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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4694",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Thermoplastic Elastomers - Synthesis and Applications",title:"Thermoplastic Elastomers",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), commonly known as thermoplastic rubbers, are a category of copolymers having thermoplastic and elastomeric characteristics. A TPE is a rubbery material with properties very close to those of conventional vulcanized rubber at normal conditions. It can be processed in a molten state even at elevated temperatures. TPEs show advantages typical of both rubbery materials and plastic materials. TPEs are a class of polymers bridging between the service properties of elastomers and the processing properties of thermoplastics. Nowadays, the best use of thermoplastics is in the field of biomedical applications, starting from artificial skin to many of the artificial human body parts. Apart from these, thermoplastic elastomers are being used for drug encapsulation purposes, and since they are biocompatible in many cases, their scope of applications has been broadened in the biotechnological field as well. The present book highlights many biological and biomedical applications of TPEs from which the broader area readers will benefit.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2223-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6643-6",doi:"10.5772/59647",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"thermoplastic-elastomers-synthesis-and-applications",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c3ec02a814af3a9d5b35090169290549",bookSignature:"Chapal Kumar Das",publishedDate:"November 26th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4694.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16864,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:43,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 13th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 4th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 2nd 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 1st 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"175797",title:"Dr.",name:"Chapal",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Das",slug:"chapal-kumar-das",fullName:"Chapal Kumar Das",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175797/images/4412_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Chapal Kumar Das is a professor at the Materials Science Centre, IIT Kharagpur, India. He has received his Ph.D. from the same institute. He has both industrial and academic experience. His research interest lies in the fields of polymer blends and alloys, high-performance composites based on LCP, self-reinforcing elastomers, nano-polymer composites, devulcanization of scrap tires, direct fluorination of plastics, flexible engineering composites for defense applications, short Kevlar fiber composites based on thermoplastics, carbon nanotube–polymer composites, modification of nanofillers, welding of thermoplastic nanocomposites, and elastomeric thin films. His present research interest is in the development of supercapacitors, high-power microwave-absorbing materials, and fuel and solar cells. He has contributed 15 scientific chapters in books and encyclopedias. He has completed 17 high-value projects. He has supervised 32 Ph.D. students and 36 M.Tech./M.S. students. He has published about 370 papers in international journals and about 40 papers in national journals. He has travelled widely throughout various countries for different collaborative projects and international conferences. He served as the Head of the Materials Science Centre, IIT Kharagpur. He is the recipient of the Lady Davis fellowship, Israel. He is a fellow of IRI and a life member of MRSI and the Polymer Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"915",title:"Polymers",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry-polymers"}],chapters:[{id:"48808",title:"Synthesis and Properties of Polyurethanes Based on Synthetic Polyhydroxybutyrate for Medical Application",doi:"10.5772/60933",slug:"synthesis-and-properties-of-polyurethanes-based-on-synthetic-polyhydroxybutyrate-for-medical-applica",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polyurethanes is a group of polymers whose unique properties make them useful in both the construction and the textile industry, and even in tissue engineering. One small, but very significant, urethane group connects specially selected macrochains to obtain a material with established properties.",signatures:"Joanna Brzeska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48808",authors:[{id:"175187",title:"Dr.",name:"Brzeska",surname:"Joanna",slug:"brzeska-joanna",fullName:"Brzeska Joanna"}],corrections:null},{id:"48873",title:"Synthesis and Properties of Multiblock Terpoly(Ester-Aliphatic- Amide) and Terpoly(Ester-Ether-Amide) Thermoplastic Elastomers with Various Chemical Compositions of Ester Block",doi:"10.5772/61215",slug:"synthesis-and-properties-of-multiblock-terpoly-ester-aliphatic-amide-and-terpoly-ester-ether-amide-t",totalDownloads:1788,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two series of thermoplastic elastomers with various chemical compositions of ester block were prepared via the reaction of α,ω-dicarboxylic oligo(laurolactam) (PA12, Mw≈2000 g/mol) with oligo(oxytetramethylene)diol (PTMO, Mw≈1000 g/mol) or linoleic alcohol dimer (DLAol) and with dimethyl terephthalate and a low molecular weight glycol (forming during the synthesis of the ester block). The degree of polycondensation (DPGT) of poly(multi-methylene terephtalate) equals to DPGT=2. The influence of the number of carbons separating the terephtalate groups, as well as the effect of meta- or para- positions of the ester groups in the benzene ring of other blocks, on the synthesis, properties and structure of these elastomers have been evaluated. A nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to carbon (13C NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) were used to confirm their assumed chemical structure. The influence of chemical compositions of ester block on the functional properties and on the values of phase transition temperatures of the products have been determined. The thermal properties and the phase separation of obtained systems were defined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), wide-angle x-ray diffraction (WAXS) and other standard physical methods. The mechanical and elastic properties of obtained polymers were evaluated.",signatures:"Joanna Rokicka and Ryszard Ukielski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48873",authors:[{id:"175227",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Rokicka",slug:"joanna-rokicka",fullName:"Joanna Rokicka"},{id:"175248",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryszard",surname:"Ukielski",slug:"ryszard-ukielski",fullName:"Ryszard Ukielski"}],corrections:null},{id:"49213",title:"Plasticization and Morphology Development in Dynamically Vulcanized Thermoplastic Elastomers",doi:"10.5772/61414",slug:"plasticization-and-morphology-development-in-dynamically-vulcanized-thermoplastic-elastomers",totalDownloads:1901,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dynamically vulcanized thermoplastic elastomers constitute one of the main categories among various types of thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs). Due to the commercial importance of this particular group of TPEs, tremendous efforts have been dedicated to improve the understanding and control the phase morphology development. The ultimate goal is to obtain materials with improved physical and mechanical properties. As in other polymeric compounds, the parameters during the mixing stage have a significant influence on the final morphology of dynamically vulcanized blends. Furthermore, the phase morphology and, therefore, the distribution of elastomeric domains in the thermoplastic phase are also strongly dependent on the formulation. This chapter discusses the main important processing factors and, more specifically, highlights the effects of plasticization and curing on the morphology development of dynamically vulcanized thermoplastic elastomer blends. The following text provides fundamental information on how one should take into consideration each parameter affecting the morphology of nonreactive and reactive elastomer/thermoplastic blends.",signatures:"Shant Shahbikian and Pierre J. Carreau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49213",authors:[{id:"175099",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Carreau",slug:"pierre-carreau",fullName:"Pierre Carreau"},{id:"363802",title:"Dr.",name:"Shant",surname:"Shahbikian",slug:"shant-shahbikian",fullName:"Shant Shahbikian"}],corrections:null},{id:"48870",title:"Environmental Degradability of Polyurethanes",doi:"10.5772/60925",slug:"environmental-degradability-of-polyurethanes",totalDownloads:2755,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The growing interest in environmental issues and increasing demands to develop materials that do not burden the natural environment significantly are currently observed. In this connection many studies on polymer degradation in different environments are carried out. It is important to consider the influence of synergistic action of various factors in order to understand the environmental degradation of synthetic polymers. This requires understanding of interactions between polymer and living organisms.",signatures:"Katarzyna Krasowska, Aleksandra Heimowska and Maria\nRutkowska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48870",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48870",authors:[{id:"175012",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Rutkowska",slug:"maria-rutkowska",fullName:"Maria Rutkowska"},{id:"175013",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Krasowska",slug:"katarzyna-krasowska",fullName:"Katarzyna Krasowska"},{id:"175186",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimowska",surname:"Aleksandra",slug:"heimowska-aleksandra",fullName:"Heimowska Aleksandra"}],corrections:null},{id:"49439",title:"Heat sensing Thermoplastic Elastomer Based on Polyolefins for Encapsulation Applications",doi:"10.5772/61691",slug:"heat-sensing-thermoplastic-elastomer-based-on-polyolefins-for-encapsulation-applications",totalDownloads:2098,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Use of Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPEs) has become a unique pathway to meet the daily requirements of various applications. The ease of using TPEs lies in the fact that they provide both the character of the individual properties as they are constructional polymers, which are physically crosslinked materials made up of a thermoplastic and an elastomer. There are several TPE’s in market and individual have several outstanding performances. Out of several researches, our aim in this article is to focus on the influence of Polyolefin based TPE’s. This paper focusses on the different aspects of TPO’s their physical, chemical, mechanical, and electrical characteristics, advantages and uses of these materials along with a particular focus on their use in encapsulation application. Factors that could affect the end use are also explained here in details. Heat shrinkability test, cure time, and SEM are some of the characterisations used to demonstrate the exact criteria of polyolefin based TPE’s for encapsulation application.",signatures:"Tanya Das and Sunanda Roy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49439",authors:[{id:"176213",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanya",surname:"Das",slug:"tanya-das",fullName:"Tanya Das"},{id:"363885",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunanda",surname:"Roy",slug:"sunanda-roy",fullName:"Sunanda Roy"}],corrections:null},{id:"48857",title:"Thermoplastic Elastomers with Photo-actuating Properties",doi:"10.5772/60945",slug:"thermoplastic-elastomers-with-photo-actuating-properties",totalDownloads:2142,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This contribution reviews elastomeric materials with photo-actuation behavior with emphasis on thermoplastic elastomers and their composites. The principles of the photo-actuation and the main factors affecting the photo-actuation phenomena of thermoplastic elastomer materials are discussed in detail. The well-performing photo-actuating systems involving both statistical and block copolymers-based thermoplastic elastomers are assessed in terms of their advantages and limitations. Methods for evaluation of photo-actuation behavior of the materials are reported as well. Finally, the utilization of the photo-actuating thermoplastic elastomers is presented.",signatures:"Markéta Ilčíková, Miroslav Mrlík and Jaroslav Mosnáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48857",authors:[{id:"175440",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaroslav",surname:"Mosnacek",slug:"jaroslav-mosnacek",fullName:"Jaroslav Mosnacek"},{id:"175764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marketa",surname:"Ilcikova",slug:"marketa-ilcikova",fullName:"Marketa Ilcikova"},{id:"175765",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Mrlik",slug:"miroslav-mrlik",fullName:"Miroslav Mrlik"}],corrections:null},{id:"48660",title:"Thermoplastic Resins used in Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/60931",slug:"thermoplastic-resins-used-in-dentistry",totalDownloads:4536,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thermoplastic materials such as polyamides (nylon), acetal resins, epoxy resins, polystyrene, polycarbonate resins, polyurethane and acrylic thermoplastic resins were introduced in dentistry as an alternative to classic resins, which have major disadvantages such as the toxicity of the residual monomer, awkward wrapping system and difficult processing.",signatures:"Lavinia Ardelean, Cristina Maria Bortun, Angela Codruta Podariu\nand Laura Cristina Rusu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48660",authors:[{id:"91701",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina Maria",surname:"Bortun",slug:"cristina-maria-bortun",fullName:"Cristina Maria Bortun"},{id:"174262",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",surname:"Rusu",slug:"laura-rusu",fullName:"Laura Rusu"},{id:"174801",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela Codruta",surname:"Podariu",slug:"angela-codruta-podariu",fullName:"Angela Codruta Podariu"},{id:"180569",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",surname:"Ardelean",slug:"lavinia-ardelean",fullName:"Lavinia Ardelean"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3043",title:"New Polymers for Special Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd782fff3bea8992c224dfd3280d6cd1",slug:"new-polymers-for-special-applications",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1573",title:"Thermoplastic Elastomers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"68733430093bd948f36fd95ab2ff4746",slug:"thermoplastic-elastomers",bookSignature:"Adel Zaki El-Sonbati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1573.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98324",title:"Prof.",name:"Adel",surname:"El-Sonbati",slug:"adel-el-sonbati",fullName:"Adel El-Sonbati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"467",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Polymer Nanocomposites",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"carbon-nanotubes-polymer-nanocomposites",bookSignature:"Siva Yellampalli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/467.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62863",title:"Dr.",name:"Siva",surname:"Yellampalli",slug:"siva-yellampalli",fullName:"Siva Yellampalli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2003",title:"Polyurethane",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7391b5a0085d7c0aa0a5c75ee6f275b2",slug:"polyurethane",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2003.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2385",title:"Polymerization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e83b64f8e9875e507d879fede9f34d1a",slug:"polymerization",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2383",title:"Polyester",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79fd9d6314f8e1abd60d7e21896ce878",slug:"polyester",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. 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Secondary metabolites in plants are commonly used to describe metabolic pathways that produce molecules or metabolites that can provide for normal growth or are only needed under certain conditions. In contrast, primary metabolites traditionally describe key household maintenance functions, such as energy production or the production of essential metabolites and macromolecules. These differences may be somewhat misleading; however, as is now known, secondary metabolites compounds plays a very important role in the biology of various organisms. In fact, it is clear that evolution would not selectively maintain the complex pathways that make up secondary metabolites if there were no competing advantages for the developing organism.
This logic, coupled with the fact that the biological function of the majority of plant and microbial secondary metabolites is poorly understood, has led to an alternative description of plant metabolites as “natural products” [1], though that description also carries some limitations. Nature produces a tremendous array of secondary metabolites or natural products, with the most diversity seen in microorganisms and plants [2]. It is a great resource for mankind and many examples of microbial or plant metabolisms are exploited by man, for example, antibiotics and pharmaceuticals. However, we have only scratched the surface, especially since there are various natural metabolites that have applications in the field of biomedicine. It is the basis of many natural product discovery projects, for example, attempts to use metagenomics to study marine microbial diversity [3]. In contrast to these attempts to explore metabolic diversity in new key locations, plant metabolic diversity has been exploited by humans throughout history, initially using plant extracts and more recently through scientific activity to identify metabolites with specific functions and then use these products directly or as traces for therapeutic compounds [4].
Knowledge of how these molecules affect the exploitation of natural materials is often followed by an understanding of the role of metabolism in the producing organism. In plants, well-understood secondary metabolism is involved in pathogen protection or perception and signaling. In terms of pathogen protection, fungal diseases pose a major threat to plant health, with estimates below of 13,000 phytopathogenic fungal species in the United States alone. Therefore, it is not surprising that plants have developed comprehensive protection mechanisms against fungal pathogens, with chemical protection being one of the key weapons in the plant arsenal [5]. Although thousands of different molecular companies are believed to play a role in plant protection against bacterial and fungal pathogens, the mechanism of action of relatively few has been the subject of extensive research.
Plant defense molecules may be pre-formed in plant tissues (Figure 1) or synthesized in response to the pathogenic attack, resulting in variations leading to the terms phyto antiseptics and phytoalexins, respectively [6]. This difference does not provide any specific information about the chemical structure or mechanism of metabolism and in some cases, misleading defense molecules are pre-manufactured but concentrated in high concentrations at the site of infection are reasonably considered to be phyto antiseptics or phytoalexins. In practice, when studying the range of possible biological functions involved in metabolism, the chemical structure of natural products is more relevant than the exact time produced at the plant.
Natural product can be localized into plant tissue or secreted externally.
In terms of signal, the most comprehensible metabolites are flavonoids involved in symbiotic lentil-rhizobia interactions that lead to the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules in root tissues [7]. Collectively, plants produce more than 5000 different flavonoids, with only a small subgroup involved in specific interactions with Rhizobia. This interaction begins with the secretion of signal flavonoids at the root exudates, followed by the bacterial understanding of the signal and direct contact with the bacterial nodule transcriptional activator. This triggers a series of events that create convenient rhizobial infection of the plant root and nitrogen-fixing nodules.
The other major beneficial plant-microbe interaction that occurs in nature is the formation of mycorrhizal roots. Once again, there is a facilitated infection of plant roots, this time by arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi, which develop specialized structures called arbuscles within the root for nutrient exchange between the plant and fungus. Although a role for signaling has long been postulated, it is only in recent years that the first experimental evidence demonstrating a role for a plant chemical has been obtained, showing that a particular class of sesquiterpene, the strigolactones, can induce hyphal branching, an important step in the symbiosis [8].
As an added twist, several studies have shown that certain strigolactones actually play a role in regulating plant hormones and spruce branches in the plant, thus regulating processes above and below the ground [9].
Allelopathy is defined as the inhibition of the growth of one species by chemicals produced by another species, and although this is a matter of controversy in the scientific literature, this concept has been generally accepted in recent years [10]. This definition is significantly shorter than the original use of the word, which may involve both positive and negative interactions, but it is also a reflection of the importance of allelopathy between domestic and introduced plant species, especially when introduced species can invade and displace native plants. Engineering mills, especially those with grains, have a considerable interest in controlling weeds in their own surroundings using allelopathy in agriculture.
The basic premise of allelopathy is that plants secrete phytotoxic metabolites in their surroundings (primarily rhizosphere) and inhibit the growth of plants that are susceptible to these metabolites. This process can be reasonably classified as protective or signal and, in fact, molecules such as strigolactones may have dual roles. Allelopathy is believed to have an evolutionary dimension, so long-term coexisting plants have developed co-adaptation and tolerance mechanisms, whereas ecologically separated plants may not have these tolerance or resistance mechanisms. The various molecules present in the root glands are known to have phytotoxic properties at biologically related concentrations (Figure 1).
The majority are phenolics, including simple phenolics, flavonoids, and quinones; terbenes, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpene lactones, diterbenes and Benzoxazinoids or glucosinolates. An important feature when considering plant protection against microbial or insect pathogens, signaling and allopathy is that overall classes of molecules are also included in these cases. Our ability to determine whether, specific metabolites may first be lost in evolutionary history as signal molecules, as protection against pathogens, or as phytotoxic agents to enhance competitiveness. With regard to the exploitation of these natural products (lead) as herbicides, plant protection products, or drugs, it is now an important quest to understand their mechanism of action in targeted and non-targeted organisms.
Despite the vast number of biological reactions in biological structures and cells, a relatively small number are exploited by man. For example, 270 herbicides in commercial use target only 17 different processes and medicinal and agricultural fungicides target only six different processes [11]. As the synthesis of natural substances in plants runs into many thousands of different molecules, many new inhibitors of cellular functions can be identified. This belief drives most of the research on plant natural products and their mode of action. Although many plant metabolites have been described chemically and have played many roles in signaling, defense, and allelopathy, the exact action of some has been determined in no detail. In cases where attempts have been made to determine how chemicals cause their effects, the interpretation of the results is often complicated by several goals, including difficulty in separating primary and secondary effects and difficulties in determining whether data obtained from
Plant secondary metabolites can inhibit specific enzymes in plants or other organisms, such as fungi or animals. In some cases, it appears to be the only function of the metabolism, while in others, it forms part of a set of enzyme inhibitory effects. It should be noted, however, that the uniqueness of some of the findings and the biological relevance of
Sesquiterpenes are one of the largest families of plant natural products and have many common effects associated with this type of molecule. It is believed that some sesquiterpenes inhibit the activity of enzymes containing sulfhydryl-containing enzymes (e.g., phosphor-fructokinase) and that this may be due to the general apoptotic effects of plant sesquiterpenes on animal cells, but more detailed investigations are needed in this area. In contrast to those common effects, quinone sorgoleone (Figure 1) inhibits the enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) [11]. Plastoquinone and ultimately chloroplast synthesis require HPPD activity and are targeted to sulcotrione and other herbicides [13]. Other quinones, such as juglone made from the walnut tree, can also inhibit HPPD activity.
Another example is the steroidal alkaloid tomatidine, which in particular inhibits the C24 sterol methyltransferase reaction, which is essential for the synthesis of the essential fungal membrane sterol, ergosterol. This anti-fungal metabolism is synthesized in tomatoes in a glycosylated form called α-tomatine and is closed to the steroidal alkaloid tomatidine by fungal enzymes during plant infection (Figure 2). Studies with yeast
Structures of some plant secondary metabolites.
Interestingly, the importance of C24 sterol methyltransferase for ergosterol biosynthesis has already been recognized and commercial fungicides such as fenpropimorph target the same enzyme. The fact that the enzymes in question have already been identified, and used as pharmacological targets in both sorgoleone/HPPT and tomatidine/C24 sterol methyltransferase confirms the technique of identifying new enzyme targets of plant natural products as intervention drugs or chemicals. Some new natural ingredients or enzymes are under investigation in this regard. For example, 1,4-cineole (monoterpene) inhibits the synthesis of asparagine and quassinoids (diterpenes) are believed to inhibit membrane NADH oxidase [14].
Photosynthesis is centrally important for plant health; It is, therefore, a clear target for natural and synthetic inhibitory molecules. At least 59 different herbicides target Photo System II (PSII), primarily by interfering with electron transport [13]. PS-II quinone was found to be the main target of sorgoleone, the same metabolite that inhibits the enzyme HPPD (above). Sorgoleone is believed to compete with plastoquinone for binding to D1 proteins in PS-II [15] and is secreted in droplets from the root hairs, which accumulate in the soil around the plant roots at 10–100 μM.
The imbalance between the number of herbicides and natural metabolites that inhibit photosynthesis is surprising and suggests that there may be many more natural inhibitors of photosynthesis yet to be identified. Respiration is another important function of the cell based on electron transport chains and also is the target of inhibitory molecules. The clearest example is probably the cyanogenic glycosides that are produced by more than 200 different types of plants. These are synthesized by converting amino acid precursors to oximes, which are then glycosylated. The hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides in response to tissue damage produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN), a potent respiratory toxin [6]. Glucosinolates are molecules associated with the evolution that is synthesized only by a subgroup of organisms, mainly within the order capparalase, including the agriculturally important Brassicaceae family [16].
The hydrolysis of glucosinolates yields isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, and nitriles and although the fungal pattern of these metabolites has not been demonstrated, cyanide moiety is said to be the target of some of these metabolites. Other low molecular weight natural products are also believed to target respiration, but in many cases, it is difficult to establish definitively and studies with isolated mitochondria have sometimes produced conflicting results. Therefore, although some phenolic acids inhibit the absorption of iodine by the mitochondria, the concentrations of phenolics appear to be unreliable, while there are suggestions that phenolics may inhibit electron transport in the b/c1 cytochrome complex and those phenolics actually induce respiration in some cases [17].
The use of sesquiterpene lactone artemicin has been reported to have a variety of physiological effects on target cells, including disruption of mitochondrial function [18]. Artemisinin is a natural product synthesized by the Chinese plant
Artemisinin
Eukaryotic cells use Ca2+ as a second messenger and generally maintain very low cytoplasmic concentrations of Ca2+ by dividing Ca2+ into segments, such as the endoplasmic reticulum. One of the key enzymes in this process is the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA). Heterologues host,
As previously highlighted, secondary metabolites plays an important role protection of plants against fungal pathogens. This is an important area of interest in modern agriculture and medicine with the fungal cell membrane for clinical medicine and agro-fungal drugs. The fungal membrane has unique features, especially sterol ergosterol other than cholesterol or stigmasterol, which is present in animal and plant membranes, respectively. Other differences include the presence of specific lipids on the outer leaf of the membrane. Common antifungal compounds include amphotericin B, which binds to ergosterol, which leads to pore formation, azoles, and morpholine, which inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis. Evolution has failed to observe this effect on fungi and plants but develops different types of antifungal defense metabolites that target the membranes of phytopathogenic fungi. The well-understood of these are defensins and saponins.
Defensins are the most basic, cysteine-rich peptides, typically 40–45 amino acids in length, produced by plants, insects and other animals as antimicrobial defensins molecules [24]. Molecular phylogenetic analysis while the evolutionary roots of these molecules were probably in plants, there was a significant functional difference in the family of cationic antimicrobial peptides (cAMPs) defensins by evolution [25]. A variety of defensins has been reported to have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal activity. The prevailing opinion is that the positive charge of peptides mediates specific non-binding with phospholipids, which leads to pore formation and loss of membrane integrity. Although this is a common feature of cAMPs, in recent years it has emerged that specific interactions play a role in the functioning of some cAMPs. For example, human α-defensins have been shown to inactivate adenovirus by binding directly to the viral protein, and endogenous targets for cAMPS have been identified in some bacteria. It is already known that plant defensins and some insect defensins have a specific binding target and mode of action. This discovery initially came from work using
Many variants of Sphingolipids have some unique structures in different fungi in eukaryotic membranes. In a series of studies, some plant and insect defensins bind to different fungal sphingolipids or different nuclei in the same sphingolipids. Following binding, membrane infiltration occurs, but it is not yet known whether this is the result of the signal layer or the biophysical effect. However, it is clear that plant defensins do not particularly penetrate fungal membranes, creating pores and destroying membrane integrity. Interestingly, in
The antifungal activity of plant defensins is specific and involves receptors and signal transduction pathways.
Despite advances in the study of plant defensins, some serious questions and challenges remain to be resolved. First, most extensive work has been done with a limited number of specific defensins, and it remains to be determined whether this is the only procedure. Second, it is not known what signal transmission paths are activated in response to defensins. Third, it is not yet clear whether defensins are internalized after binding to or with sphingolipids. Working with human cAMPs is said to be at least absorbed by some bacteria and reported to be absorbed by the fungal cells of pea defensins [27].
Saponins are a structurally different class of secondary metabolites found in different plants. For example, a survey lists more than 200 plants that isolated saponins between 1998 and 2003. The basic structure of all saponins consists of the polar core and the polar glycosyl group or groups, which give the molecules ambiguous properties. Typically, saponins are classified as triterpenoid or steroidal, with a subset of steroidal alkaloids (steroidal glycoalkaloids) depending on the structure of the hydrophobic center. However, some authors consider steroidal glycolic colloids to be a unique natural product, and recently, a new saponin classification has been proposed into 11 different families depending on the structure of the spine. Saponins are present in significant concentrations in many traditional herbal medicines and a variety of beneficial functions, including common ingredients such as ginseng, are often attributed to the components of saponin.
Within plants, saponins are believed to provide protection against phytopathogenic fungi because they have powerful antifungal activity, are usually accommodated in the epidermal layers of plant tissues and have been shown to play a protective role in many pathogenic interactions. The amphibian nature of saponins represents a mechanism of action and it has been demonstrated that saponins penetrate fungal membranes. The proposed mechanism is that the hydrophobic core enters the outer membrane, forming a compound with ergosterol. Subsequent interaction between polar glycocytic sidechains leads to aggregation, pore formation, and loss of membrane integrity [28]. The ability to penetrate membranes has been demonstrated
However, the study also showed that the aglycone of α-tomatine did not penetrate the membranes of the α-tomatine, was more potent than the α-tomatine, and actually inhibited ergosterol biosynthesis. Furthermore, several studies have proposed additional functions for α-tomatine and its derivatives. β2-tomatine (created by removing sugar from sugar α-tomatine) has been found to be capable of suppressing plant defense response, and α-tomatine has been reported to induce projected cell death in fungi called
Among the various properties associated with saponins, the ability of some saponin products to inhibit the growth of tumor cells
Other endogenous targets for specific avicin have also been reported; however, pro-apoptotic effects may involve multiple targets or indicate that different avicins have specific target processes. In the East model, evidence was obtained for the modulation or inhibition of RO-based signaling and CAMP/PKA signal transmission pathways. A more direct link to apoptosis or automation was obtained from studies with avicin D, where avicin D activates AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), thereby inhibiting mTORC1 and downstream targets. Although many studies of plant natural products have reported a “pro-apoptotic” function, it is worth noting here that there is not much difference between apoptosis and autoimmunity in the plant literature in general. In fact, although the end result is the same, the paths and processes involved are completely different and this is a topic that will require closer attention in the future. Autophagy is given more importance by discovering that the production of β-group soysasaponins reduces mTORC activity, this time apparently by activating another kinase, Akt. The general significance of apoptotic pathways as a target for plant natural metabolism is that other saponin non-metabolites, such as sesquiterpenoid helenalin, which inhibits telomerase, have proliferative effects on mammalian cells [32]. Some of the more than 5000 different flavonoids that occur naturally in plants have effects associated with apoptosis in the future. Nutmeg flavonoid, (−) catechins, for example, inhibit seed germination and cause cell death in sensitive species. This effect appears to involve the generation of reactive oxygen species and may also be linked to calcium signaling or homeostasis. Again, the relationship between ROS, calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial function, autoimmunity, and apoptosis [33] should be kept in mind.
Plant natural products, especially those involved in the protection against pathogens, can lead to biotechnological applications. However, beyond the phytochemical list and general studies, there is a need to go for experiments to identify specific screens and functional patterns. It should take two forms, identifying the biological role of metabolism in the plant and determining the effects of metabolism on other organisms. The latter is a compelling argument for the use of unbiased genetic or proteomic methods and cell-based assessments to avoid confusion with specific nontargets. Finally, once the candidate goals have been identified, it is necessary to carry out detailed structural and functional studies of the interaction in the actual hosts. However, for preliminary screens and analyzes, plant natural product scientists must follow their biomedical counterparts in eukaryotes and
The author declares no conflict of interest.
About 22–32% of the world’s terrestrial plants have their roots near or within the groundwater [1, 2]. As a result, groundwater significantly impacts the transpiration of aboveground ecosystems and net primary productivity [3, 4, 5]. On a global scale, groundwater contributes about 23% to vegetation water consumption on average [6]. In areas with shallow groundwater, it contributes up to 84% of the total transpiration of vegetation. In arid areas [7], almost all water consumption of the plant comes from groundwater [8]. However, groundwater contributes little or even negatively to transpiration in irrigated agriculture or coastal areas with shallow water table depth, due to its high salinity [9]. At present, with the expansion of the agricultural area, the supply of freshwater resources is becoming more and more insufficient; agricultural production began to use underground saltwater, or which combined with saline water irrigation, along with the development of water-saving irrigation technology and water conservancy engineering measures suitable for the region. Therefore, further research is strongly needed to promote the efficient use of agricultural moisture in areas with shallow groundwater, to figure out the crop growth process under the influences of irrigation and shallow water replenishment, and the salt balance characteristics under different management measures. Consequently, it is beneficial to find out how to use the abundant shallow underground saltwater in the coastal zone as a resource instead of limitations, realize the recycling of groundwater resources, and solve the source problem of lacking freshwater in terms of water-salt regulation.
Recently, numerous researches have been done on the water flow process and mechanism in soil–plant-atmosphere continuous (SPAC) systems. However, these studies do not fully consider the role of groundwater and cannot clarify the water transfer mechanism in groundwater-soil–plant-atmosphere continuum (GSPAC) systems. In particular, in saline groundwater areas, water utilization of crop is limited because of salt stress, and it seems impossible to determine how groundwater recharge the root zone nor its contribution to soil evaporation and crop transpiration [10]. In drought years, plants increase net primary productivity (NPP) by using groundwater to reduce the effect of water stress on CO2 fixation, resulting in significant increases in transpiration due to the presence of shallow groundwater. Lowry and Loheide [11] defined the additional water that the plant transpires from shallow groundwater as “groundwater subsidies”, and calculated the difference of the root water absorption under shallow groundwater and the free drainage conditions. Furthermore, Zipper et al. [4] defined the yield from this additional water as a “groundwater yield subsidy”. In agricultural systems, yield is usually more relevant to total water consumption when characterizing groundwater’s positive or negative effects. Therefore, by introducing the concept of “groundwater yield subsidy”, the maximum annual contribution of groundwater to transpiration and NPP can be quantified and directly related to the efficiency of water utilization.
On the contrary, when shallow groundwater damages production through oxygen stress, the groundwater yield subsidy is negative and can be considered a loss of groundwater yield. Soylu et al. [12] quantified annual groundwater subsidies and NPP changes using the AgroIBIS-VSF model. They found that the largest groundwater subsidy happens at 1.5–2 m of water table depth, regardless of long-term precipitation, described here as the optimal water table. However, the current AgroIBIS-VSF model study is carried out in the non-saline area, and the applicability of these indicators in saline-alkali land and its conceptual extension still needs to be further studied.
In general, to prevent soil salinization, groundwater must be kept below the critical groundwater table [10, 13]. The scientific community currently lacks a recognized definition and quantification method for the critical groundwater table. We define it here as the highest groundwater table that does not cause secondary soil salinization. The critical water table depends on soil and groundwater type and climatic evaporation potential and is also related to the classification criteria for salinization. Theoretically, there is usually an optimal groundwater table in an agricultural ecosystem, ideal for maintaining farmland productivity. However, due to the complex factors which influence groundwater, it is often difficult to quantify. Figure 1a shows a conceptual diagram of the relationship between groundwater and crop yield under the groundwater yield subsidy framework: (1) In dry years, shallow groundwater will provide groundwater yield subsidy by reducing water stress, while in wet years, it will result in loss of groundwater yield by increasing oxygen stress; (2) In other words, for coarse soils with low matric potential values, the roots must be relatively close to the water table in case groundwater yield subsidies are present.
Diagram of crop-groundwater feed-in relationship in shallow groundwater area: (a) the hypothetical relationship between shallow groundwater level and crop (in the case of maize) yield; (b) the conceptual diagram of the groundwater benefit zone. Refer to Zipper et al. [
Theoretically, depending on the objectives of regulation, groundwater control has two criteria (Figure 1b):
It is necessary to control the groundwater table below its critical value to control the salinity of soil [10]; the critical groundwater table (
Where,
It is also necessary to keep the groundwater table close to the optimal groundwater table (groundwater yield subsidy boundary) [4] to maximize crop transpiration, which can be calculated through groundwater-subsidy-based-transpiration (
Where,
Where,
In Eq. (2),
Where,
Based on the equation above: (1) While critical groundwater table is an indicator to prevent soil salinization, the optimum groundwater table is an indicator to maximize groundwater subsidies, (2) The optimum groundwater table is an agrological parameter based on the water absorption by the root system, whereas the critical groundwater table is a hydrological parameter based on soil capillary theory; (3) The critical groundwater table associated with soil salt content control, is a fixed value, while the groundwater table associated with groundwater yield subsidy is a range (which changes with the crop rooting pattern and the water-salt environment in the root zone). Although the effects of salinity on plants are also taken into account in some studies for defining the critical groundwater table (similar to the dynamic range of the groundwater table suitable for the crop), due to the complex coupling relationship between crop type, soil salinity, and groundwater depth, there is often a lack of quantitative indicators or appropriate methods to apply directly [13].
Consequently, in underground saltwater areas, if both soil salt control and groundwater subsidies are taken into account, the water table needs to be regulated below the critical water table and overlapping with the area of the range of groundwater yield subsidies (as shown in Figure 2 yellow plus area), which we define as the “groundwater benefit zone” (Δ
Schematic diagram of definition of groundwater benefit zone.
Therefore, the groundwater benefit zone proposed in this study is a newly defined index. Take it as the theoretical standard of groundwater regulation, it is easy to create the targeted groundwater level and adjust the groundwater level by taking specific control measures. It should be emphasized that, similar to critical and optimal groundwater tables, which define only the characteristics of water levels in vertical directions, the groundwater benefit zone defined by this study is also limited to vertical directions, regardless of their changes in horizontal direction (Figure 2).
To sum up, the physical significance of the “groundwater benefit zone” index defined in this study is clear, which can be used to quantify the potential of groundwater’s contribution to the productivity of farmland ecosystem under the condition of salt stress and also as the theoretical standard of groundwater regulation in GSPAC system.
Traditional soil hydrology mainly pays attention to the influence of soil characteristics on non-biological processes such as water and solute transport. In contrast, agricultural hydrology focuses on the occurrence of various hydrological phenomena in agricultural measures and agricultural engineering and their intrinsic relationship, starting with the influence of water on biological processes such as crop growth and development. Studying the Earth’s critical zone expands the research scope of farmland ecosystem and groundwater hydrological process and strengthens the critical role of soil physical process in multi-scale mass transport and cycle at land surface systems such as soil profile, slope, and basin [14]. In recent years, more and more studies have attempted to establish the relationship between shallow groundwater and vegetation physiology and weathering processes, to identify the critical groundwater table. At the same time, there is still a lack of mathematical expression and field validation for this relationship [10]. Zipper et al. [4] found that shallow groundwater table, root length density distribution, and root water compensation effects (i.e., plants adapt to drought conditions by absorbing more water from less-stressed parts of the root to compensate for root water uptake in areas where stress is more serious; [15]) had a significant impact on transpiration and NPP, emphasizing the importance of incorporating root compensatory water absorption equations into model studies.
At present, many mechanism models of the water-salt coupling transport process of GSPAC systems (e.g., HYDRUS, RZWQM, EPIC, SVAT, SHAW, etc. [16]) have been established, in which HYDRUS models are widely used [17]. Especially based on the concepts of mobile and immobile water bodies, HYDRUS introduce dual-porosity models that simulate large pore flows and preferential flows. These characteristic hydrological parameters and solute reactions are combined to simulate physical equilibrium and chemical nonequilibrium solute transport (e.g., two-region models, two-site models, etc.), which provides convenience for the simulation of water-salt migration models under complex soil profile conditions (such as clay layer, gravel, large pores) with more regional influence factors (e.g., groundwater, irrigation water) [18, 19, 20]. However, the current model of the water-salt transport mechanism is limited within the unsaturated soil area, but it is insufficient in the saturated-unsaturated area, and the influence of groundwater on plant function has not been clarified. In turn, many crop models are good at simulating crop growth processes (e.g., RZWQM, WOFEST, DSSAT, AquaCrop, etc. [21]), but the expression of soil hydrological processes is insufficient, especially the lack of simulating groundwater dynamics. Many methods have been used to couple hydrological and crop models in recent years, for example, HYDRUS-1D and crop model AgroIBIS coupling AgroIBIS-VSF models [12].
It is worth mentioning that although some crop models can simulate the relationship between groundwater and vegetation in some ways, there is a very lack of mechanism models like the AgroIBIS-VSF model that can describe the effects of groundwater dynamics on soil temperature, oxygen, and leaf microclimate conditions. Furthermore, Zipper et al. [22] combined the latest version of the AgroIBIS-VSF model (i.e., the coupling of AgroIBIS and HYDRUS-1D) with the MODFLOW model to create a new model framework, MODFLOW-AgroIBIS (MAGI). The new coupled model simulates vegetation growth dynamics based on environmental conditions and quantifies the movement of water and energy in the GSPAC system (Figure 3). This coupling approach provides three widely-used model benefits for the MAGI model (①AgroIBIS [23], ②HYDRUS-1D [24] and ③MODFLOW-2005 [25]. However, most of the work related to the current MAGI model is carried out in non-saline conditions, while in areas with high groundwater salinity, the salt environment in the root zone of the crop will affect the potential of groundwater utilization and limit the applicability of the model framework. It means that the effects of salt must be taken into account when use models that need to be updated to calculate groundwater yield subsidies in saline agriculture (Figure 3).
Diagram of MAGI Model Research Framework (quoted from [
Although the mechanisms of water and salt transport through the GSPAC system at field scale are considered more comprehensively, the water and salt transport process occurred at an immense scale. The spatial variation of influence factors, especially the measures to regulate soil water and salt changes such as irrigation, drainage, agronomy measures, etc. are carried out on a large scale. Consequently, the field-scaled model, which is often one-dimensional, cannot simulate large-scale saline water process or make the related evaluation [26]. On the other hand, traditional large-scale hydrological models such as MODFLOW, although they are good at dealing with landscape-scale soil-groundwater interaction and groundwater movement process cannot reflect the small-scale hydrological process neither in saturated zone nor in the unsaturated area due to the lack of small-scale soil hierarchy and detailed structural parameters [27]. Thus, another trend of model development is to develop the coupled models at different scales, such as the model “HYDRUS-MODFLOW” [28] is coupled with HYDRUS-1D model and the groundwater model MODFLOW, which extends the simulation of the movement of soil water and salt under a dynamic groundwater condition to (extend to) the regional scale. The model can stimulate the redistribution process of water and salt both in natural and artificial circumstances. In fact, due to the variability of soil spatial structure and the randomness of various factors affecting water-salt movement, the water-salt transport process has a strong scale-dependent effect and corresponds to the appropriate quantitative techniques and methods in that scale.
Currently, there are effective ways to track the migration of substances in GSPAC systems [29, 30, 31, 32], such as isotope, geochemical ions, and rare earth elements. The new Earth Critical Zone study focuses on effectively links between disciplines, scales, and data to achieve the mutual transformation of microscales (soil pores and aggregates), mesoscales (soil profiles, fields, or catena), and macroscales (basins, regions, or global) [33]. It can be spatially interpolated and aggregated according to soil distribution or soil characteristics at landscape-scale according to soil mapping hierarchical system, and then upscaled and downscaled, or it can be transformed on a scale by establishing a relationship between the hierarchical structure of soil models and typical soil processes of different scales. For example, from the mesoscale to the macroscale, “characterization unit regions” can be constructed in combination with topographical changes and land-use methods, thus linking laboratory and field measurements “hydraulic characteristics to watershed scales” ones orderly for spatial scale transformation. On the microscale, soil water and salt movement are mainly influenced by soil structure, soil level, micro-terrain, ion content, soil infiltration, salt leaching, and soil microorganisms. We could quantify the effects of soil and salt effects by soil pore structure, root growth pattern, and water movement, fertilization, soil improvement method, and engineering measures by using X-ray computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclear magnetic resonance, etc. [34, 35, 36]. At the mesoscale, the soil water and salt transport and distribution mainly include evaporation, infiltration, lateral seepage, groundwater leakage, and recharge, and is the basic scope of water-salt regulation and ecological environment construction [33]. Geophysical detection techniques such as multi-receiver Electromagnetic Induction (EMI), Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT), and time-lapse Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) are widely used in soil physical properties measurement on scales such as slopes, catchment, and small basins [37, 38]. In recent years, remote sensing technology has been increasingly used in monitoring the physical properties of soil at the macro-scale and in coupling with other methods. At present, it is a significant scientific issue that how to quantify the water-salt migration flux of large-scale farmland system, through irrigation efficiency, soil salt accumulation, and other salt control factors, to build farmland irrigation-fertilization-salt control technology mode, and whereby to carry out multi-scale regulation under water-saving and reduced fertilizers in irrigation areas, so that it can achieve not only the efficient use of water resources but also maintain a good environment.
At present, there are a variety of measures for the regulation of water and salt, the core of which is to inhibit salt building-up by reducing soil evaporation (e.g., mulching), to promote salt leaching by improving soil structure (e.g., soil amendments), to block salt building-up by creating salt-isolation layer (e.g., salt-resistant barrier), or to increase soil drainage to facilitate soil salt discharge (e.g. subsurface pipes), and among other ways [39, 40, 41]. In general, crop salt thresholds, local soil types, and groundwater conditions need to be taken into account to clarify the applicability of these methods in saline agricultural production. For salinized farmland with shallow groundwater tables, the utilization of groundwater is greatly influenced by the salt accumulation, salt threshold of crop, and salt leaching scheme, so it is essential to clarify the “groundwater benefit zone” and optimize the regulation. Some regulation of water and salt has been made in the Northern Chinese irrigation area, while there was little research based on the simulation of optimization of groundwater [42]. Although some models currently proposed appropriate groundwater levels and irrigation strategies for specific crops [43], it is still challenging to promote and popularize the results due to different soil types, irrigation systems, plant rooting patterns, salt tolerance, groundwater depth, and climatic conditions. In general, to break the limitations of long-term field test and the lack of investigated factors, the technical parameters of water salt regulation can be obtained based on model scenarios analysis and the influence of different factor combinations on the relationship between groundwater table and crop yield can be considered comprehensively. At present, the water-salt transport model of the GSPAC system is applied to predict the trend of water-salt dynamics and the concentration of salt. The response of crop growth to changes in soil water-salt environment under different irrigation systems and planting patterns is systematically analyzed base on boundary conditions and parameters obtained from various management measures [44].
On this basis, the model scenario analysis can design different combinations of influence factors, to clarify the balance point of water conservation measures and salt leaching, and to establish a plant water supply theory scheme aimed at water-saving and salt control. Thus, the key to regulating groundwater benefit zone can be based on models to construct technical parameters that reflect different regulatory measures. In addition, soil improvement products can be designed based on these technical parameters. For example, we could establish the cause-effect relationship by applying modern analysis means like characterizing the structural morphology, its molecular structure, surface morphology, and performance correlation of the soil water and fertilizer, to carry out component screening-structural regulation-fertilization performance determination for material design and optimization, and the optimal technical products for salt-alkali soil water salt regulation. For example, through modern instrumental analysis methods, the structure and morphology of the product are characterized. The relationship between its molecular structure, surface morphology, etc., and soil water and fertilizer storage performance is explored and the structure–function relationship is established. Recently, Swallow and O’Sullivan [45] proposed a new desalination method based on biomimicry of vascular plants, which is to mimic the principle of water absorption of the vascular plant to produce desalination materials. After added to the soil, with the help of natural evaporation, groundwater and soil salt are directly separated the crystallization process. After 30 days of the indoor test, the method can reduce the soil salt content from 8 to 0.8%, and the desalination effect is pronounced. It provides a new technology for saline soil remediation, but it also needs further verification and evaluation in the field.
In this paper, we proposed the new concept and index of the “groundwater benefit zone” based on the interaction between the saline farmland ecosystem and the groundwater. Through a combination of field monitoring and model simulation, the next step is to address the following issues:
How to determine the critical groundwater table in areas with shallow groundwater and their quantitative relationship with soil, climate, and groundwater type? We need to use the theories and methods of soil hydrology and agricultural hydrology, focus on the study of water consumption of agriculture and groundwater-soil water crop carrying capacity. On the one hand, the climate affects soil and groundwater movement and soil biological activities through physical properties such as soil temperature, texture, and bulk density [46]. On the other hand, the movement and distribution of groundwater and soil moisture affect the redox environment and microbial activities by regulating the soil oxygen content, thereby affecting the biogeochemical cycle [47]. Therefore, the development of the interdisciplinary of the groundwater salt process and biogeochemistry is of great significance for describing the mechanism of groundwater salt migration and simulating its flux [45].
How to promote a water-salt transport model of GSPAC system based on soil physical process and crop growth dynamics, and quantify the groundwater benefit zone in one location? It is worth noting that the concept of groundwater subsidy is not only water extracted from the unconfined aquifer but also the edge of the soil capillary rise. Therefore, the calculation of groundwater yield subsidy usually needs to simulate the plant water uptake under shallow groundwater and free drainage conditions respectively and get their difference, which is also an essential aspect of the model application. In addition, water absorption in the root zone is one of the most important processes considered in the GSPAC model, simulating the extent to which plants absorb and utilize soil water and groundwater, thus determining the amount of soil water flow or groundwater recharge [15]. At present, many root water uptake models with different assumptions and complexities have been developed. The main challenge is the lack of data for parameterizing root water use functions and the numerical expression of the associated important processes [47].
How do crops respond to groundwater changes, and what is the mechanism between salt stress, root distribution, and root water compensation effects? Considering the compensation mechanism of root water absorption in the crop growth model can improve the prediction of soil moisture content. In contrast, during the development of the current model, it is still unclear when there is salt stress and how the model takes the mechanism of crops extracting groundwater into account, especially how to parameterize the compensatory water absorption process of the root system. It is worth further research on applying technology and methods in this aspect, analyzing the feedback relationship between groundwater salt process and land productivity, ecological environment safety and other functions, and optimizing and enhancing the function of ecosystem services. Mainly due to the influence of salt, it is challenging to clarify the water transmission mechanism of the GSPAC system. In recent years, isotope technology has become an important and effective method for studying the utilization of plant water resources in a complex system [48, 49], which provides a reference for revealing the mechanism of soil water and solute transport in the GSPAC system. In addition, the latest measurement techniques of sap flow and root system scanner (root length and root distribution) also provide ways for soil-root-water interaction mechanism research.
How to combine model simulation with field control measures test, and thus propose the technical parameters of regional water-salt control? How to use soil physics model to predict the influence of groundwater salt process change on future food production and ecological environment, formulate and evaluate the adjustment strategy of the sustainable development of saline agriculture. In particular, in recent years, climate change, water shortage, and extreme climate are frequent, there is urgently needed to develop the theory and model of crop habitat process regulation and control [50], study the process of non-saturation zone salt migration, driving mechanism and its scale-dependent effect, utilize slight saline water/saline water, farmland drainage and other non-traditional water resources in saline field irrigation safely and evaluate its ecological effects.
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Therefore, we develop an efficient CTU decision method by combing temporal-spatial searching order algorithm (TSSOA) in BL and a fast inter-layer searching algorithm (FILSA) in EL to speed up the encoding process of SHVC. The simulation results show that the proposed efficient CTU decision method can achieve an average time improving ratio (TIR) about 52–78% and 47–69% for low delay (LD) and random access (RA) configurations, respectively. It is clear that the proposed method can efficiently reduce the computational complexity of SHVC encoder with negligible loss of coding efficiency with various types of video sequences.",book:{id:"5364",slug:"recent-advances-in-image-and-video-coding",title:"Recent Advances in Image and Video Coding",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Image and Video Coding"},signatures:"Chou-Chen Wang, Yuan-Shing Chang and Ke-Nung Huang",authors:[{id:"26337",title:"Dr.",name:"Chou-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"chou-chen-wang",fullName:"Chou-Chen Wang"},{id:"194121",title:"Mr.",name:"Yuan-Sing",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"yuan-sing-chang",fullName:"Yuan-Sing Chang"},{id:"194122",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke-Nung",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"ke-nung-huang",fullName:"Ke-Nung Huang"}]},{id:"67911",title:"New Graphical Password Scheme Containing Questions-Background-Pattern and Implementation",slug:"new-graphical-password-scheme-containing-questions-background-pattern-and-implementation",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Security of authentication is needed to be provided superlatively to secure users’ personal and exchange information, since online information exchange systems have been developed according to internet speed. Therefore, aim of the chapter is to develop current graphical password scheme based on recall, create and implement a new graphical password scheme composed of three layer verification. We programmed our scheme in order to use in section of anonymous information exchange system and user’s registration of trading chat room. While we conducted survey on user by accessing participant to our system lied in participants’ local network and we analyzed in accordance with the average length of their created password and statistical significant of entropy bit. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"92",type:"subseries",title:"Health and Wellbeing",keywords:"Ecology, Ecological, Nature, Health, Wellbeing, Health Production",scope:"\r\n\tSustainable approaches to health and wellbeing in our COVID 19 recovery needs to focus on ecological approaches that prioritize our relationships with each other, and include engagement with nature, the arts and our heritage. This will ensure that we discover ways to live in our world that allows us and other beings to flourish. We can no longer rely on medicalized approaches to health that wait for people to become ill before attempting to treat them. We need to live in harmony with nature and rediscover the beauty and balance in our everyday lives and surroundings, which contribute to our well-being and that of all other creatures on the planet. This topic will provide insights and knowledge into how to achieve this change in health care that is based on ecologically sustainable practices.
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