributed several chapters in different edited research handbooks and is presently acting as a sole editor in the handbook of Trends in Research on Microstrip Antenna. His research and formulations are cited in different research handbooks as well as in well-known undergraduate text book of Antennas and Wave Propagation by J. D. Kraus et al. fourth edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. In the last 2 years, he has been working as the editorial board member of Wiley journal International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer-Aided Engineering and Journal of Electromagnetic Analysis and Applications. He is listed in Marquis Who’s Who in the World, USA, 26th Edition, 2009 and also listed in 2000 Outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century, UK, 2010.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Mizoram University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"760",title:"Telecommunication",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-telecommunication"}],chapters:[{id:"57320",title:"Bandwidth Enhancement Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70173",slug:"bandwidth-enhancement-techniques",totalDownloads:4896,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a variety of procedures proposed in the literature to increase the impedance bandwidth of microstrip patch antennas are presented and discussed. Intrinsic techniques, proximity coupled and aperture-coupled patches, applying horizontally coupled patches to driven patch on a single layer and stacked patches are discussed. Beside the linear polarised solutions, some techniques for designing wideband circular polarised patch antennas are also presented. Furthermore, some other techniques proposed in the literature including log-periodic array of patches, E-shaped patch, L-shaped feeding, microstrip monopole slotted antenna, defected ground/patch technique and the latest works during the recent years are introduced and investigated. It is tried to make a comparison between different methods giving a typical bandwidth that can be obtained using each method, beside discussing about the benefits or limitations that each method has.",signatures:"Seyed Ali Razavi Parizi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57320",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57320",authors:[{id:"198931",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Ali",surname:"Razavi Parizi",slug:"seyed-ali-razavi-parizi",fullName:"Seyed Ali Razavi Parizi"}],corrections:null},{id:"55037",title:"Miniature Planar Antenna Design for Ultra-Wideband Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68612",slug:"miniature-planar-antenna-design-for-ultra-wideband-systems",totalDownloads:1714,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Demand for antennas that are compact and operate over an ultra‐wideband (UWB) frequency range is growing rapidly as UWB systems offer high resolution imaging capability and high data rate transmission in the order of Gb/s that is required by the next generation of wireless communication systems. Hence, over the recent years the research and development of UWB antennas has been widely reported in literature. The main performance requirements sought from such antennas include: (1) low VSWR of <2; (2) operation over 7.6 GHz from 3 to 10.6 GHz; and (3) good overall radiation characteristics. Significant size reduction and low manufacturing cost are also important criteria in order to realize a cost‐effective and miniature system. Other desirable requirements include compatibility and ease of integration with RF electronics.",signatures:"Mohammad Alibakhshikenari, Mohammad Naser‐Moghadasi,\nRamazan Ali Sadeghzadeh, Bal Singh Virdee and Ernesto Limiti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55037",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55037",authors:[{id:"188537",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Alibakhshikenari",slug:"mohammad-alibakhshikenari",fullName:"Mohammad Alibakhshikenari"},{id:"189212",title:"Prof.",name:"Bal Singh",surname:"Virdee",slug:"bal-singh-virdee",fullName:"Bal Singh Virdee"},{id:"189213",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Limiti",slug:"ernesto-limiti",fullName:"Ernesto Limiti"}],corrections:null},{id:"55913",title:"Design and Analysis of Microstrip Patch Antennas Using Artificial Neural Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69522",slug:"design-and-analysis-of-microstrip-patch-antennas-using-artificial-neural-network",totalDownloads:1983,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The microstrip patch antenna can also be designed using an artificial neural network (ANN) modeling technique where size of the antenna is major limitation especially in mobile and wireless applications. In this chapter, analysis and synthesis problems for designing of microstrip patch antennas were discussed using the artificial neural network technique. An analysis problem refers to calculation of resonant frequency of microstrip patch antenna whereas a synthesis problem refers to calculation of dimensions of patch antenna. Both problems are reciprocal of each other. Results are implemented using graphical user interface (GUI) tools of MATLAB programming language. Back‐propagation training algorithm of artificial neural network is used to train the network for minimization of error and computation time. Therefore, the geometric dimensions of patch are obtained with high accuracy in less computation time as compared to simulation software.",signatures:"Vivek Singh Kushwah and Geetam Singh Tomar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55913",authors:[{id:"198433",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",surname:"Kushwah",slug:"vivek-kushwah",fullName:"Vivek Kushwah"},{id:"198435",title:"Dr.",name:"Geetam Singh",surname:"Tomar",slug:"geetam-singh-tomar",fullName:"Geetam Singh Tomar"}],corrections:null},{id:"56459",title:"Circularly Polarized T-Stub Coupled Microstrip Antenna Structure for WLAN",doi:"10.5772/67931",slug:"circularly-polarized-t-stub-coupled-microstrip-antenna-structure-for-wlan",totalDownloads:1281,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a novel feeding mechanism for single layer microstrip patch antenna to generate circular polarization using electromagnetically coupled microstrip T junction is presented. The antenna structure eliminates the need for capacitors in the RF path for active antenna applications in wireless local area network (WLAN). The simulated results were verified by measurement using the vector network analyzer.",signatures:"Milind Thomas Themalil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56459",authors:[{id:"199089",title:"Dr.",name:"Milind Thomas",surname:"Themalil",slug:"milind-thomas-themalil",fullName:"Milind Thomas Themalil"}],corrections:null},{id:"56272",title:"Bio-Inspired Microstrip Antenna",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69766",slug:"bio-inspired-microstrip-antenna",totalDownloads:1905,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last few years, bio‐inspired solutions have attracted the attention of the scientific community. Several world‐renowned institutions have sponsored and created laboratories in order to understand the forms, functions and behavior of living organisms. Some methods can be highlighted in the search for geometric representation of the shapes found in the nature, the fractal geometry, the polar geometry, and the superformula of Gielis. This chapter is focusing on bio‐inspired microstrip antennas, especially on leaf‐shaped antennas from the Gielis superformula that open a vast research field for more compact antennas with low visual impact.",signatures:"Alexandre Jean René Serres, Georgina Karla de Freitas Serres, Paulo\nFernandes da Silva Júnior, Raimundo Carlos Silvério Freire, Josiel do\nNascimento Cruz, Tulio Chaves de Albuquerque, Maciel Alves\nOliveira and Paulo Henrique da Fonseca Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56272",authors:[{id:"107092",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Silva",slug:"paulo-silva",fullName:"Paulo Silva"},{id:"199230",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre Jean René",surname:"Serres",slug:"alexandre-jean-rene-serres",fullName:"Alexandre Jean René Serres"},{id:"199961",title:"BSc.",name:"Maciel Alves de",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"maciel-alves-de-oliveira",fullName:"Maciel Alves de Oliveira"},{id:"199963",title:"MSc.",name:"Josiel",surname:"Cruz",slug:"josiel-cruz",fullName:"Josiel Cruz"},{id:"205094",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgina Karla",surname:"Freitas Serres",slug:"georgina-karla-freitas-serres",fullName:"Georgina Karla Freitas Serres"},{id:"205095",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Fernandes da Silva Junior",slug:"paulo-fernandes-da-silva-junior",fullName:"Paulo Fernandes da Silva Junior"},{id:"205097",title:"Dr.",name:"Raimundo Carlos",surname:"Silvério Freire",slug:"raimundo-carlos-silverio-freire",fullName:"Raimundo Carlos Silvério Freire"},{id:"205098",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tulio Chaves",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"tulio-chaves-albuquerque",fullName:"Tulio Chaves Albuquerque"}],corrections:null},{id:"55571",title:"Printed Planar Antenna Designs Based on Metamaterial Unit- Cells for Broadband Wireless Communication Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68600",slug:"printed-planar-antenna-designs-based-on-metamaterial-unit-cells-for-broadband-wireless-communication",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the continuing development of mobile communications, the communication standards, which include operating frequencies and protocols, are also evolving. In order to accommodate these and future changes, antennas with characteristics of wideband and multiband are becoming a necessity. Hence, wireless communications industries are now demanding broadband antennas that are low-profile and low-volume structures. Conventional planar microstrip antennas are the most common form of printed antennas that have been used for many years. This is because these antennas offer advantages of low cost, conformability, and ease of manufacturing; however, the bandwidth of these types of antennas is highly restricted. Among different types of planar antennas, the slotted structure that offers the simplest structure is compact and radiates omnidirectionally; these features make it an excellent candidate for broadband applications.",signatures:"Mohammad Alibakhshikenari, Mohammad Naser-Moghadasi,\nRamazan Ali Sadeghzadeh, Bal Singh Virdee and Ernesto Limiti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55571",authors:[{id:"188537",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Alibakhshikenari",slug:"mohammad-alibakhshikenari",fullName:"Mohammad Alibakhshikenari"},{id:"189212",title:"Prof.",name:"Bal Singh",surname:"Virdee",slug:"bal-singh-virdee",fullName:"Bal Singh Virdee"},{id:"189213",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Limiti",slug:"ernesto-limiti",fullName:"Ernesto Limiti"}],corrections:null},{id:"56514",title:"Low-SAR Miniaturized Handset Antenna Using EBG",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70175",slug:"low-sar-miniaturized-handset-antenna-using-ebg",totalDownloads:1747,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advances in wireless communications have paved the way for wide usage of mobile phones in modern society, resulting in mounting concerns surrounding its harmful radiation. Energy absorption in human biological tissues can be characterized by specific absorption rate (SAR). This value refers to the actual amount of electromagnetic energy absorbed in the biological tissues, thus a lower value of SAR indicates a lower radiation exposure risk to the human body. So, our challenge is to introduce mobile handset antennas with low SAR and operating at all mobile and wireless applications. In this chapter, novel configurations of single-element antenna are designed, simulated, fabricated, and measured. The antennas operate for most cellular applications: global system for mobile (GSM)-850/900, digital cellular system (DCS)-1800, personal communication service (PCS)-1900, universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS)-2100, and long-term evolution (LTE) bands. The antennas also support wireless applications. The proposed antennas have a compact size and low SAR at all bands. 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\r\n\tThe Erythrocyte is unique and forms a model for studying various situations/ physiological conditions. \r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n
\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-732-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-731-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-733-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1b6073b9ff3f8f63004943bd263cd04e",bookSignature:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg",keywords:"Erythrocyte, Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte Aging, Pathways, Metabolites, Deficiencies, Membrane Changes, Band 3, Deformability, Hemolysis, Disease Conditions, Free Radical Initiators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah, Associate Professor, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore has 20 years of research experience in Oxidative Stress Physiology and Hematology and 16 years of teaching experience. She has authored numerous journal papers and book chapters and has one published patent. She has received CSIR research fellowship and is a Member of the Society for Free Radical Research, India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"352876",title:"Dr.",name:"Vani",middleName:null,surname:"Rajashekaraiah",slug:"vani-rajashekaraiah",fullName:"Vani Rajashekaraiah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/352876/images/system/352876.jpg",biography:"Teaching Experience: 16 years\n•\tAssociate Professor in Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Block I, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru from May 2018 till date. (Courses: Molecular Genetics, Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering). \n Research Experience: 20 years in the field of Oxidative Stress Physiology and hematology.\n Current Research focus: Blood Storage (erythrocytes, platelets) and Drug-induced Thrombocytopenia\n Total publications in SCOPUS / Web of Science: 27 and International book chapters: 04.\n Research guidance: 3 PhD students (completed); 3 PhD students guiding currently.\n \t \n Six years of research experience as JRF (CSIR) and SRF (CSIR) in the field of High Altitude Physiology and Biochemistry, specialization in Oxidative Stress Physiology, from August 2002 to 2008. \no\tPursued research under the guidance of Dr. S. Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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\n
1. Angiography-suite for endovascular therapy of peripheral artery disease (PAD)
\n
\n
1.1. Detector size
\n
High resolution, accurate imaging is the key to success in endovascular therapies. In recent years, most machines provide fairly good images. An important point is the detector size of the angiography machine. Some physicians still use a coronary lab for peripheral artery intervention, however, when considering the vessel length and area, at least a 30 cm detector is needed. In \nFigure 1\n, two types of detectors are shown.
\n
Figure 1.
Detector size: (A) 30 cm × 30 cm, (B) 20 cm × 20 cm. In peripheral artery angiography, at least a 30 cm image size is needed. The 20 cm image size is too small for peripheral artery angiography.
\n
In peripheral artery angiography, the 30 cm system on the left (INNOVA 3100, 30 cm, GE healthcare, Uppsala, Sweden) (\nFigure 1A\n) is basically used while the 20 cm coronary system (INNOVA IGS620, 20 cm, GE healthcare, Uppsala, Sweden) (\nFigure 1B\n) is too small for peripheral artery angiography. For example, the superficial femoral artery (SFA) is the longest vessel and difficult to visualize in its entirety. In \nFigures 1\n and \n2\n, two SFA short lesions are shown.
\n
Figure 2.
Image field of 20 cm and 30 cm detector in SFA. (A) In the 30 cm detector, about 26 cm of SFA is visualized. (B) In the 20 cm detector, only 13 cm of SFA is seen.
\n
In the 30 cm panel, about 26 cm of the SFA can be visualized and intermediate stenosis around the culprit lesion (\nFigure 2A\n) can be discerned. On the other hand, the coronary detector could visualize only 13 cm of the SFA in 20 cm mode (\nFigure 2B\n). In a coronary lab, to visualize the SFA or below the knee (BK) arteries, the table is panned but a good static image of the lesion is difficult to obtain.
\n
\n
\n
1.2. Extra monitor
\n
In an angiographic suite, operators usually stand on the right side of the table. Most labs use one monitor and all medical staffs rely on this one screen. In right limb angiography via the left femoral artery approach, the operator who is standing on the right side has difficulty manipulating the catheter. In this situation, one operator needs to stand on the left side of the table to manipulate the catheter and hold the sheath. For this purpose, an extra-monitor should be installed (\nFigure 3\n).
\n
Figure 3.
Extra-monitor. In right superficial artery (SFA) intervention, the main operator stands on the left side of the table watching the extra-monitor while the assisting operator watches the central monitor. Without moving the central image monitor, the main operator can manipulate the catheter from the left side.
\n
A typical right superficial artery (SFA) intervention is shown in \nFigure 3\n. The main operator is standing on the left side of the table and watching the extra-monitor while the assisting operator keeps an eye on the central monitor. Without moving the central image monitor, the main operator is able to perform the procedure. This extra-monitor is useful in the left brachial approach as well. It is a convenient way to intervene in the right femoropopliteal artery or cross-over approach for right below the knee arteries. In the left below the knee artery procedure via the cross-over approach, the C-arm is rotated to the left side. The cranial side operator may not see the central image. In this situation, the extra monitor can be placed on the left cranial side.
\n
\n
\n
1.3. Injector
\n
For most of the small vessels in selective angiography, hand injection of the contrast dye is adequate. However, for optimal opacification of high-flow blood vessels like the aorta, the use of a power injector is mandatory. A constant and high volume of dye should be injected through an electronically calibrated power injector. There are two types of injectors: one is a conventional power injector and the other is an assisted device that introduces small or large amounts of dye by an injector attached to the catheter table. The contrast volume is adjusted manually so that even a small dose of dye can be injected. However, the space on the left side of the table is occupied by this assisted device. Thus, a conventional power injector mounted to the ceiling is preferable since it affords more space around the catheter table. Furthermore, the distance allows a significant reduction in radiation exposure during dye injection. With the assisted device, radiation exposure is difficult to prevent since the operator has to be beside the table during dye injection (\nFigure 4\n).
\n
Figure 4.
Power injector mounted to the ceiling. The ceiling-mounted injector allows more space around the catheter table.
\n
\n
\n
1.4. Contrast dose
\n
Contrast-related factors include the vascular access site, injection time duration, injection rate, contrast volume and dye concentration. The key factor is the injection rate. An increased rate of injection can induce a greater extent of vascular opacification but the safety and total volume of the contrast dose must be carefully monitored. The contrast volumes for opacification of the major arteries are shown in \nTable 1\n. These are the injection volumes mainly used in our catheter laboratory although the actual contrast volume depends on the patient’s condition, the catheter size, amount of contrast and speed of injection. Therefore, the contrast dose should be individualized for each case.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Location
\n
Catheter
\n
Injection rate (ml/s)
\n
Total volume (ml)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Aortoiliac
\n
5Fr Pig tail
\n
14–16
\n
15–25
\n
\n
\n
CFA-SFA-Pop A
\n
4–5Fr MP
\n
5–7
\n
16–20
\n
\n
\n
Run: CFA-BTK
\n
4–5Fr MP
\n
4
\n
9–12
\n
\n
\n
SFA
\n
4–5Fr MP
\n
4–5
\n
8–10
\n
\n
\n
Run: BTK
\n
4Fr MP
\n
3–4
\n
10–12
\n
\n
\n
BTK
\n
4Fr MP
\n
3–4
\n
5–7
\n
\n
\n
Below the ankle
\n
4Fr MP
\n
3–4
\n
5–7
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Contrast injection rate and injection volume.
\n
There is no universally agreed upon threshold in the degree of renal dysfunction beyond which intravascular iodinated contrast medium should not be administered. We use Visipaque 320 [2]. Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) is an infrequent adverse reaction to iodinated contrast agents [3]. In endovascular procedures, particular complex procedures are associated with CIN and larger doses of contrast are considered a risk factor. Thus, as a precaution against CIN, the use of contrast media at the lowest dosage possible is advised. To minimize the contrast dose, we dilute Visipaque 320 by adding 30 cc of saline solution in a 100 cc bottle. The key factor is the injection rate which indicates the amount of dye per second. In our experience, 1/3rd diluted contrast does not decrease image quality.
\n
\n
\n
1.5. Radiation safety
\n
Angiography machines which use fluoroscopy for endovascular work are equipped with pulsed fluoroscopy instead of continuous fluoroscopy and this, to a large extent, helps to reduce the radiation dose (three radiation pulse mode). During this procedure, both the patient and physician are exposed to a certain degree of radiation so that its dose needs to be minimized. Constant measurement of radiation doses in patients and personnel is vital. Above all, the shielding in the room is particularly important. We use a suspended ceiling shield as well as a floor installed shield (\nFigure 5\n). During digital subtraction angiography (DSA) imaging, other comedical staffs are outside the angiosuite. The main operator besides the patient is protected by a ceiling-mounted radiation shielding glass. After the procedure, radiation exposure levels must be routinely recorded and archived.
\n
Figure 5.
Radiation shield. Operator uses the ceiling-mounted radiation shield and the assistant is behind the shield during contrast injection.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Imaging techniques
\n
\n
2.1. Sheath
\n
\n
2.1.1. 4Fr sheath
\n
The 4Fr sheath is mainly used for the antegrade femoral approach. For initial access, a 4Fr sheath is placed from the common femoral artery (CFA) to the SFA. The reason is that an antegrade puncture is technically more demanding and if we fail to make the puncture, the sheath can be withdrawn or repositioned. While keeping the 4Fr sheath in the profunda femoris artery (PFA), we can even place an additional 4Fr sheath into the CFA. The long 4Fr sheath is for below the knee work. However, it is easily kinked and there may be an increased risk of hematoma formation. In interventions below the knee arteries, most occlusion balloons accept the 4Fr sheath with the use of a 0.014 or 0.018 in. guidewires. And to minimize sheath size in the ipsilateral CFA approach, a 4Fr long sheath is ideal for patients with critical limb ischemia (CLI) (\nFigure 6A\n).
In ad hoc interventions, we have standardized the 5Fr sheath for the initial retrograde CFA approach. When stent implantation is planned, we start with a 6Fr sheath. Either a 4Fr or 5Fr pigtail catheter can be used for aortography. With a 4Fr pigtail catheter, the amount of dye is limited to around 10–13 cc/s. To opacity the terminal aorta to both the iliac and common femoral arteries, the rate of injection should be 15–20 cc/s and this flow rate can be achieved with at least a 5Fr pigtail catheter. Introducer sheaths are used for all angiography and endovascular procedures. The 5Fr 45 cm cross-over sheath is used for either the retrograde or antegrade approach. In a contralateral SFA intervention, a 5Fr 45 cm crossover sheath is used. However, when stenting is performed, the sheath should be replaced with a 6Fr crossover sheath. In the antegrade approach for BK interventions, a 5Fr 45 cm crossover sheath gives more back-up support to intervene on the tibial arteries (\nFigure 6B\n).
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2.1.3. 6Fr sheath
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When an iliac artery stent is already planned, a 6Fr short sheath should be placed in a retrograde manner. In a cross-over approach, a 6Fr 45 cm cross-over sheath is employed. The advantage of the 6Fr system is that the closure device can be applied after the procedure. In some medical centers, the antegrade 6Fr short sheath is placed for SFA stenting. However, we do not routinely use the 6Fr sheath for antegrade work (\nFigure 6C\n) (\nTable 2\n).
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Advantage
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Disadvantage
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Better wire control with short wire
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Complication related to antegrade common femoral artery (CFA) puncture
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Short distance to the lesion
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Might miss proximal superficial femoral artery (SFA) lesion
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Precise stent placement
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Need caution of proximal end of stent
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Access to below the knee arteries
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Compression of ischemic side after procedure
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Table 2.
Advantage and disadvantage of ipsilateral antegrade approach.
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2.2. Wires
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2.2.1. 0.035 in. wire
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There are three types of tips for the 0.035 wire. We do not use a regular J-tip Radifocus wire (Terumo, Tokyo, Japan) (\nFigure 7A\n). The initial wire is always a 1.5 mm J-type Radifocus wire (Terumo, Tokyo, Japan) (\nFigure 7B\n). The tip of this wire has a 1.5 mm round shape and is quite safe when the wire migrates into the small branches or other vessels. Once the guidewire crosses the lesion, we change to a regular 0.035 in. spring wire (\nFigure 7C\n). The Radifocus wire is slippery and is difficult to keep in place while regular spring wires tend to stay in place. Thus, for stability, the wire should be changed to a spring wire once the lesion is crossed. These three types of 0.035 in. wires should always be at hand.
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Figure 7.
0.035 in. guidewires. There are three types of tips for the 0.018 in. wire. We do not use regular a J-tip Radifocus wire (A). The initial wire is always a 1.5 mm J-type Radifocus wire (B). Once used to cross the lesion, it is exchanged to a 0.018 in. spring wire (C).
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2.2.2. 0.018, 0.014 in. wires
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Basically, we do not use the 0.018 in. wire as a regular wire. Chronic total occlusion (CTO), a 0.018 in. Treasure 12-g (Asahi Intec, Nagoya, Japan) wire is initially selected. It has a 12-g tip load and is best suited as a peripheral CTO wire. The V 18 (Boston Scientific, Cambridge, MA, USA) wire has a strong main shaft with a soft tip and can be used for cross-over ballooning or stent implantation. There are many 0.014 in. wires and their purposes vary. For below the knee artery work, the 0.014 in. wire is the basic wire used.
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2.3. Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) vs. digital angiography (DA)
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Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) has long been the gold standard for evaluation of atherosclerotic lesions in patients with PAD. Image quality has been further improved by replacing traditional image intensifiers with flat panel detectors so that regular digital angiography (DA) is now replacing DSA. When considering the high radiation doses, not all cases need imaging by DSA. Above all, critical limb ischemia is difficult to manage and some patients have difficulty staying still during injection of the contrast dye. Thus, adequate optimization with either DSA or DA should be employed to obtain accurate imaging of the diseased segments.
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2.3.1. Aortoiliac artery
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A typical DSA image of the iliac artery is shown in \nFigure 8\n. In the 30 cm image, we can see from the terminal aorta to both common femoral arteries (\nFigure 8A\n). In the 20 cm image, a clearer view can be seen (\nFigure 8B\n).
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Figure 8.
Iliac artery angiography, 30 cm vs. 20 cm image. (A) 30 cm image, we could see from the terminal aorta to both common femoral arteries. (B) 20 cm image, a clearer view is obtained.
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In our routine, we first take a 30 cm image by DSA (\nFigure 9A\n). Next, we take a 20 cm image by DA for the purpose of intervention (\nFigure 9B\n).
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Figure 9.
DSA vs. DA image of the iliac artery. (A) 30 cm image by DSA for diagnostic purposes. (B) 20 cm image by DA for interventions. DSA, digital subtraction angiography; DA, digital angiography.
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DA is more practical for stent implantation since it provides the background image. In the aortoiliac artery segment, the image is hampered by bowel and gas movements. Aortoiliac artery angiography is basically taken by DSA, however, due to bowel and gas movements, the image is blurred (\nFigure 10A\n). In such a circumstance, we change to the DA image (\nFigure 10B\n). In \nFigure 10\n, a left common iliac aneurysm with distal stenosis can be seen; the DSA image is blurred while the DA image clearly reveals stenosis.
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Figure 10.
DSA vs. DA image of the iliac artery. (A) DSA image is blurred by bowel gas. (B) DA image shows clear image of left common iliac aneurysm with distal stenosis. DSA, digital subtraction angiography; DA, digital angiography.
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2.3.2. Femoropopliteal artery
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The initial angiographic image is the ipsilateral angled view. Either DSA or DA can provide a reasonable image (\nFigure 11\n), although the DSA image (\nFigure 11A\n) is shown to be better than the DA image (\nFigure 11B\n). In the DA image, the background is shown and can be used as reference (\nFigure 11B\n).
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Figure 11.
Proximal femoral artery. (A) DSA image for ipsilateral angled view of the left proximal femoral artery. (B) DA image shows the background and identifies bifurcation point.
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A calcified lesion is often seen in the common femoral artery. In such cases, DSA provides a clearer view than the DA image (\nFigure 12\n). DSA clearly shows the calcified lesion (\nFigure 12A\n) while, in contrast, the lesion could not be determined in the DA image due to low contrast (\nFigure 12B\n).
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Figure 12.
Calcified common femoral artery. (A) DSA clearly shows calcified lesion. (B) DA image could not determine lesion due to low contrast.
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For the SFA, we use either the DSA or DA image. For a calcified lesion, DSA is preferable (\nFigure 13A\n), but in most cases, DA provides a reasonably good image (\nFigure 13B\n).
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Figure 13.
SFA angiography, DSA vs. DA. (A) DSA shows clearer image and branches are well seen. (B) DA gives reasonably good image.
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In a SFA lesion, measurement of the lesion length is important to decide the interventional strategy and we prefer a DA image for the pre-interventional angiogram. The popliteal artery is located deep in the posterior fossa of the knee joint. Surrounded by a bony structure, the popliteal artery is very difficult to visualize by DA. Basically, a DSA image is taken for the popliteal artery (\nFigure 14A\n). In \nFigure 14A\n, tight stenosis of the mid-popliteal artery is well visualized with rich collateral circulation. In the DA view, stenosis is well observed but most of the collateral vessels are not visualized (\nFigure 14B\n).
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Figure 14.
Popliteal artery angiography, DSA vs. DA. (A) Popliteal artery surrounded by bone and basically taken with DSA. (B) DA view shows well visualized stenosis but most collateral vessels unclear.
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2.3.3. Below the knee arteries
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Diseases of below the knee arteries are closely associated with critical limb ischemia (CLI) and detailed anatomical information is required to plan intervention. Compared to other limb arteries, angiography remains the imaging method of choice in most cases of CLI. How to take a good image is the cornerstone of successful endovascular therapy. DSA is a must for imaging of below the knee arteries. In \nFigures 2\n–\n10\n, comparisons of the DSA and DA images of the left proximal tibial arteries are shown. In the DSA image, posterior tibial artery occlusion is well observed (\nFigure 15A\n). On the other hand, the DA image failed to show the tibioperoneal trunk and occlusion of the posterior tibial artery (\nFigure 15B\n).
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Figure 15.
Proximal below the knee angiography, DSA (A) vs. DA (B).
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A similar case of the left proximal below the knee artery is shown in \nFigure 16\n. In the DSA image, three tibial arteries are shown with multiple stenosis (\nFigure 16A\n). In the DA image, precise diagnosis cannot be made (\nFigure 16B\n).
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Figure 16.
Mid-below the knee angiography, DSA (A) vs. DA (B).
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Assessment of the distal tibial arteries is vital in evaluating below the ankle disease. Continuation from the anterior tibial artery to the dorsal artery and the posterior tibial artery to the planted artery must be clarified. However, due to the bony structure, the DA image could not show these distal tibial and below the ankle arteries (\nFigure 17\n). In \nFigure 17A\n, the planter artery is not clearly visualized in the DSA image. In the DA image, most of the vessels remain un-visualized (\nFigure 17B\n).
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Figure 17.
Below the ankle angiography, DSA (A) vs. DA (B).
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2.4. Basic angiography for PAD
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2.4.1. Angiography from the terminal aorta to below the knee artery
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In an angiographic approach for PAD diagnosis, we need to assess three segments of the lower limb artery, that is, the aortoiliac, femoropopliteal and below the knee arteries. In \nFigure 18\n, the basic angiography is shown. First, angiography of the aortoiliac artery was taken (\nFigure 18A\n). The second angiography is an ipsilateral view of the proximal femoral artery (\nFigure 18B\n). In the right leg, a 30° right anterior oblique (RAO) view was chosen to separate the proximal SFA and PFA. Third, angiography from the CFA to the distal below the ankle artery was taken by running the table (\nFigure 18C\n). After observing these three angiograms, we could assess in which segment stenosis or occlusion was located.
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Figure 18.
Basic lower limb artery angiography. (A) Aortoiliac artery angiography. (B) Proximal femoral artery by a 30° right anterior oblique view. (C) From the right common femoral artery to the distal below the ankle artery.
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A typical claudication with SFA disease is shown in \nFigure 19\n. Aortoiliac artery angiography showed no significant stenosis (\nFigure 19A\n). In the proximal femoral artery, there was no stenosis in the SFA and PFA (\nFigure 19B\n). Left limb angiography showed focal stenosis in the mid-SFA while the left anterior tibial artery was not visualized (\nFigure 19C\n). By using DA, left SFA angiography was taken and revealed focal tight stenosis in the mid-SFA (\nFigure 19D\n). This DA image was used as reference in interventional work (\nFigure 19D\n).
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Figure 19.
A typical claudication with SFA disease (A) Aortoiliac artery angiography showed no significant stenosis. (B) In the proximal femoral artery, there was nostenosis in the SFA and PFA. C: Left limb angiography showed focal stenosis in themid-SFA. (D) LeftSFA angiography revealed focal tight stenosis in the mid-SFA.
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\n\nFigure 20\n shows isolated below the knee artery disease. From the iliac to femoropopliteal artery level, no atherosclerotic changes could be observed (\nFigure 20A\n and 20B). A lesion is located in the right below the knee arteries. Below the knee arteries showed a stenotic lesion of the anterior tibial artery, and the posterior tibial artery and peroneal artery are occluded (\nFigure 20C\n). This type of lesion, that is, “isolated below the knee artery disease” is often found in patients with critical limb ischemia.
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Figure 20.
Basic lower limb artery angiography. Isolated below the knee artery disease. (A) Aortoiliac artery showed no disease. (B) Right femoropopliteal artery showed no disease. (C) Right below the knee arteries showed a stenotic lesion of the anterior tibial artery, and the posterior tibial artery and peroneal artery are occluded.
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2.4.2. Magnification of images
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The image size has two purposes: one is to see the whole vessel, for example, in the aortoiliac artery, visualization from the terminal aorta to both the right and left CFA (\nFigure 21A\n). The other is to better intervene on the target lesion utilizing appropriate magnification of the image size (\nFigure 21B\n). For wiring to this lesion, a 20 cm magnified image was taken and successful wiring was carried out using a 0.014 in. wire (\nFigure 21B\n).
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Figure 21.
Iliac artery angiography, 30 cm (A) vs. 20 cm image (B).
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In \nFigure 22\n, right SFA stent restenosis was visualized with a 30 cm image (\nFigure 22A\n). Moreover, using the 20 cm magnified mode, stent restenosis was well observed (\nFigure 22B\n).
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Figure 22.
SFA angiography, 30 cm (A) vs. 20 cm image (B).
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In below the knee arteries, the whole image shows which vessels are diseased (\nFigure 23A\n). However, this running image does not give detailed information on the three tibial arteries. In the 30 cm image, the three proximal tibial arteries are well observed, and the peroneal and posterior tibial arteries are diffusely diseased (\nFigure 23B\n). The further magnified 20 cm image revealed that there is tight stenosis at the ostium of the right anterior tibial artery (\nFigure 23C\n).
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Figure 23.
Below the knee angiography, 30 cm (A), 20 cm (B) and 16 cm images (C).
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2.4.3. Pre- and postinterventional image
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Basically, all interventional work requires two images to be taken, that is, pre- and postintervention. These two images reveal the angiographic changes pre and post procedure. In \nFigure 24A\n, the femorofemoral bypass was occluded and a long total occlusion of the right iliac artery is seen. After successful recanalization and stenting, angiography of the exact same iliac artery was taken (\nFigure 24B\n).
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Figure 24.
A case of right iliac artery occlusion. Pre (A) and post iliac artery angiography (B).
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In \nFigures 2\n–\n20\n, typical left SFA occlusion was seen (\nFigure 25A\n). After balloon angioplasty, dissection and incomplete dilatation were observed (\nFigure 25B\n). Post stent angiography showed excellent dilatation of the left SFA lesion (\nFigure 25C\n). During the procedure, the table was frequently moved and oftentimes, post angiographic images were not taken in the different positions, giving a false impression of the postinterventional image.
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Figure 25.
A case of SFA occlusion. Pre (A) and post SFA angiography (B).
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3. Echo-guided puncture femoral artery puncture
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The common femoral artery (CFA) remains the most widely accepted site for endovascular artery access. Vascular access site-related complications are a major cause of periprocedural morbidity among patients undergoing percutaneous endovascular intervention. In particular, patients with PAD may be more likely to have atherosclerosis affecting the CFA. Ultrasound guidance is an emerging trend for all percutaneous procedures and its use for femoral artery puncture has decreased vascular complications and improved first-pass success rates [4–6].
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3.1. Retrograde common femoral artery puncture
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The CFA is the main access site for angiography and interventional procedures. Among the various puncture sites, the retrograde CFA puncture is the most commonly employed and the basis of arterial punctures. We have described a safe and echo-guided technique for avoiding femoral access site complications.
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3.1.1. Puncture point
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The inferior border and upper border of the femoral head should be realized by fluoroscopy (\nFigure 26A\n). After checking the maximum arterial pulse (\nFigure 26B\n), Xylocaine is given 1 cm below the middle of the femoral head (\nFigure 26C\n).
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Figure 26.
Puncture point of common femoral artery. (A) Realizing the inferior border and upper border of the femoral head by fluoroscopy. (B) Marking middle of femoral head. (C) Xylocaine to be given 1–2 cm below.
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3.1.2. Preparation
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A sheath and two types of wires were prepared. Once a puncture is performed, the wire should be ready to be inserted and if there is resistance, change to a different kind of wire is advised (\nFigure 27\n).
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Figure 27.
Preparation of sheath and two types of wire. Prepare sheath and two type wires close to puncture site. Once puncture completed, insert wire and if resistance encountered, change to different shape wire.
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3.1.3. Echo scanning
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For an echo-guided puncture (NEMIO MS, Toshiba, Tochigi, Japan), first, echo scanning was carried out from the upper CFA to proximal SFA (\nFigure 28\n). We could identify where the bifurcation is located. Either a long axis (\nFigure 28A\n) or short axis can be obtained (\nFigure 28B\n and \nC\n). A scan is basically made by a short-axis view. The ideal puncture site of the CFA can then be located (\nFigure 28B\n) and the bifurcation site can be identified (\nFigure 28C\n).
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Figure 28.
Color Doppler scanning from CFA to SFA and PFA. (A) Long-axis view of CFA and SFA. (B) Short-axis view of CFA. (C) Short-axis view of SFA and PFA. Using color Doppler, scan from upper CFA to SFA and PFA. Locate the ideal puncture site of CFA and identify the bifurcation point. CFA, common femoral artery; SFA, superficial femoral artery; PFA, profunda femoral artery.
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An echo image is best seen from the upper common femoral artery to the distal external iliac artery. When total reliance is on echo guidance, the puncture site locates higher than the middle femoral head. To avoid too low or high punctures, rechecking the puncture site by fluoroscopy is advised (\nFigure 26A\n).
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3.1.4. Puncture
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Arterial access was obtained with an 18-G needle (COOK Medical, Bloomington, Indiana) using the modified Seldinger technique. The needle was inserted at an angle of about 45° from the skin at a level just below the center of the femoral head. In viewing the short axis, the aim should be for the top of the vessel. During flash backs of blood, a gentle wire insertion must be made. When resistance is felt, change from a straight wire to round shaped wire is advised (\nFigure 29\n). When the plaque in the CFA is found, a normal CFA puncture site should be located. In \nFigure 29A\n, the long-axis view showed the plaque in the CFA.
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Figure 29.
Puncture. (A) Echo guidance. (B) 18G needle puncture. In viewing short axis, aim for top of the vessel. During flashback of blood, gentle wire insertion should be made. If resistance encountered, change straight wire to round shaped wire.
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In this situation, a plaque free zone within the CFA should be located (\nFigure 30B\n–\nD\n).
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Figure 30.
Presence of CFA plaque. (A) Long-axis view of CFA and SFA. Note CFA plaque. (B) Plaque free site of CFA in short axis. (C) Presence of plaque. Should not be punctured. (D) SFA and PFA level. When finding plaque in the CFA (A), should look for normal CFA puncture site. Must find plaque free zone within CFA. CFA, common femoral artery; SFA, superficial femoral artery; PFA, profunda femoral artery.
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In \nFigure 31\n, a puncture was made at the site of CFA disease and the wire went into false lumen, resulting in the total occlusion of the CFA.
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Figure 31.
Puncture of common femoral artery plaque. (A) Puncture into CFA plaque. Creates false lumen. (B) TIMI 0 flow. (C) Dissection of iliac artery. Without knowledge of CFA disease, puncture was made. Wire went into false lumen and ended up in total occlusion of CFA.
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3.2. Antegrade common femoral artery puncture
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For treatment of femoropopliteal artery disease, the standard approach has been to access the contralateral common femoral artery (CFA). However, an ipsilateral, antegrade CFA approach has certain advantages. Compared to the contralateral approach, access to the lesion distance is short which in turn improves the responsiveness of the wire handling used to perform the intervention. In other clinical situations such as post aorto-bi-femoral surgical bypass, deployment of iliac kissing stents, post stent grafting and for aortoiliac occlusive disease, an antegrade approach is the method of choice to reach the lesion. The advantages and disadvantages are shown in \nTable 2\n.
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The CFA is approximately 4–5 cm in length and arises from the external iliac artery (EIA) as it passes below the inguinal ligament. It then bifurcates into the PFA and SFA. An anatomical knowledge of the level of origin for the PFA is important in avoiding retroperitoneal bleeding, iatrogenic femoral arterial-venous fistula and/or formation of a pseudo aneurysm. The most lethal complication of femoral access remains retroperitoneal hemorrhaging due to a high puncture. Thus, the best first step toward reducing the incidence of retroperitoneal bleeding is to prevent high punctures.
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3.2.1. Preparation of an antegrade puncture
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As we perform in a retrograde puncture, two kinds of wires should be at hand. The initial sheath we place is always the 4Fr size sheath (\nFigure 32\n).
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Figure 32.
Preparation of antegrade puncture. 18G needle, 4Fr sheath and two kinds of wire at hand.
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The main reason is, when obtaining access to the CFA fails, the sheath can be easily withdrawn or left in the PFA. Once placing the sheath in the SFA is successful, it can be changed to any sheath as desired. Pointing to the middle of the femoral head, local xylocaine should be given around the inguinal ligamentum (\nFigure 33\n).
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Figure 33.
Antegrade puncture of common femoral artery. Puncture site. (A) Locate middle of femora; head. (B) Local xylocaine to be given at inguinal ligamentum.
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Echo was applied in the same way. However, the proximal CFA to external iliac artery is well observed by echo and may result in a very high puncture site. Under fluoroscopic guidance with echo assistance, point to the middle of the CFA.
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3.2.2. Puncture
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A puncture should be made by aiming an imaginary line over the center of the femoral head. The maximum level of bifurcation should be at or below the inferior border of the femoral head (\nFigure 34A\n). In about 1/4th of cases, bifurcation locates in the CFA (\nFigure 34B\n). In \nFigure 34B\n, the bifurcation point is in the middle of the CFA and there is a short margin for the antegrade puncture site.
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Figure 34.
Bifurcation point of CFA to SFA. (A) Level of the bifurcation is below the inferior border of the femoral head. (B) The bifurcation point is in the middle of CFA and only short margin for ideal puncture sire. CFA, common femoral artery.
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3.2.3. Two-wire technique
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Even when the puncture site is above the bifurcation, the wire may go to the PFA. In this situation, we use a two-wire technique (\nFigure 35\n). If the wire goes to the PFA, the first step is to place a 4Fr sheath into the PFA. Two short 0.025 in. wires are inserted into the RFA (\nFigure 35A\n). Withdrawing the sheath, one 0.025 in. wire should be manipulated into the SFA (\nFigure 35B\n). Once the SFA is accessed, leaving one wire in the PFA, the other wire should be advanced to the SFA (\nFigure 35C\n). After confirming the wire in the SFA, the other PFA wire is withdrawn and a 4Fr sheath should be placed into the SFA (\nFigure 35D\n). If the sheath comes out, it can be repositioned back into the PFA by a 0.025 in. wire.
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Figure 35.
Two wire technique. (A) If wire goes to PFA, the first step is to place a 4Fr sheath into PFA. Two short 0.025 in. wires are inserted into PFA. (B) Withdrawing sheath, one 0.025 in. wire to find SFA leaving another wire in PFA (\nFigure 10B\n). (C) Once SFA obtained, wire advanced to SFA (\nFigure 10C\n). (D) After confirming wire in SFA, other PFA wire withdrawn and 4Fr sheath placed into SFA. SFA, superficial femoral artery; PFA, profunda femoral artery.
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3.2.4. High bifurcation case
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After surveying the CFA by echo, we may find high bifurcation of the SFA and PFA. In these cases, high puncture carries the risk of retroperitoneal bleeding. The puncture point should be in the range of the femoral head. In this situation, puncturing the SFA is one option. In \nFigure 36\n, there is high bifurcation and a CFA puncture is almost impossible. In this case, we decided to puncture the proximal SFA.
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Figure 36.
SFA puncture in high bifurcation case. After surveying CFA by echo, observed high bifurcation of SFA and PFA. In this situation, puncturing SFA is one option.
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3.2.5. Sheath kinking
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The angle of puncture should be more than 60° and almost vertical. After sheath insertion, care to avoid sheath kinking is advised. Once a hematoma is observed with sheath kinking, change to a larger size anti-kink sheath is necessary. In \nFigure 37\n, the initial 4Fr sheath was kinked (\nFigure 37A\n) and hematoma formation was detected. After the 4Fr sheath was replaced with a 6Fr sheath, the hematoma was stabilized (\nFigure 37B\n).
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Figure 37.
Sheath kinking during antegrade puncture. (A) Angle of puncture is more than 60° and almost vertical. After inserting sheath, observed sheath kinking. (B) 4Fr sheath replaced with 6Fr sheath and hematoma stabilized.
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4. CO2 angiography
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The number of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) complicated with PAD is significantly increasing. In these patients, iodinated contrast may enhance the risk of contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN). CIN is an acute renal injury and may lead to irreversible loss of renal function. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas angiography is indicated for those with renal insufficiency and high-risk patients who are allergic to iodinated contrast material [7]. CO2 is imaged using digital subtraction equipment with a CO2 software program. Modern DSA equipment has a software program that allows integration of multiple images into a single composite image.
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4.1. CO2 delivery system
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The system consists of a medical grade CO2 gas cylinder with a regulator, a disposable sterile plastic tube with a bacteria-removal filter, and a 50-ml delivery syringe (\nFigure 38\n).
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Figure 38.
CO2 delivery system. (A) A disposable, sterile plastic tube with a bacteria-removal filter and a 50-ml delivery syringe; (B) a medical grade CO2 gas cylinder with a regulator.
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Collection of CO2 to the syringe and injection system should be separated to avoid erroneous gas injection to an artery (\nFigure 39\n).
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Figure 39.
Separate system between CO2 suction and injection. Collection of CO2 to syringe (left) and injection system (right) should be separated to avoid erroneous gas injection to artery.
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The gas should be purged three to four times during collection to prevent room air contamination from the tube and delivery syringe in the circuit and then filled with gas at a stationary flow of 2 l/min. About 40 cc of aspirated gas was filled into the delivery syringe and 30–40 cm3 of CO2 gas was manually injected into the vessel leaving about 5 cm3 in the injection syringe (\nFigure 40\n).
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Figure 40.
Infusion and injection of CO2 gas by 50 cc syringe. (A) Gas was purged 3–4 times during collection to exclude room air contamination from the tube and delivery syringe in circuit. Filled with gas at a stationary flow of 2 l/min. (B) 40 cc of aspirated gas filled into delivery syringe, 30–40 cm3 of CO2 gas manually injected into the vessel, leaving about 5 cm3 in the injection syringe.
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After gas injection, the remaining gas and blood were carefully aspirated into the syringe. Gas injections were spaced at least 30 s apart. Although we do not have experience in mechanical injection, manual injection is sufficient to inject 30–40 cc of CO2. However, the safety of injecting large amounts of CO2 is not guaranteed [8]. If a patient complains of abdominal pain, further CO2 injection should be avoided. And if the angiogram shows a slow flow, further CO2 delivery by syringe should also be stopped (\nTable 3\n).
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- Make a separate system with CO2 cylinder - Average dose of CO2 is about 30 ml by using 50 ml syringe - Be sure complete air excretion - Manual injection not a mechanical injection - If patient complains of abdominal pain, avoid further injection - When a slow flow are observed, avoid an further CO2 injection
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Table 3.
Setup of CO2 delivery system and CO2 injection.
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4.2. Iliac artery angiography by CO2\n
\n
The iliac artery is a large sized vessel and its inflow is the larger abdominal aorta. Moreover, there are two internal iliac arteries and two femoral arteries. CO2 angiography requires displacement of all or most of the blood to achieve adequate images. Due to such anatomical reasons, the iliac artery is not well suited for CO2 angiography. In \nFigure 41A\n, CO2 was administered from a 5Fr pigtail catheter at the terminal aorta and, in the left external iliac artery, CO2 was unfilled and there appears to be stenosis. With contrast angiography, no stenotic lesion is seen in the left external iliac artery (\nFigure 41B\n).
\n
Figure 41.
Iliac artery angiography by CO2 and DSA. (A) CO2 administered from 5Fr pigtail catheter at the terminal aorta, in left external iliac artery, CO2 unfilled and stenosis suspected. (B) In DSA, no stenotic lesion in left external iliac artery observed.
\n
In \nFigure 42A\n, total occlusion of the left external iliac artery is observed. CO2 injection from the terminal aorta shows chronic total occlusion (CTO) of the left external iliac artery. To confirm CTO, a crossover sheath was positioned at the left common iliac artery and CO2 injection was repeated at a right anterior oblique (RAO) projection of 30° (\nFigure 42B\n). In this angiogram, CTO is clearly visualized and the left common femoral artery is well observed via the collateral flow from the deep circumflex artery. In CO2 angiography of the iliac artery, the angiogram is hampered by bowel and gas movements.
\n
Figure 42.
Left external iliac artery occlusion by CO2 angiography. (A) CO2 injection from terminal aorta in AP view. Total occlusion of left external iliac artery. (B) CO2 injection from left common iliac artery by RAO 30.
\n
In \nFigure 43A\n, the left iliac artery is not seen, but contrast angiography shows a clear picture of the entire iliac arteries (\nFigure 43B\n).
\n
Figure 43.
Bowel gas in iliac artery angiography. (A) In CO2 angiography, left external iliac artery is hampered by bowel gas. (B) DSA shows a clear picture of whole iliac arteries.
\n
Generally speaking, when the iliac artery is not well visualized by CO2 angiography, increasing the volume of CO2 in the iliac abdominal aorta might be considered. However, there are important visceral vessels and the risk of various complications due to the injection of gas in these vessels must also be considered.
\n
\n
\n
4.3. Femoropopliteal artery angiography by CO2\n
\n
Visualization by CO2 angiography is best suited for the femoropopliteal artery segment. The main reason is that the superficial femoral artery (SFA) is a straight vessel with small branches. The vessels sizes are about 4–7 mm and could easily be filled by CO2 gas. In \nFigure 44\n, there are three kinds of SFA angiograms for the same patient. Digital angiography enabled visualization of the background (\nFigure 44A\n) while DSA could obtain the highest quality angiogram (\nFigure 44B\n). CO2 angiography has poor visibility of small distal branches. However, it could visualize SFA fairly well and can be used as a substitute for contrast angiography (\nFigure 44C\n).
\n
Figure 44.
SFA angiography by digital, DSA and CO2. (A) Digital angiography could visualize background to be used as reference. (B) DSA obtained most accurate image. (C) CO2 angiography cannot replace digital angiography, but can be used as a substitute for contrast angiography.
\n
Similarly, the popliteal artery could be well observed even with the CO2 angiogram (\nFigure 45\n).
\n
Figure 45.
Popliteal artery angiography by digital, DSA and CO2. (A) Digital angiography could visualize background to be used as reference. (B) DSA obtained most accurate image. (C) CO2 angiography obtained similar image to DSA.
\n
In the DA angiogram, distal SFA is not well visualized compared to the DSA image (\nFigure 45A\n). In fact, a perfect image was obtained by DSA (\nFigure 45B\n). The CO2 angiogram shows a fairly clear picture of the distal SFA and popliteal artery (\nFigure 45C\n) while the right femoropopliteal artery was visualized by CO2 (\nFigure 46\n). In proximal SFA, separation between the SFA and deep femoral artery (DFA) is well observed (\nFigure 46A\n). In the mid-SFA, no stenosis is seen (\nFigure 46B\n). In the distal SFA and popliteal artery, moderate stenosis is detected (\nFigure 46C\n).
\n
Figure 46.
CO2 angiography for right femoropopliteal artery. (A) In proximal SFA, separation between SFA and deep femoral artery (DFA) is well shown by RAO view. (B) In mid-SFA, there is no stenosis. (C) In distal SFA and the popliteal artery, there is moderate stenosis.
\n
Comparisons between CO2 angiography and digital angiography for the diseased SFA are shown in \nFigures 47\n and \n48\n. Stenosis is seen in the distal SFA in \nFigure 47\n. Both CO2 (\nFigure 47A\n) and DA images (\nFigure 47B\n) could identify distal SFA stenosis.
\n
Figure 48.
Left SFA occlusion by CO2 and DSA. (A) CO2 angiography shows totally occluded left SFA. (B) DSA shows clearer image with more collateral visualization.
\n
Figure 47.
Left SFA stenosis by CO2 and digital angiography. (A) CO2 angiography shows moderate stenosis in mid SFA and tight stenosis in distal SFA. (B) Digital angiography confirmed these two lesions. Image quality is similar between CO2 and digital angiography.
\n
The totally occluded left SFA was well visualized by CO2 angiography (\nFigure 48A\n). Although DSA shows a clearer image with a rich collateral network (\nFigure 48B\n), the CO2 image can also be used for interventional work.
\n
The CTO of the left SFA was intervened using CO2 angiography (\nFigure 49\n) in a patient with stage 4 CKD. The CO2 angiogram showed typical CTO of the SFA (\nFigure 49A\n). After successful wiring, balloon angioplasty was performed (\nFigure 49B\n). Contrast was only used in the final angiogram (\nFigure 49C\n).
\n
Figure 49.
Left SFA CTO intervention by CO2 angiography. (A) CO2 angiography showed typical SFA CTO. (B) After wiring, balloon angioplasty was performed. (C) Contrast used only in final angiogram.
\n
\n
\n
4.4. Below the knee angiography by CO2\n
\n
CO2 angiography cannot be applied in below the knee (BK) work. The arterial vessel size below the knee is between 1.5 and 3 mm in diameter and the accuracy of CO2 angiography is insufficient. Above all, in BK cases, most of the patients have critical limb ischemia and cannot tolerate large amounts of gas injection. In \nFigure 50\n, proximal right below the knee angiography was performed by CO2 (\nFigure 50A\n) and DSA (\nFigure 50B\n). In the CO2 angiogram, stenosis of the peroneal trunk could be seen; however, the right anterior tibial artery and posterior tibial artery are not well visualized when compared to DSA.
\n
Figure 50.
Below the knee angiography by CO2 and DSA. (A) Proximal below the arteries by CO2 angiography. Stenosis of peroneal trunk could be seen, otherwise, unable to identify right anterotibial and posterior tibial artery. (B) DSA shows detail of proximal below the knee arteries with small branches.
\n
\n
\n
4.5. Problems of CO2 angiography
\n
CO2 angiography can be performed with minimal or no contrast media and can be used on CKD patients. However, CO2 angiography carries several potential risks (8). Gas delivery into the vessel is basically contraindicated. Moreover, erroneous injection of excessive volumes may result in catastrophic clinical consequences. There are many reports about transient lower limb pain and transient abdominal pain. Fujihara et al. have conducted a multi-center prospective CO2 study and have reported that two patients (2%) developed CO2-related non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia which resulted in death. These non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia cases were caused by the trapping of CO2 gas in the celiac, superior and/or inferior mesenteric arteries [8]. The quality of CO2 angiography is still not clear enough in the iliac artery and should not be employed in below the knee arteries. It should be used for the femoropopliteal artery although, even in the femoropopliteal artery, precise lesion evaluation may be difficult in some cases. Other complementary modalities such as surface echo, IVUs and/or pressure measuring should also be employed to confirm lesion severity (\nTable 4\n).
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
- Cause abdominal pain and leg pain - Poor quality angiogram in iliac artery by bowel gas and movement - Not applicable to below knee artery - Rapid transition to venous circulation - Risks of cerebral infarction - Risk of nonobstructive mesenteric ischemia
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Problems of CO2 angiography.
\n
In treating claudication, safety is the first priority so that CO2 use may be limited for most patients except those who have anaphylaxis to iodinated contrast media.
\n
\n
\n\n',keywords:"peripheral artery, peripheral artery disease, contrast angiography, echo-guided puncture, CO2 angiography",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53791.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53791.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53791",totalDownloads:4009,totalViews:1779,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:64,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 7th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 22nd 2017",dateFinished:"January 6th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Angiography has been historically used to image the peripheral artery system and still remains the gold standard for diagnostic and endovascular treatment. There is no standardized method for lower limb artery angiography. In this chapter, the basic standard technique for angiography of peripheral artery is described from aortoiliac, femoropopliteal and below the knee arteries. To obtain a good image, adequate contrast dose and image size must be determined with the appropriate catheter. For puncture, echo-guided approach is becoming popular; each lab needs to have echo machine to minimize the vascular complication. In cases of renal dysfunction, CO2 angiography is suited. However, care must be taken to deliver gas into arterial system and to know the merit and demerit of CO2 angiography.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53791",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53791",book:{id:"5596",slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-peripheral-artery-disease"},signatures:"Yoshiaki Yokoi",authors:[{id:"66538",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Yokoi",fullName:"Yoshiaki Yokoi",slug:"yoshiaki-yokoi",email:"smtyokoi@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66538/images/1081_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Kishiwada Tokushukai Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Angiography-suite for endovascular therapy of peripheral artery disease (PAD)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Detector size",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Extra monitor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Injector",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4. Contrast dose",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.5. Radiation safety",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"2. Imaging techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.1. Sheath",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.1. 4Fr sheath",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.2. 5Fr sheath",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.2. Wires",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.1. 0.035 in. wire",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.2.2. 0.018, 0.014 in. wires",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.3. Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) vs. digital angiography (DA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.1. Aortoiliac artery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.3.2. Femoropopliteal artery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.3.3. Below the knee arteries",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"2.4. Basic angiography for PAD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.4.1. Angiography from the terminal aorta to below the knee artery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"2.4.2. Magnification of images",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"2.4.3. Pre- and postinterventional image",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"3. Echo-guided puncture femoral artery puncture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.1. Retrograde common femoral artery puncture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"3.1.1. Puncture point",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"3.1.2. Preparation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.1.3. Echo scanning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"3.1.4. Puncture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"3.2. Antegrade common femoral artery puncture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"3.2.1. Preparation of an antegrade puncture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"3.2.2. Puncture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"3.2.3. Two-wire technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"3.2.4. High bifurcation case",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"3.2.5. Sheath kinking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35",title:"4. CO2 angiography",level:"1"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"4.1. CO2 delivery system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"4.2. Iliac artery angiography by CO2\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37_2",title:"4.3. Femoropopliteal artery angiography by CO2\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"4.4. Below the knee angiography by CO2\n",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"4.5. Problems of CO2 angiography",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B2",body:'\nGrynne BH, Nossen JO, Bolstad B, Borch KW. Main results of the first comparative clinical studies on Visipaque. Acta Radiol Suppl. 1995;399:265–70.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nNicola R, Shaqdan KW, Aran K, Mansouri M, Singh A, Abujudeh HH. Contrast-induced nephropathy: identifying the risks, choosing the right agent, and reviewing effective prevention and management methods. Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 2015;44(6):501–4.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nGedikoglu M, Oguzkurt L, Gur S, Andic C, Sariturk U, Ozkan C. Comparison of ultrasound guidance with the traditional palpation and fluoroscopy method for the common femoral artery puncture. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2013;82(7):1187–92\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nLo RC, Fokkema MT, Curran T, Darling J, Hamdan AD, Wyers M, Martin M, Schermerhorn ML. Routine use of ultrasound-guided access reduces access site-related complications after lower extremity percutaneous revascularization. J Vasc Surg. 2015;61(2):405–12.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nFujihara M, Haramitsu Y, Ohshimo K, Yazu Y, Izumi E, Higashimori A, Yokoi Y. Appropriate hemostasis by routine use of ultrasound echo-guided transfemoral access and vascular closure devices after lower extremity percutaneous revascularization. Cardiovasc Interv Ther. 2016. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 27430637.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nCho KJ. Carbon dioxide angiography: scientific principles and practice. Vasc Specialist Int. 2015;31(3):67–80.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nKawasaki D, Fujii K, Fukunaga M, Masutani M, Nakata A, Masuyama T. Safety and efficacy of endovascular therapy with a simple homemade carbon dioxide delivery system in patients with ileofemoral artery diseases. Circ J. 2012;76(7):1722–8.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nFujihara M, Kawasaki D, Shintani Y, Fukunaga M, Nakama T, Koshida R, Higashimori A, Yokoi Y. Endovascular therapy by CO2 angiography to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease: a prospective multicenter trial of CO2 angiography registry. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2015;85:870–7.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yoshiaki Yokoi",address:"smtyokoi@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Kishiwada Tokushukai Hospital, Osaka, Japan
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1. Introduction
The Generation Y (Gen Y) is a segment of great interest to the business sector in general [1, 2, 3] and to the tourism sector, in particular, due to its leading role in the last decade as consumers, prosumers and adprosumers [2, 3, 4, 5] and its importance to achieve the goals of destinations [5, 6]. As Richards [7] points out, Gen Y (as this generation is often referred to) is a market segment of great value to tourist destinations due to the economic potential and availability of its members to travel more frequently and for longer periods. The professional and academic fields have shown great interest in this generation, which is reflected in the recent publication of a remarkable number of research works, both general in scope [2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] and specific to the tourism sector [5, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18] The latter sector is particularly interested in this generation’s use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for tourism purposes [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
Within the diversity of ICTs, the boom and massive adoption of smartphones among Gen Y [20, 25, 26, 27, 28] as well as the proven relevance of these mobile devices for the tourism sector highlight the need for more studies on this regard to contribute to the development of a still incipient and scarce line of research [18, 29, 30, 31]. Just like with any other ICTs, the integration of smartphones into the digital marketing and communication strategies of the tourism business should take into account the particularities of the different stakeholders of the destinations [5, 17, 18, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36] to ensure their use actually generates positive emotions and sensations [31, 37, 38, 39] that contribute to a different, original, and satisfying tourist experience [40, 41, 42].
2. Smartphones at the service of the tourist experience
Current trends have shown the need for tourist destinations to evolve into smart tourism destinations [43, 44, 45, 46]. In this sense, the cost associated with the development of smart infrastructures (powerful transport networks, free Wi-Fi, etc.) should not be an obstacle for destinations with fewer resources [47, 48] because, as Huertas et al. [43] point out, there are other more affordable actions that serve the same purpose, such as proper integration and management of social networks and mobile apps.
Effectively, within the wide range of ICTs, smartphones have revolutionized the way tourists interact with the physical and digital worlds, and have become essential and highly valued tools [36, 49, 50] thanks to their capacity to shape and enhance the tourist experience [36, 42, 51, 52], which in turn can favor the promotion and dissemination of the destination by tourists themselves through word of mouth (WOM) and electronic word of mouth (eWOM) [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59].
The use of smartphones for tourist purposes is nothing more than a reflection of the day-to-day of citizens, who use smartphones for everything (relationships, entertainment, etc.) [28]. As it happens with the use of other ICTs in the field of tourism, this technological dependence has psychological impacts that translate into negative and positive feelings [38, 60, 61, 62, 63] that in turn shape the perception of the tourist experience [52, 64, 65, 66, 67].
Based on the previous arguments, destination marketing organizations (DMOs) should consider the negative effects of smartphone use, particularly in relation to young users [68, 69, 70, 71], who are often victims of related addictions and disorders such as nomophobia, i.e., the irrational fear of not being able to use the smartphone [72, 73, 74]. In this regard, it is worth noting the impact that the type of activities performed with smartphones and the context on which it is performed have on the greater or lesser degree of anxiety or stress caused by not being able to use the smartphone [71]. In this sense, in times of loneliness and boredom, for example, not being able to interact with other people, mainly through social networks, or to search for information or use entertainment apps, can trigger an acute case of nomophobia [68, 70, 71, 74]. These effects underline the importance that people, particularly the youngest sector of the population, attach to the main values of the web 2.0 model that have given smartphones their protagonist role: multidirectional communication and universal access to information [1, 10, 24, 25, 40].
Hence the need is to identify the main uses given to smartphones for tourist purposes according to different generations and the consequent ICTs use habits [36], which is one of the objectives of this study. This information is necessary to successfully integrate smartphones into the digital marketing and communication strategies of tourist destinations. Given the numerous advantages of the communication and experiential potential of these devices [44, 45, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79], DMOs cannot ignore the fact that their use can also generate negative emotions and feelings, primarily among their younger stakeholders, including Gen Y [38, 60, 61, 62, 63], and that these feelings will in turn affect their perception of the destination and the opinions they share about it. Just like positive feelings and emotions resulting from smartphone use shape the perceptions and experiences tourists share through WOM and eWOM, which favor the promotion and dissemination of the tourist destination [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59] the negative ones can have the opposite effect.
Therefore, and given the relevance of Gen Y for tourism [80, 81, 82] and the impact of smartphone use on the tourist experience [31, 36, 44, 45, 51, 52, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79], this study aims to describe the feelings and emotions that the use of the smartphone and its tourism-related functionalities generates during travel on members of this generation and the correlation between these variables.
3. Research methodology
Since this study focuses on a subject matter on which there is little research, it will adopt an exploratory design [83], based on the conduction of an online survey questionnaire applied to a sample of Gen Y respondents, who in turn shared the questionnaire with their contacts. It is therefore a representative sample of the Gen Y, selected through the snowball sampling technique.
3.1 Sample
The sample consists of individuals who meet the following criteria: belong to the Gen Y, own a smartphone, and used it on their last tourist trip. The first section of the survey questionnaire consists of items that verify these criteria to be able to exclude non-suitable respondents and select the final sample.
The questionnaire design, in addition to relying on previous studies and research [31, 84, 85], was validated by two well-known academic and researchers in the tourism sector and by a prestigious company specialized in digital marketing. This ensured the academic and professional validation of the instrument. Following this first review and subsequent correction, the questionnaire was pilot tested on a convenience sample of 50 people who met the same requirements set for the final sample. Based on these results, further adjustments were made to the instrument. The final version of the survey questionnaire was distributed online during May and June 2020. A total of 201 questionnaires were answered and returned, but 10 of them were discarded because the respondents did not meet the sample selection criteria. A total of 191 valid questionnaires were analyzed to achieve the research objectives.
3.2 Measurements constructs
The survey is structured in three sections. The first one, as mentioned, aims to confirm whether respondents meet the sample selection criteria. It consists of three questions about respondents’ age, smartphone ownership and smartphone use in latest trip. In addition, four more questions relating to gender, education level and country of residence were included for a better sociodemographic description of the final sample.
The next two sets consist of two and three closed-ended questions, respectively, that aim to gather quantitative data.
The first of these sets explores emotions and feelings based on the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) scale items [85] Respondents were asked to use a 3-point Likert scale to assess the positive or negative feelings they associated to their smartphone use during the latest trip. Following the scale developed by Watson et al. [85], the list of positive feelings and emotions included in the questionnaire are: interested, distressed, excited, upset, strong, guilty, scared, hostile, enthusiastic and proud. On the other hand, the set of negative feelings and emotions included: irritable, alert, ashamed, inspired, nervous, determined, attentive, jittery, active and afraid. In the scale, which served to indicate to what extent the respondent had felt those feelings and emotions, 1 means “almost never”; 2, “sometimes”; and 3, “almost always”. In this set, options 1 and 3 are nuanced because it is possible that specific circumstances unrelated to the tourist experience (receiving good news, losing internet connection, etc.) may translate into feelings and emotions that do not describe faithfully the respondent’s state of mind regarding smartphone use during their trip.
Respondents’ smartphone use for tourism purposes is examined in the last section using the scale developed by Tussyadiah and Zach [84], which focuses on a series of activities that are valued using a scale that ranges from “never” to “always.” The questionnaire includes the following three activities: navigation, information search and learn about destination, similarly to Lalicic and Weismayer [31] but using a 3-point Likert scale.
4. Use of smartphones for tourist purposes: Feelings and emotions and functionalities
The age of the group of respondents (n = 191) ranges from 16 to 38, which fits the age range of Gen Y according to Strauss and Howe [86]. In terms of sex, 37% are male and 63% are female. All of them live in Spain, except for two respondents, from the USA and China, respectively. Regarding their education level, most of them are in high school (55.5%), a quarter are undergraduates (26.18%), and an important share are at middle school (10.99%). The rest are distributed between primary education (0.52%), middle vocational education (2.09%), higher vocational education (4.19%) and postgraduate education (0.52%). This group of respondents were considered valid because they confirmed they owned a smartphone and had used it in their latest tourist trip.
4.1 Feelings and emotions associated with smartphone use during travel
Figure 1 presents the results regarding the feelings and emotions experienced by respondents when using their smartphone during travel.
As shown in Figure 1, surveyed Gen Y members (m) experience with greater frequency negative emotions and feelings (84 m). Only 26 people in the sample claimed that smartphone use during travel almost always caused positive emotions and feelings. Also striking is the high number of participants who stated they almost never experience neither positive nor negative emotions (90 m and 93 m, respectively). Likewise, regarding the intermediate position (score 2), the bulk is placed in positive feelings and emotions (75 m).
Figure 1.
Feelings and emotions associated with smartphone use during travel (total).
Given the age amplitude of Gen Y, it is relevant to delve into the results on the feelings and emotions associated with smartphone use during travel, by focusing on the following three age segments: 16–19, 20–29 and 30–38 (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Feelings and emotions associated with smartphone use during travel (age groups).
Negative emotions and feelings predominate in the 16–19 age group, since 93.83% of respondents in it selected the highest score for this type of feelings and emotions. Positive feelings and emotions are concentrated in the 20–29 age group. The intermediate score, “sometimes” (2), has been selected mostly for positive feelings by the youngest and oldest segments (66.67% and 50%, respectively) of the sample. Meanwhile, the lowest score, “almost never” (1), predominates in the two oldest age segments (20–29 and 30–38), for both positive and negative feelings, but to a greater extent for the latter. 83.65% of respondents aged 20 to 29 claim they almost ever feel negative emotions derived from smartphone use. This percentage increases to 100% for the 30–38 age group.
4.2 Tourism-related functionalities of smartphones
Having identified the feelings and emotions associated with smartphone use during travel, the next step was to describe the frequency or intensity with which this use is oriented to tourism-related activities: navigation, information search and learn about destination. The overall results are presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Use of tourism-related smartphone functionalities.
Most respondents claim to use the three aforementioned functionalities with the highest frequency (Figure 3). In all cases, the highest score (3) leads the ranking. However, in the case of “learn about destination,” the number of respondents who ranked it with 1 (75 m) is very close to that of those who ranked it 3 (82 m). This is the least commonly used functionality, followed by information search and navigation, which is the most-commonly used one. A more detailed analysis of these results according to the three age groups is presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Use of tourism-related smartphone functionalities by age group.
The lowest score and, consequently, the least commonly used of all three functionalities predominates in the youngest age segment (16–19 years old). None of the respondents in 30–38 age group claimed to have never used any of the three functionalities. At the next frequency level (“sometimes”), the number of respondents aged 16 to 19 increases considerably, although this category is led by respondents in the 30–38 age group, compared to the three functionalities analyzed. Finally, respondents in the intermediate age group, 20 to 29, use these functionalities more than the younger segments.
Figure 5 show the results on the emotions and feelings associated with each of the three tourism functionalities of smartphones.
First, Figure 5 shows the frequency of use of the navigation function and the feelings respondents associate to it. Negative feelings stand out among those who use it the least (Navigation 1), since 76.47% of them selected the highest score (almost always) for this type of feelings. Accordingly, 52.94% of them selected the lowest score (almost never) for positive feelings. This is also the highest percentage among positive feelings. Those who use this functionality “sometimes” (score 2) also claim to experience negative feelings: 76.69% experience this type of feelings almost always. Importantly, in the negative category, the “almost never” option (1) predominates over “sometimes” (2). Finally, those who use this functionality the most lead the ranking of positive feelings and emotions (17.27%), although a similar percentage (18.18%) exhibits the opposite trend. It is important to note that most respondents claim they do not associate either positive or negative feelings (55.45% and 72.73%, respectively) with the use of the navigation functionality of the smartphone during travel.
Figure 5.
Tourism-related smartphone functionalities: Feelings and emotions associated with navigation.
Results regarding the use of the “information search” functionality, which refers to finding information about services, transport, for instance, are shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Tourism-related smartphone functionalities: Feelings and emotions associated with Information Search.
As in the case of the navigation functionality, negative feelings standout among those who use the Information search functionality the least (1), with 51,85%. Accordingly, and in line with the reported trend, 51,85% of respondents who claimed to almost never use this functionality gave positive feelings the lowest score 1 (almost never). In this section, this is the highest percentage regarding the usage levels of this functionality. Within the group of respondents who claim to use this functionality “sometimes” (Information 2), once again there is a predominance of negative feelings (72.41%), while in the field of positives feelings the predominant scores are 2 (50%) y 1 (39.66%). Finally, confirming a great similarity to the navigation functionality, the majority of those respondents who use the information search functionality the most (3) claim they do not associate positive nor negative feelings (50% and 64.15%, respectively) with the use of this function during travel (Figure 6).
The status of the “learn about destination” (Learn dest.) functionality shows similarities to the previous ones, although in this case the most prominent categories are those related to not having experienced feelings or emotions. Within the group of respondents who claim to use this functionality the least, negative feelings (72%) predominate again. At the second level of use (Learn dest. 2) negative feelings are placed at almost the same level in positions 3 (“almost always”, 50%) and 2 (“sometimes”, 55.88%). Finally, the few respondents who claim to always using this functionality are characterized by an emotional state of indifference, which is greater, if possible, than negative feelings and emotions (75, 61%).
5. Discussion and conclusions
Generally speaking, it can be argued that younger generations, and in particular the Gen Y, arouse great interest in the business sectors, including tourism, due to their short, medium and long-term potential [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Likewise, ICTs and, especially smartphones, are also considered key elements for the development of this sector and necessary for the evolution of destinations into smart tourism destinations [43, 44, 45, 46]. Under the web 2.0 model, within the variety of ICTs, smartphones stand out for the numerous advantages and potential to create or improve the tourist experience [36, 42, 51, 52], contributing to the transformation of the consumer tourist into the “adprosumer” tourist [1, 2, 3, 4]. The high credibility of the comments and options of adprosumers makes them a key element for the dissemination and marketing activities that DMOs must procure and guarantee [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59]. To this end, it is essential that smartphone tools are correctly integrated into the digital marketing and communication strategies of DMOs, for which it is essential to obtain detailed information about stakeholders’ expectations and ICTs usage habits.
This has been precisely the main objective of this study, focused on smartphone use by the Gen Y during travel and on the emotions and feelings associated with these uses, motivated by the effects of nomophobia on the young population. This is crucial information due to the impact of smartphone use on the perception of the tourist experience and, therefore, on the positive or negative nature of the eWOM Gen Y can generate motivated by factors unrelated to the tourist experience itself.
The main conclusion behind the results presented here is customization and individualization. As mentioned, Gen Y exhibits essential differences that need to be considered in strategic approaches.
Gen Y respondents have confirmed they experience, to a greater extent, negative feelings and emotions, which is one of the characteristic features of nomophobia [68, 70, 71, 74]. This situation occurs mainly among the youngest age segment (16–19), while the older age groups claim to experience greater indifference. It can be concluded that as their years of coexistence with the web 2.0 model decrease, their emotional involvement with the use of smartphones during travel also decreases. Having concluded that Gen Y experience negative emotions that can influence their perception of the tourist experience, the following step was to analyze the extent to which they use the tourism-related functionalities of these devices.
Regarding the tourist functionalities under analysis [84], most users claimed to use them frequently, being “Learn about destination” the least used. There are also intragroup differences in this regard, because the youngest age group (16–19) uses these functions the least, suggesting an area of opportunity for DMOs, which can enhance the use of these functionalities to influence the feelings and emotions Gen Y associate with smartphone use during travel. In fact, the results allude to a behavior among the youngest segment of the Gen Y that suggests that their smartphone use for non-tourism purposes during travel sometimes generates negative emotions and feelings. This behavior is confirmed by the analysis of the results about the emotions and feelings respondents associate with each of the three tourism-related functionalities. In all cases where respondents claim they almost never use any of the functionalities, negative feelings stand out. However, those who do use these functionalities claim they do not associate neither positive nor negative feelings with smartphone use during travel. This trend grows almost in parallel to participants’ age and is amplified in the case of the “learn about destination” functionality.
It is therefore concluded that smartphone use during travel affects the youngest tourists and is not a key element for the rest age groups. There is a clear need to enhance the tourism use of the smartphones among the youngest group (16–19), to promote the creation of positive feelings and emotions. The intermediate age group (20–29) uses the tourist functionalities frequently and is characterized by a more neutral emotional behavior. Finally, the oldest age segment (30–38) requires strategies that combine the virtual and real worlds because, for them, smartphones by themselves do not generate any kind of feeling, which is the main trigger of eWOM.
The conclusions indicate the future limitations and lines of this study on Gen Y′ smartphone uses during travel and their emotional effects. First, it is necessary to delve into the relationship between feelings and emotions, the perception of the tourist experience and the generation of eWOM. It is also relevant to compare the effects derived from the tourist activities performed virtually (via smartphones) and physically (consultation of printed guides, visits to tourist offices, interaction with destinations’ residents, etc.). In any case, the main conclusion, as mentioned above, lies in the complexity that characterizes stakeholders, which discourages the indiscriminate use of categorizations and taxonomies to approach digital marketing and communication strategies in the tourism sector. Generational classifications are undoubtedly of great interest and usefulness as a starting point, but they require further and deeper analyses of people’s desires and expectations according to their generation. In particular, the rapid and constant change that characterizes ICTs is shortening the periods of study necessary to extract valid general guidelines and premises. In this sense, a generation spanning 22 years, from 1982 to 2004, turns out to be too broad for a general description of smartphone use during travel and its associated emotions and feelings.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. Asunción Huertas Roig, Dr. Estela Mariné Roig, and the Enfoca Group (www.grupoenfoca.com) for their invaluable contribution to the validation and implementation of the survey, as well as to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable observations. This paper has been funded by the I3CE Research Network Program for University Teaching of the Education Sciences Institute of the University of Alicante (Ref.: 4667. PROTOCOL Inter-University Network of Collaborative Work in Protocol, Event Management, and Institutional Relations, 2019–2020) and the research groups Experiential Marketing, Events and Integrated Communication (MAE-CO) and Aging & Communication (AgeCOM), also of the University of Alicante.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.
\n',keywords:"generation Y, smartphone, nomophobia, tourism, tourist experience",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73647.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73647.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73647",totalDownloads:539,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 2nd 2020",dateReviewed:"September 29th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 17th 2020",datePublished:"October 6th 2021",dateFinished:"October 17th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Smartphones have revolutionized the tourism industry due to their ability to create and improve the tourist experience, mostly among young users, especially those belonging to the Generation Y (Gen Y). Millennials, as the Generation Y is often referred to, stand out for their ability to travel more frequently and for longer periods, as well as for their often-addictive use of smartphones. Despite nomophobia is not a recent phenomenon, there are few research works on information and communication technologies and tourism that address the effects of smartphone use on the tourist experience. The objective of this exploratory study is to describe the feelings Gen Y experiences as a result of use smartphones during their travels, their tourism functionality, and the relationship between the two. The study is based on the application of an online survey to a representative sample. The results confirm the problems associated with smartphone use, especially among young people (16–19) and the existence of a correlation between smartphone use for tourist purposes and a positive travel experience. It has confirmed that they experience negative feelings and emotions. The study presents crucial information that destination marketing organizations can use to successfully integrate smartphones into their digital marketing and communication strategies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73647",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73647",signatures:"Alba-María Martínez-Sala, Concepción Campillo-Alhama and Irene Ramos-Soler",book:{id:"8970",type:"book",title:"Tourism",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tourism",slug:"tourism",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8970.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-173-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-172-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-174-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316359",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba-María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Sala",fullName:"Alba-María Martínez-Sala",slug:"alba-maria-martinez-sala",email:"albamaria.martinez@ua.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"329491",title:"Dr.",name:"Concepción",middleName:null,surname:"Campillo-Alhama",fullName:"Concepción Campillo-Alhama",slug:"concepcion-campillo-alhama",email:"concepcion.campillo@ua.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"329492",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Soler",fullName:"Irene Ramos-Soler",slug:"irene-ramos-soler",email:"irene.ramos@ua.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Smartphones at the service of the tourist experience",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Research methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Sample",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Measurements constructs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Use of smartphones for tourist purposes: Feelings and emotions and functionalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Feelings and emotions associated with smartphone use during travel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Tourism-related functionalities of smartphones",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Discussion and conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Simonato FR, Mori MA. Los millenials y las redes sociales. 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Metodología de la investigación en Ciencias Sociales. Montevideo: Udelar, CSE; 2011'},{id:"B84",body:'Tussyadiah IP, Zach FJ. The role of geo-based technology in place experiences. Ann Tour Res 2012;39:780-800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.10.003'},{id:"B85",body:'Watson D, Clark LA, Tellegen A. Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;54:1063-70. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063'},{id:"B86",body:'Strauss W, Howe N. Generations: The history of America’s future, 1584 to 2069. New York: William Morrow; 1992'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alba-María Martínez-Sala",address:"albamaria.martinez@ua.es",affiliation:'
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1649",title:"Electrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c0630d15c7e3fc8f85f239750051ef7f",slug:"electrostatics",bookSignature:"Huseyin Canbolat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1649.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5887",title:"Dr.",name:"Hüseyin",middleName:null,surname:"Canbolat",slug:"huseyin-canbolat",fullName:"Hüseyin Canbolat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56634",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70122",title:"Biomaterials and Stem Cells: Promising Tools in Tissue Engineering and Biomedical Applications",slug:"biomaterials-and-stem-cells-promising-tools-in-tissue-engineering-and-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:1608,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Biomaterial sciences and tissue engineering approaches are currently fundamental strategies for the development of regenerative medicine. Stem cells (SCs) are a unique cell type capable of self‐renewal and reconstructing damaged tissues. At the present time, adult SCs isolated from postnatal tissues are widely used in clinical applications. Their characteristics such as a multipotent differentiation capacity and immunomodulatory activity make them a promising tool to use in patients. Modern material technologies allow for the development of innovative biomaterials that closely correspond to requirements of the current biomedical application. Biomaterials, such as ceramics and metals, are already used as implants to replace or improve the functionality of the damaged tissue or organ. However, the continuous development of modern technology opens new insights of polymeric and smart material applications. Moreover, biomaterials may enhance the SCs biological activity and their implementation by establishing a specific microenvironment mimicking natural cell niche. Thus, the synergistic advancement in the fields of biomaterial and medical sciences constitutes a challenge for the development of effective therapies in humans including combined applications of novel biomaterials and SCs populations.",book:{id:"5951",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine"},signatures:"Małgorzata Sekuła and Ewa K. Zuba‐Surma",authors:[{id:"202773",title:"Prof.",name:"Ewa",middleName:null,surname:"Zuba-Surma",slug:"ewa-zuba-surma",fullName:"Ewa Zuba-Surma"},{id:"202775",title:"Dr.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Sekula",slug:"malgorzata-sekula",fullName:"Malgorzata Sekula"}]},{id:"56100",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69718",title:"Properties of Co-Cr Dental Alloys Fabricated Using Additive Technologies",slug:"properties-of-co-cr-dental-alloys-fabricated-using-additive-technologies",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The aim of the present paper is to make a review of the properties of dental alloys, fabricated using Additive Technologies (AT). The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr alloys as well as the accuracy and surface roughness of dental constructions are discussed. In dentistry two different approaches can be applied for production of metal frameworks using AT. According to the first one the wax/polymeric cast patterns are fabricated by 3D printing, than the constructions are cast from dental alloy with as-printed patterns. Through the second one the metal framework is manufactured form powder alloy directly from 3D virtual model by Selective Electron Beam Melting (SEBM) or Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr dental alloys, cast using 3D printed patterns, are typical for cast alloys. Their dimensional and adjustment accuracy is higher comparing to constructions, produced by traditional lost-wax casting or by SLM. The surface roughness is higher than that of the samples, cast by conventional technology, but lower comparing to the SLM objects. The microstructure of SLM Co-Cr dental alloys is fine grained and more homogeneous comparing that of the cast alloys, which defines higher hardness and mechanical properties, higher wear and corrosion resistance.",book:{id:"5951",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine"},signatures:"Tsanka Dikova",authors:[{id:"205539",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsanka",middleName:null,surname:"Dikova",slug:"tsanka-dikova",fullName:"Tsanka Dikova"}]},{id:"64476",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82195",title:"Fermentation: Metabolism, Kinetic Models, and Bioprocessing",slug:"fermentation-metabolism-kinetic-models-and-bioprocessing",totalDownloads:2563,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biochemical and metabolic interpretation of microbial growth is an important topic in bioreactor design. We intend to address valuable information about the relation of critical operation variables and the simulation of bioprocesses with unstructured and structured kinetic models. Process parameters such as nutrient supply, pH, dissolved oxygen, and metabolic end-products directly impact the physiology and metabolism of microorganisms. Changes in the membrane as well as cell viability are of interest since protein expression and maturation in prokaryota are directly related to membrane integrity. This chapter intends to deliver an insight of different alternatives in kinetic modeling.",book:{id:"7594",slug:"current-topics-in-biochemical-engineering",title:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering"},signatures:"Carlos González-Figueredo, René Alejandro Flores-Estrella and Oscar A. Rojas-Rejón",authors:[{id:"262807",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas-Rejon",slug:"oscar-a.-rojas-rejon",fullName:"Oscar A. Rojas-Rejon"},{id:"262810",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"González-Figueredo",slug:"carlos-gonzalez-figueredo",fullName:"Carlos González-Figueredo"},{id:"263482",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Estrella",slug:"rene-alejandro-flores-estrella",fullName:"Rene Alejandro Flores Estrella"}]},{id:"31995",doi:"10.5772/35937",title:"Air-Solids Flow Measurement Using Electrostatic Techniques",slug:"air-solids-flow-measurement-using-electrostatic-techniques",totalDownloads:5029,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"1649",slug:"electrostatics",title:"Electrostatics",fullTitle:"Electrostatics"},signatures:"Jianyong Zhang",authors:[{id:"106435",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianyong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"jianyong-zhang",fullName:"Jianyong Zhang"}]},{id:"64014",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81442",title:"Catalyst Development of Microbial Fuel Cells for Renewable-Energy Production",slug:"catalyst-development-of-microbial-fuel-cells-for-renewable-energy-production",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"In this chapter, we focus on microbial fuel cells (MFCs) that convert the energy from organic matters into electrical energy using microorganisms. MFCs are greatly expected to be used as a relatively low-cost and safe device for generating renewable energy using waste biomass as a raw material. At present, however, it has not reached the desired practical application because of the low-power generation; hence, improvements on fuel cell efficiency, such as electrode materials, are still being examined. Here, we focus on the microorganisms that can be used as catalysts and play a central role in improving the efficiency of the fuel cells. Several kinds of microbial catalysts are used in MFCs. For example, Shewanella oneidensis has been well studied, and as known, since S. oneidensis transports the electrons generated within the cell to the surface layer, it does not require a mediator to pass the electrons from the cells to the electrode. Furthermore, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a model organism for MFCs, are also used. The improvements of such microbial catalysts have also been proceeding actively. Here, we elaborated on the principle of MFCs as well as the current situation and latest research on the catalyst development.",book:{id:"7594",slug:"current-topics-in-biochemical-engineering",title:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering"},signatures:"Masayuki Azuma and Yoshihiro Ojima",authors:[{id:"265735",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Azuma",slug:"masayuki-azuma",fullName:"Masayuki Azuma"},{id:"265738",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Ojima",slug:"yoshihiro-ojima",fullName:"Yoshihiro Ojima"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56614",title:"Systematic Study of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) in the Manufacturing of Protector Devices for the Orofacial System",slug:"systematic-study-of-ethylene-vinyl-acetate-eva-in-the-manufacturing-of-protector-devices-for-the-oro",totalDownloads:1735,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Fracture of facial bones and dental elements, and laceration of soft tissue, have increased in sports over recent years. Dentist is the only professional responsible for the mouth protection design, the knowledge about suitable materials is essential. EVA is a thermoplastic material, available in the market, easy of handling and processing, and low-cost. However, it is important to understand the mechanical properties and ability to absorb and to dissipate the impact energy, when this material is submitted to different environments, such as oral cavity with saliva and different temperatures. This chapter show provides a systematic evaluation of the EVA application in orofacial protectors while focusing on sports. The research comprises two aspects: experimental tests and numerical analyses. During experimental tests, EVA was analyzed in special buccal conditions, concerning temperature and presence of saliva. Regarding the presence of saliva, more specific studies about its influence on the mechanical behavior of EVA were performed. In the numerical analyses of the EVA orofacial protector, the studies focused on its effect on the nasal bone integrity, and in the zygomatic bone protection. However, life cycle should be analyzed, since its performance deteriorates over time. Mainly due to the saliva-originated changes to the EVA mechanical characteristics, it can behave as a rigid material. For facial protection, a better performance is obtained with a combination of rigid and soft EVA material. According to the experimental and numerical results from a systematic study of EVA, its application to orofacial protection can be considered satisfactory.",book:{id:"5951",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine"},signatures:"Reinaldo Brito e Dias, Neide Pena Coto, Gilmar Ferreira Batalha and\nLarissa Driemeier",authors:[{id:"204968",title:"Dr.",name:"Neide",middleName:null,surname:"Pena Coto",slug:"neide-pena-coto",fullName:"Neide Pena Coto"}]},{id:"64476",title:"Fermentation: Metabolism, Kinetic Models, and Bioprocessing",slug:"fermentation-metabolism-kinetic-models-and-bioprocessing",totalDownloads:2562,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biochemical and metabolic interpretation of microbial growth is an important topic in bioreactor design. We intend to address valuable information about the relation of critical operation variables and the simulation of bioprocesses with unstructured and structured kinetic models. Process parameters such as nutrient supply, pH, dissolved oxygen, and metabolic end-products directly impact the physiology and metabolism of microorganisms. Changes in the membrane as well as cell viability are of interest since protein expression and maturation in prokaryota are directly related to membrane integrity. This chapter intends to deliver an insight of different alternatives in kinetic modeling.",book:{id:"7594",slug:"current-topics-in-biochemical-engineering",title:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering"},signatures:"Carlos González-Figueredo, René Alejandro Flores-Estrella and Oscar A. Rojas-Rejón",authors:[{id:"262807",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar A.",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas-Rejon",slug:"oscar-a.-rojas-rejon",fullName:"Oscar A. Rojas-Rejon"},{id:"262810",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"González-Figueredo",slug:"carlos-gonzalez-figueredo",fullName:"Carlos González-Figueredo"},{id:"263482",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Estrella",slug:"rene-alejandro-flores-estrella",fullName:"Rene Alejandro Flores Estrella"}]},{id:"56501",title:"Identification of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles Biomedical Purpose by Magnetometric Methods",slug:"identification-of-fe3o4-nanoparticles-biomedical-purpose-by-magnetometric-methods",totalDownloads:1475,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The application of magnetic nanoparticles for biomedical research is an interdisciplinary problem. The use of nano‐ and microsized powder materials as developed technology for obtaining bionanomaterials with magnetocatalytic properties has been investigated. Control over immobilization can be carried by means of magnetic properties. Synthesis of superparamagnetic nanoparticles is developed not only for the benefit of fundamental science, but also for many technologies, such as technologies of magnetic storage media, magnetic ink for printers, but mainly for biosensors and medical applications. All the biomedical applications require that the nanoparticles have high enough levels of saturation of magnetization; their size should be less than 100 nm with a small deviation in size. Appropriate coating of the surface of magnetic nanoparticles should be nontoxic, biocompatible with the target of bioorganic compound. The techniques of measurement of magnetic nanoparticle properties by means of vibrational magnetometers, as well as by means of a set of smart sensor devices in accordance with new concept of Internet of Things (IoTh), were described. The first method is based on vibrating sample magnetometer technique. The second method is based on direct measurement of three dimensions (3D) of nanoparticles’ magnetic field components.",book:{id:"5951",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine"},signatures:"Zoia Duriagina, Roman Holyaka, Tetiana Tepla, Volodymyr Kulyk,\nPeter Arras and Elena Eyngorn",authors:[{id:"205149",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoia",middleName:null,surname:"Duriagina",slug:"zoia-duriagina",fullName:"Zoia Duriagina"},{id:"205209",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Holyaka",slug:"roman-holyaka",fullName:"Roman Holyaka"},{id:"205211",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetiana",middleName:null,surname:"Tepla",slug:"tetiana-tepla",fullName:"Tetiana Tepla"},{id:"205213",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",middleName:null,surname:"Kulyk",slug:"volodymyr-kulyk",fullName:"Volodymyr Kulyk"},{id:"206438",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Arras",slug:"peter-arras",fullName:"Peter Arras"},{id:"206439",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Eyngorn",slug:"elena-eyngorn",fullName:"Elena Eyngorn"}]},{id:"56100",title:"Properties of Co-Cr Dental Alloys Fabricated Using Additive Technologies",slug:"properties-of-co-cr-dental-alloys-fabricated-using-additive-technologies",totalDownloads:1629,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The aim of the present paper is to make a review of the properties of dental alloys, fabricated using Additive Technologies (AT). The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr alloys as well as the accuracy and surface roughness of dental constructions are discussed. In dentistry two different approaches can be applied for production of metal frameworks using AT. According to the first one the wax/polymeric cast patterns are fabricated by 3D printing, than the constructions are cast from dental alloy with as-printed patterns. Through the second one the metal framework is manufactured form powder alloy directly from 3D virtual model by Selective Electron Beam Melting (SEBM) or Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr dental alloys, cast using 3D printed patterns, are typical for cast alloys. Their dimensional and adjustment accuracy is higher comparing to constructions, produced by traditional lost-wax casting or by SLM. The surface roughness is higher than that of the samples, cast by conventional technology, but lower comparing to the SLM objects. The microstructure of SLM Co-Cr dental alloys is fine grained and more homogeneous comparing that of the cast alloys, which defines higher hardness and mechanical properties, higher wear and corrosion resistance.",book:{id:"5951",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine"},signatures:"Tsanka Dikova",authors:[{id:"205539",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsanka",middleName:null,surname:"Dikova",slug:"tsanka-dikova",fullName:"Tsanka Dikova"}]},{id:"31993",title:"Electrostatic Interactions in Dense DNA Phases and Protein-DNA Complexes",slug:"electrostatic-interactions-in-dense-dna-phases-and-protein-dna-complexes",totalDownloads:2395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1649",slug:"electrostatics",title:"Electrostatics",fullTitle:"Electrostatics"},signatures:"Andrey G. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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