Empirical studies of the culture and corporate governance.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"278",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"HIV and AIDS - Updates on Biology, Immunology, Epidemiology and Treatment Strategies",title:"HIV and AIDS",subtitle:"Updates on Biology, Immunology, Epidemiology and Treatment Strategies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The continuing AIDS pandemic reminds us that despite the unrelenting quest for knowledge since the early 1980s, we have much to learn about HIV and AIDS. This terrible syndrome represents one of the greatest challenges for science and medicine. The purpose of this book is to aid clinicians, provide a source of inspiration for researchers, and serve as a guide for graduate students in their continued search for a cure of HIV. The first part of this book, "From the laboratory to the clinic," and the second part, "From the clinic to the patients," represent the unique but intertwined mission of this work: to provide basic and clinical knowledge on HIV/AIDS.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-665-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6541-5",doi:"10.5772/665",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"hiv-and-aids-updates-on-biology-immunology-epidemiology-and-treatment-strategies",numberOfPages:708,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c5fb12ebbff49f7e87a5608a48db179c",bookSignature:"Nancy Dumais",publishedDate:"October 26th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/278.jpg",numberOfDownloads:66401,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:59,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"40783",title:"Dr.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Dumais",slug:"nancy-dumais",fullName:"Nancy Dumais",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40783/images/system/40783.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nancy Dumais is a Professor of Virology at Université de Sherbrooke, Canada. She received her Diploma (M.Sc.) in Cellular and Molecular Biology and her Doctorate (Ph.D.) in Virology, in 1996 and 2001, respectively, both from Université Laval in Canada. Then, she was a Postdoctoral Researcher at McMaster University where she studied mucosal immunization against HIV. Her research interests include chemokines and chemokines receptors in HIV-1 pathogenesis and cell migration. Her laboratory also investigates the roles of prostaglandins in HIV transcription and replication. Also, she is interested in scientific and health education. 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\r\n\tCKs have crucial roles in various viral infections such as influenza, hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), viral meningitis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and SARS-CoV-2.
\r\n\tCKs mediate the directing of the transport of leukocyte cells into the tumor microenvironment to generate the host response against cancer. CKs can directly modulate tumor tissue expansion by inducing the proliferation of cancerous cells and inhibiting their apoptosis. They can also indirectly modulate the growth of tumor tissue through the effects of CKs on tumor stromal cells, by inducing the release of growth and angiogenic factors of cells that make up the tumor microenvironment.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are estimated to be the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide and are responsible for one-third of world’s population mortality [1]. Atherosclerosis (ATS), as the main cause of CVD, starts to develop early in the life and presents later with clinical manifestations depending on other circumstances. ATS is a multifactorial disease, in which the immune system and impairment of vascular system play a significant role. Inflammation, which can be triggered by infectious agents or by autoimmune reaction, worsens and promotes atherogenesis by several mechanisms [2]. In addition to the immune system, other factors significantly participate in atherogenesis by facilitating the vascular damage, initiating the formation, progression and the rupture of atherosclerotic plaques leading to consequent clinical manifestation of ATS. So-called traditional risk factors include dysregulation of lipid and glucose metabolism, arterial hypertension, and degeneration of vascular tissue caused by aging, smoking and hormonal factors [3].
\nIt is well known that autoimmune diseases are accompanied by increased CV morbidity and mortality, caused by exacerbation of atherogenesis [2]. Traditional risk factors of ATS in general population such as dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance, arterial hypertension, etc. can explain only about 75% of CV manifestations in rheumatic patients [4]. In these patients, non-traditional risk factors associated with the systemic inflammatory disease apply [5].
\nDespite the significant improvement of the therapy of rheumatic diseases, the incidence of CVD in rheumatic patients remains increased compared to that in general population [6]. Both the CV risk and CVD manifestations differ among rheumatic diseases according to the characteristic pathogenetic mechanism, inflammation activity and other specific features of the rheumatic diseases [7]. CV risk in the more prevalent rheumatic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is relatively best described. On the other hand, the situation is less clear in orphan connective tissue diseases such as systemic sclerosis (SSc), idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM), primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) and others.
\nThe aim of this review chapter is to provide an overview and sum up the current knowledge on CV risk factors and the treatment options of ATS-related comorbidities in rheumatic diseases.
\nTraditional CV risk factors play two roles in rheumatic patients: the first one as a trigger, the second as a consequence of the rheumatic disease activity [3]. Non-traditional risk factors are given by genetic and epigenetic factors, concurrent autoimmune inflammatory disorder and the specific features of each particular rheumatic disease (age of onset, duration, activity and the type of the disease) and other comorbidities, among others depression [8, 9, 10].
\nMetabolic syndrome (MetS) is defined as a cluster of comorbidities and risk factors leading to CVDs and increasing the CV mortality and morbidity. MetS includes obesity and visceral adiposity, diabetes and insulin resistance (IR), arterial hypertension (AH) and dyslipidemia [11]. The matter of mutual interactions and cross-talk of immune and metabolic system has become the object of many studies in recent years. Immune-metabolic interactions are regulated by genetic factors, nutritional status and by intestinal microbiome. The imbalance of the immune and metabolic interactions contributes to the occurrence and manifestation of rheumatic diseases [12].
\nThe prevalence of MetS in general population is estimated to be 24–44% depending on the exact definition of the MetS and the studied population [11, 13], and increases in rheumatic patients and gout to as much as 36–42%, as was reported in studies comparing rheumatic patients to the healthy control population [13].
\nDifferent immune mechanisms have been reported to be implemented in the pathogenesis of MetS, including pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-12 family. These cytokines are included in the regulation of immune response and atherogenic damage, and in the differentiation of T helper cells (Th), which participate in the pathogenesis of both autoimmune disorders and CVDs [14, 15]. Cytokines of IL-23/IL-17 signaling pathway are increased in rheumatic diseases, and significantly participate in atherogenesis [16]. MetS is associated with increased oxidative stress, which, among others, leads to the formation of oxidized phospholipids (oxPL) and contributes to pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders [13].
\nIR is not only closely related to MetS, but is also considered to act as a key pathogenic factor in MetS [13]. The definition describes IR as a decreased sensitivity and responsiveness of target organs to the action of insulin resulting in hyperinsulinemia [17]. As consequence, this metabolic disorder leads to glucotoxicity, lipotoxicity and inflammation, all of which participate in endothelial damage and dysfunction [18]. The visceral fat tissue is considered to be the major locus of these unfavorable changes. Of note, CVDs, MetS and autoimmune disorders share common pathogenic mechanisms and mediators of inflammation and activity [13].
\nIn recent years, study of microbiome has come to the forefront of interest. An imbalance of intestinal microbiota (dysbiosis) is characterized by a decrease of the number of beneficial intestinal bacteria and the overgrowth of potentially pathogenic bacteria. This phenomenon accompanies metabolic disorders and contributes to the emergence of MetS, obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) [19]. Impaired balance of the intestinal flora may also contribute to the development of autoimmune disorders. Several studies have demonstrated onset of inflammation induced by alterations in the gut microbiome. This could explain the relationship between the microbiome and systemic inflammatory response [20].
\nThe definition of obesity is mostly based on the body mass index (BMI—values higher than 30 kg/m2). Obesity, as well as MetS, is a global health problem especially in developed countries. The prevalence has been constantly growing over the years and to date, it is estimated to be almost 40% in the general population [21, 22]. Nevertheless, the association of obesity and CVDs in the general population is not clear [23]. Some evidence even suggests better prognosis for people with higher value of BMI [24]. However, there is a well-known correlation of obesity and increased risk of T2DM and coronary arterial disease (CAD), as well as a negative impact of obesity on other comorbidities including rheumatic diseases [23]. The immunomodulatory potential of adipose tissue and its ability to create an inflammatory environment of moderate activity could explain the effect of obesity as a risk factor for the development of some autoimmune diseases [22, 25].
\nAdipose tissue not only consists of adipocytes and connective tissue cells, but also contains immune cells as well (T cells, eosinophils, B regulatory cells and macrophages) [26, 27, 28]. In individuals with normal BMI, the immune cells interact with adipocytes and maintain a non-inflammatory environment by production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, IL-4, IL-13) [27]. On the contrary, predominance of pro-inflammatory T helper (Th) type 1 and 17 cells and pro-inflammatory type of macrophages has been found in increased adipose tissue mass of obese individuals [27, 29, 30]. These changes result in the production of pro-inflammatory molecules such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and IL-6, which are one of the crucial cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of several rheumatic diseases. Moreover, obesity leads to an altered expression of adipokines, multifunctional molecules produced by white adipose tissue cells and involved in the regulation of inflammatory and autoimmune processes [31, 32]. The MetS and secretion of pro-inflammatory adipokines can be associated with CVDs and autoimmune disorders [13].
\nThus, obesity is not only a passive comorbidity, but can actively participate in the inflammatory process. According to the current evidence, obesity can negatively affect the course of most rheumatic diseases, functional disability, quality of life and the overall prognosis [21, 22].
\nDyslipidemia is one of the most common forms of metabolic disease in the general population and also a significant risk factor for atherogenic CVD. In the general population, dyslipidemia is characterized by an increased level of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), triglycerides (TGs) and a decreased level of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) [33]. Under normal circumstances, HDL (in normal serum levels) exerts an anti-atherogenic effect: it removes cholesterol particles from cells (especially macrophages in the artery wall) and from circulation; inhibits the migration of macrophages and the binding of monocytes to the endothelium, oxidation of LDL; promotes endothelial repair and improves endothelial function, and also exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects [34, 35, 36]. In systemic inflammation, HDL is converted into a dysfunctional form due to loss of anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative proteins. The modification of apolipoprotein A1 (apo-A1) results in the inability of HDL to uptake LDL from macrophages and in the activation of pro-inflammatory pathways leading to increased risk of coronary artery involvement [35, 37].
\nMoreover, quantitative changes of lipidogram related to disease activity are often seen in rheumatic diseases. In RA patients, the levels of TC and LDL are lower than in general population. This so-called lipid paradox, best described in RA, is associated with an increased CV risk [37]. Decrease in levels of TC and LDL has been found to precede clinical manifestation of RA. Later, TC and LDL levels tend to increase after the initiation of immunosuppressive therapy and on the contrary, decline during the relapse of RA [38]. Therefore, the low levels of TC and LDL can be misinterpreted as a low CV risk factor when evaluated according to the scoring tools (e.g., Framingham risk score, Reynolds risk score, Systemic Coronary Risk Evaluation—SCORE) [39, 40, 41].
\nA small study in early RA patients reported non-significant, beneficial effect of methotrexate similar to that of tumor necrosis factor inhibitors (anti-TNF) on lipidogram [42]. On the other hand, higher levels of TC, LDL and TG were described in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) treated by anti-TNF compared to AS patients on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) therapy. Nevertheless, results reported in a cross-sectional study do not allow for a generalized assessment of the influence of long-term anti-TNF therapy on lipidogram in AS [43].
\nDyslipidemia is found in almost half of SLE patients, characterized by elevated levels of very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and TG. Increased levels of TC and TG are associated with two times increased risk of CVD [44]. In SSc, dyslipidemia is characterized by increased levels of lipoprotein A (LpA) and LDL and decreased levels of HDL and TC [45].
\nThe presence of immune cells in atherosclerotic plaques proves the participation of immune system in atherogenesis [46, 47]. These infiltrating immune cells are responsible for the promotion and exacerbation of ATS [48]. All the components of immune system are included in atherogenesis, while TNF and IL-1β are the most significant pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators [1].
\nDamage of endothelium is the first step in atherogenesis. Particles circulating in the blood penetrate the damaged endothelial barrier into subendothelial layer via the interaction with adhesion molecules on the surface of endothelium. These reactions lead to activation of endothelium and attraction of immune cells [1]. Penetrating particles consist mainly of LDL, which are one of the targets of oxidation and form oxLDL (oxidized LDL). oxLDLs are taken up by macrophages, which subsequently transform into the foam cells. Specific autoantibodies against oxLDL (anti-oxLDL) were detected in the sera of individuals from the general population as well as in rheumatic patients [49]. Furthermore, in rheumatic patients, the levels of anti-oxLDL are increased compared to those in the general population [49, 50]. The presence of these antibodies can predict the peripheral vascular involvement and even the severity of ATS [51]. On the other hand, increased levels of anti-oxLDL antibodies in patients with pSS were paradoxically associated with decreased occurrence of plaques (unlike in RA or SLE), which suggests a possible protective role of anti-oxLDL antibodies in pSS [52].
\nMany autoantibodies have been described to have a relation to higher risk of ATS and its clinical manifestations [2]. These include the antibodies against heat shock proteins (HSPs), which are expressed on the surface of endothelial cells exposed to stress, and to β-2-glycoprotein I (β2GPI), which are abundantly expressed within the subendothelial layer and intima-media borders of plaques [46, 53]. Furthermore, antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) are more frequently detected in patients with symptomatic angina pectoris and the three-vessel disease compared to individuals without coronary artery involvement [54]. Moreover, ANA positivity is associated with an increased risk of myocardial infarction (MI) in non-rheumatic individuals [55]. Specific anti-endothelial cell antibodies (AECAs) are associated with subclinical or manifested ATS in non-rheumatic population, as well [56].
\nImmunosuppressive therapy of rheumatic diseases has a potential effect on CV morbidity and mortality in two ways: on the one hand, it suppresses the inflammatory activity and thus decreases the CV risk; on the other hand, the adverse effect of some drugs can worsen the CV risk [9, 57]. NSAIDs and coxibs (selective blockers of cyclooxygenase-2) mostly used in inflammatory arthropathies exert pro-thrombotic effect and have a negative impact on the CV risk. Due to this fact, benefit-risk ratio should be evaluated individually in every case. Naproxen is considered as the relatively safest drug from this group [58].
\nCorticosteroids (CSs) suppress the inflammatory activity, hence dampen the CV risk [59, 60]. On the other hand, CSs cause or worsen the traditional CV risk factors [61]. Meta-analysis evaluating CS therapy in RA reported that a long-term therapy with prednisone or prednisone-equivalents in high doses (above 7.5 mg per day) is associated with an increased risk of CV mortality [62]. The effect of lower doses (7.5–10 mg a day) is uncertain [63]. Duration and the cumulative dose of CS are considered as CV risk factors in SLE. Nevertheless, current evidence regarding the CS therapy in SLE is not conclusive [44]. European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) recommends, especially in inflammatory arthropathies, to keep the glucocorticoid dosage to a minimum and to taper glucocorticoids in case of remission or low disease activity and to regularly check the reasons to continue glucocorticoid therapy [59].
\nThe group of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is a heterogeneous entity of medicaments with immunosuppressive effects of various specificity: less specific conventional synthetic DMARDs (csDMARD), or more specific biologic (bDMARDs), biosimilar (bsDMARDs) or targeted synthetic molecules (tsDMARDs). The side effects differ within the whole group. csDMARDs have a potential to reduce atherogenesis and progression of ATS [64]. Thus, the early initiation of therapy with scDMARDs can prevent development of CVDs [65].
\nAntimalarial drugs have been reported to act favorably on lipid and glucose metabolism, and in SLE patients, they have been described to reduce hypercholesterolemia, ATS and the risk of thrombosis [44, 66, 67]. In addition, hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) influences the production of cytokines, activation of T cells and monocytes via interaction with Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway, and attenuates the oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction [68].
\nThe effects of methotrexate (MTX) on the CV risk have been best studied in RA, in which the potential to reduce the risk of heart failure by half was demonstrated [69]. Moreover, MTX can decrease the mortality of RA patients caused by CVDs by 30% [70]. The data suggest that MTX should be considered cardioprotective in rheumatic diseases, although the exact mechanism of this effect is not known yet [71]. A possible link with anti-inflammatory effect has been proposed [72]. On the other hand, according to the results of a recent randomized controlled trial in patients with carotid artery disease or history of MI and concurrent T2DM or MetS, no protective effect of MTX in low doses (15–20 mg weekly) on future risk of CVD was described [73]. Data in other DMARDs are insufficient and, therefore, the effect on CV risk is not clear.
\nbDMARDs are targeting selectively specific pro-inflammatory molecules, which significantly participate in both pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and atherogenesis (e.g., TNF, IL-1r, IL-6 and others) [74]. In this group, TNF inhibitors (anti-TNFs) are the best-studied drugs regarding the possible effect on the CV risk. On the one hand, they exert anti-inflammatory and anti-atherogenic effect; on the other hand, they have been demonstrated to worsen the cardiac insufficiency in a couple of first published studies [3, 8]. Their benefit was proven in several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with more or less significantly beneficial effect when compared to MTX [72, 75, 76, 77]. Anti-TNFa influences particularly the level of HDL and restores its anti-atherogenic potential [78]. The results of RCTs in RA, PsA and psoriasis show a beneficial effect of anti-TNF therapy on glucose metabolism and MetS [79]. Anti-TNFs also reduce the risk of T2DM manifestation and prevent endothelial damage due to specific inhibition of TNF [74, 80]. Overall, current data support the beneficial effect of anti-TNF therapy on CV risk and CVD incidence that is probably related to the attenuation of inflammation and thus also of atherogenesis rather than to the effect on lipidogram (which can change as a consequence of changes in disease activity as well). Published studies have reported the potential of anti-TNF to reduce intima-media thickness and the number of unstable plaques [81]. Nevertheless, anti-TNF therapy is not recommended in patients with congestive heart failure [82]. Not only no positive effect, but even a negative effect of anti-TNF on chronic heart failure has been described. Experts therefore suggest performing a baseline echocardiography examination in patients at risk before the commencement of anti-TNF therapy [81].
\nHigher IL-6 levels are associated with an increased CV risk, therefore therapeutic blockade of tocilizumab (inhibitor of IL-6 receptor) has a protective potential [83]. Recently published RCT with tocilizumab and etanercept (anti-TNF) reported very similar effect of both drugs on CV risk [84]. Inhibition of the IL-6 receptor by tocilizumab is assumed to influence lipid metabolism in a favorable manner due to blockade of the mobilization of fatty acids to peripheral tissues mediated by IL-6 [84]. On the contrary, anti-IL-6r therapy is known to cause a significant increase in the levels of HDL, TC, LDL and TG [85].
\nRituximab (RTX, anti-CD20) is supposed to have a beneficial effect on CV risk due to inhibition of B cells and release of (auto)antibodies, which participate in the vasoconstriction, activation of thrombocytes and promote rupture of atherosclerotic plaques [74]. In SLE patients, the RTX therapy was associated with improvement of lipidogram [86]. The overall effect of RTX on CV risk is not clear, due to limited data and lack of SLE patients treated by RTX [44]. To date, studies with RTX have not shown any long-term adverse cardiovascular effects or cardiotoxicity [74, 87].
\nThe recent study CANTOS (Canacinumab Antiinflammatory Thrombosis Outcome Study) has proven the ability of anti-IL-1b (canacinumab) to reduce the CV events and stroke in non-rheumatic patients with history of MI [88]. The effect of bDMARDs, including the latest bsDMARDs and tsDMARDs, on the CV risk needs to be closely monitored and evaluated in long-term studies with sufficiently large cohorts of rheumatic patients.
\nRA is relatively the most common autoimmune disease with prevalence of 1%, which primarily affects joints and can also manifest by extra-articular involvement. The most frequent occurrence of RA is in middle-aged women. It can shorten the life expectancy by up to 2.5 years [89, 90]. In addition, there is up to three times higher mortality in RA patients compared to the general population [91]. CV involvement and complications, including asymptomatic heart failure or silent MI and sudden death, are the leading death causes in RA patients and occur in RA patients 1.5 times more often than in the general population [2, 92]. CV risk in RA is comparable to the risk in diabetes [93].
\nThe underlying mechanism of increased CV mortality in RA is not completely understood [94]. The main cause of death in RA is ischemic heart disease (IHD), often asymptomatic and underdiagnosed [91, 95, 96]. Up to three times increased risk of IHD in RA patients with positivity of anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (aCCP) antibodies and rheumatoid factor (RF) has been reported [69, 97].
\nIn fact, RA itself can act as an independent risk factor for development of CVD [98]. The relation between an increase in the CV risk and the disease duration of RA patients is partly attributable to a higher prevalence of hypertension and smoking [99]. In RA, CV risk is also significantly related to traditional risk factors [100]. Smoking has a negative impact on the course of RA and stimulates the production of RF and aCCP nevertheless, the direct role in the increase of CV risk was not proved [98, 101].
\nSystemic inflammation accompanying the activity of RA significantly contributes to the atherogenesis and CV mortality [102]. The reduction of CV risk was observed during the DMARD therapy (namely HCQ , MTX, anti-TNFs). According to available studies and their meta-analysis, CV risk is most increased by CS therapy (up to 47%) and NSAIDs, in particular by coxibs (by 36%), and, on the contrary, is decreased by MTX (by 28%) or anti-TNF therapy (by about 30%) [72].
\nAS is a chronic inflammatory disease, which primarily affects the joints in the site of enthesis. It belongs to the group of diagnostic entity called spondyloarthropathies, which typically manifest in HLA-B27 positive patients. Similar to RA, AS can also manifest with extra-articular manifestations, such as gastrointestinal, ocular and cardiac involvement. The prevalence of AS in the population is about 0.1% (the overall prevalence of spondyloarthritis is around 1%) and, unlike most rheumatic diseases, occurs more frequently in men (up to three times) [103].
\nSimilar to RA, an increased CV risk has been reported in AS patients [104, 105]. However, views on the close association of ATS and AS are divergent, in particular, due to the small evidence and conflicting results of studies [106]. Regarding the evidence on CV events in AS, the situation is similarly unsatisfactory and inconclusive [107, 108, 109]. Recently published meta-analysis has reported an increased risk of MI (RR = 1.6) and cerebrovascular events (RR = 1.5) compared to the general population [110].
\nThere are several risk factors in AS, which participate in CV comorbidities. Since laboratory markers of inflammation are not elevated in many patients, CV risk is likely related to the risk profile of a typical patient with AS: a smoker with arterial hypertension and dyslipidemia, in whom low levels of HDL and TC accompany the disease activity [105, 110]. In addition, extra-articular cardiac manifestations of AS (e.g., conduction disorders, aortic valve insufficiency, left ventricular dysfunction) contribute to CV morbidity and mortality [105]. Levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), therapy with NSAIDs and work disability are considered significant predictive factors of CV mortality in AS [111, 112]. NSAIDs as the first-line therapy with the highest safety profile should be prescribed for the shortest time period possible [110]. On the other hand, anti-TNFs have a favorable effect on the endothelial function and a decrease of the CV risk [105, 113].
\nPsA is a systemic inflammatory disease from the spondyloarthritis spectrum, associated with psoriasis [114]. The prevalence is 0.05–0.25% in the general population, but rises to 15–30% in patients with psoriasis [115]. The relative risk of CV involvement in psoriasis is reported to be 1.4, but the relative risk in PsA is less studied and the data are conflicting [116, 117, 118, 119]. Meta-analysis demonstrated a 1.43 fold higher CV risk in PsA patients compared to the general population. The incidence of MI, cerebrovascular events and heart failure has been reported to be increased (1.68, 1.22 and 1.31, respectively) [120].
\nAccording to the current evidence, various manifestations of ATS in PsA have been described, from subclinical involvement to symptomatic manifestations [121, 122, 123, 124, 125]. PsA is considered to be an additional independent CV risk factor, as proved by findings of more severe subclinical ATS compared to the general population and the association of plaque development with the inflammatory activity of PsA [120].
\nPsA is typically associated with high prevalence of MetS, which is two or three times more common than in other rheumatic diseases and the general population [126]. During the active inflammatory phase, there are characteristic alterations of lipidogram with a decrease of HDL and LDL, which consequently rises in remission of the disease [9]. The suggested mechanism, which causes changes of HDL levels, is the uptake of apoA-1 in the tissue affected by inflammation: particles of HDL penetrate from the circulation due to increased endothelial permeability. The consequent decline of serum HDL concentrations increases the CV risk in PsA in a similar manner as in RA [127].
\nThe presence of subclinical ATS and its correlation with inflammatory markers and the effect of immunosuppressive therapy are questionable [9, 128]. Anti-TFN therapy seems to have a beneficial effect on CV risk in PsA, as well as in AS [129].
\nSLE is characterized by a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations and involvement of different organs. The prevalence is 0.03% in Caucasian population, while SLE affects predominantly women in reproductive years, in whom the clinically significant ATS is not usually found under normal circumstances [130]. Although the survival of SLE has significantly improved, thanks to new therapeutic options, it still remains 5–10 years shorter compared to the general population [131]. The rate of SLE-associated mortality has declined, but the rate of CV complications, which are considered to be the leading cause of mortality in SLE nowadays and are responsible for 30% of deaths, has risen [131]. The bimodal mortality pattern describes two peaks of mortality in SLE population: the first peak represents death early in the course of the disease related to the disease activity and infectious complications, and the second peak refers to late death from the CV manifestations [132].
\nThe prevalence of traditional risk factors is higher in SLE compared to the general population [133]. In addition, SLE-related risk factors, including renal involvement, apply in CV morbidity. The presence of SLE itself increases the risk of heart failure up to three times [134]. The clinical manifestation of ATS in SLE is predicted particularly by higher age at the onset of SLE, presence of arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia. Among others, the cumulative dose and the duration of CS therapy, long duration of SLE, and activity of immune system including autoantibodies play significant role in ATS [2].
\nDue to their pathophysiologic mechanism both SLE and vasculitis predispose to the atherosclerotic involvement of coronary circulation [135]. Coronary artery disease affects 6–10% of SLE patients and the incidence is four to eight times higher than in the general population [136, 137].
\nRisk of heart failure in SLE significantly rises immediately after the first manifestation of the autoimmune disorder, mostly at a young age. The relative risk of heart failure is therefore most increased in young patients in the age between 20 and 30 years, and decreases with a higher age. However, the incidence of CV diseases and heart failure is continually increasing in positive correlation with the increasing age of patients [134]. SLE patients are at 5–10 times higher risk, and young SLE women at age around 40 years are even at 50 times higher risk of MI compared to the general population [138].
\nConcerning the risk of a stroke in SLE, the ischemic stroke is estimated to be two times, hemorrhagic stroke three times and subarachnoid hemorrhage four times more common in SLE than in the general population [139]. In case of a stroke, young patients are more threatened due to accelerated ATS during the high activity of inflammation. The relation between disease activity and the risk of a stroke was described also in other diseases. Immunosuppressive therapy and other comorbidities (e.g., vasculitis, antiphospholipid syndrome, arterial hypertension) take part in this increased risk, as well [139]. Accompanying factors such as antiphospholipid syndrome, Liebman-Sacks endocarditis and formation of immune complexes of antibodies with antigens predispose patients to thrombotic complications and ischemic stroke, while endothelial dysfunction and interrupted endothelial layer integrity can lead to hemorrhagic stroke. Subarachnoid hemorrhage in SLE probably results from intracerebral vasculitis and concurrent arterial hypertension [139].
\nAtherosclerotic plaques have been detected in 17–65% of SLE patients using ultrasound examination. The age seems to play a major role in prediction of atherosclerosis and its manifestations in SLE. Some experts suggest a role of consequences of the disease activity and side effects of therapy in older patients with SLE [2].
\nSSc belongs to orphan connective tissue diseases with the prevalence of 0.003–0.06%, and is less understood, concerning the CV risk. The key pathologies leading to CV involvement are vasculopathy, inflammation and tissue fibrosis, which can also affect the heart. In addition to pathognomic microvasculopathy, macrovascular involvement is getting more attention in the last years [45].
\nTo date, the relative risk of CV diseases in SSc in not known. Survival of SSc patients is about 16–34 years shorter compared to the general population with about 3.5 times higher mortality [140]. Due to advances in therapy of scleroderma renal crisis (SRC) and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), new causes of death have got to the front, and the prevalence of ATS in SSc has risen [141]. Cardiac causes account for a quarter of the overall mortality in SSc patients [142]. The prevalence of traditional CV risk does not seem to differ from the general population. SSc-associated factors, which participate in endothelial damage, include inflammation and ischemia-reperfusion injury caused by impaired vasodilation [45]. The level of inflammation in SSc is lower than in RA or SLE, which indicates lower rate of acceleration of ATS. Impaired vasodilation characteristic for both SSc and ATS precedes the clinical manifestation of SSc. It is accompanied by the mechanisms typical for both of these pathologies: imbalance between vasodilators (e.g., nitric oxide, NO) and vasoconstrictors (e.g., endothelin), defective angiogenesis caused by the increased expression of VEGF, the presence of AECA and others. The main clinical manifestations of microvascular impairment, Raynaud’s phenomenon, PAH and SRC, probably predict macrovascular impairment in SSc [45].
\nReports on the prevalence of ATS and its clinical manifestations in SSc differ in various studies. Among others, the reason is asymptomatic subclinical cardiac involvement. Increased risk of CV events is attributed both to ATS and the pathogenesis of SSc and its consequences (impaired microcirculation, myocardial fibrosis, arrhythmia, etc.), and last but not least, secondary deterioration of cardiac function due to renal vasculopathy, interstitial lung disease (ILD) and PAH [143].
\nThe risk of MI is almost 2.5 times higher compared to the general population, while the impact of SSc itself outweighs the effect of hypertension or diabetes on the risk of MI. Ischemic injury of myocardium can be caused by occlusive vasculopathy and intermittent vasospasm (so-called myocardial Raynaud’s phenomenon) [144].
\nIt is not clear whether the prevalence of subclinical ATS in SSc is higher compared to the general population. Nussinovitch and Shoenfeld reported carotid involvement in more than 60% of SSc patients, where the findings were described to be more frequent and more severe than in a control group from the general population [143].
\nCerebrovascular involvement in SSc patients is 1.3 times more common than in the general population. SSc as an independent risk factor increases the risk of ischemic stroke by up to 43%. There are several pathologic mechanisms in SSc playing a role in the manifestation of a stroke, including vasospasm of cerebral arteries corresponding to the Raynaud’s phenomenon, which can manifest as a transient ischemic attack or a focal neurologic deficit [145].
\nIIM is a heterogeneous group of diseases, which primary affect the skeletal muscles as the common pathologic mechanism. The most prevalent subtypes are dermatomyositis (DM) and polymyositis (PM) [146, 147]. IIM belongs to orphan rheumatologic diseases and occurs in approximately 0.02% of population [148]. The mortality in IIM is almost four times higher than in the general population, with CV involvement as the leading cause [149]. The main pathology responsible for the cardiac involvement in IIM is myocarditis and accelerated ATS in coronary arteries [150]. Other mechanisms have not been sufficiently studied. Resulting structural alterations in myocardium can lead to disturbed function, arrhythmia and other, mostly asymptomatic, rarely fatal manifestations [151].
\nData on cardiovascular disability in IIM are insufficient. Meta-analysis of studies in IIM reported 2.24 times higher CV risk compared to the general population [152]. With regard to the prevalence of MI in IIM, there are only limited data. A retrospective study by Rai et al. in more than 700 IIM patients described an increased risk of MI, but not of a stroke. The risk of MI has been increased in PM almost four times and in DM three times compared to the general population. Patients were most threatened by these complications during the first years after the onset of IIM [153].
\nTraditional risk factors in IIM are specifically related to the specific features of the disease, particularly muscle involvement resulting in impaired physical activity and CS therapy. The prevailing effect of CS in IIM, whether anti-inflammatory or pro-atherogenic, is not clear and has yet to be elucidated [152].
\nPrimary Sjögren’s syndrome is another relatively rare rheumatic disease with a prevalence of 0.06%. It is characterized by lymphocytic infiltration of exocrine glands (especially lacrimal and salivary) leading to dryness of the mucous membranes (sicca syndrome) and hyperactivity of B lymphocytes. pSS affects preferentially females at the age of 40–60 years [154].
\nThe situation in terms of the CV risk in pSS is similarly unclear as in the above-mentioned rare systemic connective tissue diseases [155]. There is a lack of studies concerning the CV risk in pSS, moreover, the results are conflicting. CVD-associated mortality accounts for 30% of deaths. According to the recent meta-analysis including 14 studies in pSS, the CV risk is significantly increased compared to the general population: the relative risk of coronary artery disease is 1.34, cerebrovascular events 1.46, heart failure 2.54 and thromboembolism 1.78. This meta-analysis has not demonstrated a significantly increased risk of mortality due to CV causes (RR = 1.48) [155].
\nSimilar results have been reported in a population study that also described higher prevalence of arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia in pSS patients, and, in addition, suggested pSS as an independent CV risk factor [156]. On the other hand, some studies did not confirm the increased CV risk in pSS [157, 158]. One study has reported subclinical atherosclerotic involvement in pSS patients detected by coronary flow reserve (CFR) and pulse wave velocity (PWV), while the echocardiography showed no pathology [159]. Impaired PWV is thus suggested as a marker of endothelial dysfunction even in patients with normal CFR [160].
\nAvailable data rather suggest higher CV risk in pSS patients compared to the general population, and the need of preventive screening and appropriate management, eventually including consultation and monitoring by a cardiologist [155].
\nChronic inflammatory condition can skew the results of the examination, which have otherwise good reliability in the general population [3]. For example, ultrasound imaging of clinically insignificant atherosclerotic lesions or plaques cannot reveal the higher susceptibility to the progression and rupture of plaques in the inflammatory environment [5]. Several scoring systems were developed to facilitate the estimation of the CV risk in the general population. These scoring systems include particularly the traditional risk factors. The most used and widespread systems are Framingham Risk Score (FRS), Systemic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE), QResearch Risk Score (QRISK2, or rather its updated version QRISK 3), Reynolds Risk Score and many others [161, 162]. FRS was the first developed scoring system and served as a default model for creating newer scoring systems. Nowadays, SCORE is probably the most used and widespread scoring system, especially in Europe [163]. Above-mentioned classic scoring systems underestimate the CV risk in rheumatic patients and therefore are not suitable for estimating the CV risk in these patients. A certain compromise was made by developing the Reynolds Risk Score by inclusion of CRP value as a marker of inflammation, and QRISK2 by inclusion the presence of RA as an independent risk factor [161]. Based on the recent EULAR recommendations for management of the CV risk in inflammatory arthropathies published in 2016, a modified SCORE system (mSCORE) should be used for evaluation of the CV risk in RA patients, which is calculated by multiplying the standard calculated value by a coefficient of 1.5 in all RA patients [58]. Despite this modification, mSCORE is not completely reliable in estimation of the CV risk, as was shown in studies describing findings of subclinical ATS in rheumatic patients classified in the low-risk category according to the mSCORE, and the evidence of higher tendency to formation of ATS plaques and instability of these plaques in RA. Due to these reasons, EULAR proposed simultaneous regular non-invasive examination by ultrasound of carotids and/or measuring the ankle-brachial index (ABI) for detection of subclinical ATS in asymptomatic patients in a low-risk category (SCORE 1–4%) [58, 82].
\nThe CV risk should be assessed at least every 5 years in patients with low disease activity and should be reconsidered after major changes in therapy or progression of the disease [58, 59, 82]. In common practise, this assessment means regular examination of blood pressure and lipidogram during the outpatient control and in case of pathologic findings, early consultation by a preventive cardiologist and an adequate therapeutic intervention [62, 164].
\nPreventive measures are the first-line therapy recommended in the general population to manage the CV risk. In rheumatic patients, these measures may be complicated due to a chronic disease. Therefore, the pharmacological treatment is needed [62, 82].
\nMetformin is recommended as the first line for the treatment of the MetS. It has a beneficial effect not only on improvement of insulin sensitivity, but also reduces the levels of LDL and TC and has a beneficial effect on the vascular function, as well as statins. Similar beneficial effect on glucose metabolism is related to administration of antimalarial drugs, which are often used in the treatment of SLE, pSS and also RA. HCQ exerts immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effect, and, in addition, induces an increase in insulin activity and serum levels of glucagon and improves the glucose tolerance. Moreover, HCQ reduces plasma glucose levels even in the general population and is therefore suitable as a part of MetS therapy [82]. Other drugs for glucose metabolism control include pioglitazone (a nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ agonist), and liraglutide (glucagon-like peptide-1 analog), which has a beneficial effect in obese patients [13].
\nWhen managing and treating dyslipidemia, the recommended target levels of LDL (especially for RA) are lower than for the general population (LDL < 2.6 mmol/L; in individuals at higher risk, even <1.8 mmol/L). At the same time, preventive antiplatelet therapy should be considered [62]. Statins have been extensively discussed, especially in rheumatology. Via competitive inhibition of HMG-CoA (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzym A) reductase, they inhibit the intermediate step in the synthesis of cholesterol. Despite the concerns of potential side effects as induction of immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy (IMNM), the use of statins in IIM patients does not seem to be more risky than in the general population [165]. Several studies demonstrated a beneficial potential of statins to reduce the CV risk via attenuation of the oxidative stress and improvement of endothelial function. Due to their anti-inflammatory potential, statins are preferentially recommended in the therapy of rheumatic patients according to the EULAR recommendations [62]. For example, atorvastatin, when administrated to RA patients, not only reduces the levels of TC and LDL, but apparently also inhibits the inflammation activity [166]. This favorable effect was confirmed in TRACE-RA study [167]. Rosuvastatin exerts a similar beneficial effect in inflammatory joint diseases [168]. Another therapeutic option for dyslipidemia treatment is fenofibrate, which increases the HDL levels, and niacin [13].
\nRegarding the management of arterial hypertension, targeting the optimal blood pressure is more important than considering the type of drug used in therapy [58]. ACE inhibitors or blockers of AT1 receptor for angiotensin II exert a potential anti-inflammatory effect similar to statins, and therefore are preferentially recommended for treatment of arterial hypertension [62]. There is an exception in SSc patients. ACE inhibitors are recommended in the treatment of manifested SRC, but not as a prevention of SRC. Thus, other antihypertensive drugs should be prescribed (if SRC is not present), especially calcium channel blockers due to their beneficial effect on Raynaud’s phenomenon [169].
\nAmong other drugs with beneficial effect, vitamin D should not be forgotten. It was demonstrated that vitamin D acts as an immunomodulator and probably plays a protective role in the development of CV diseases, insulin resistance and obesity, and has anti-inflammatory effect and can potentially prevent from the development of MetS in RA patients. Also, probiotics are worth mentioning. Based on the results of studies showing that adverse changes of gut microbiome can induce autoimmune disorders, administration of probiotics may be profitable, as this could prevent the development of autoimmune disease or mitigate the consequences of already present pathological metabolic changes. However, further studies are needed to confirm these hypotheses [13].
\nFinally, the other side of this issue must not be forgotten, that is, adequate anti-inflammatory therapy of rheumatic diseases using DMARDs (especially MTX and TNF inhibitors in RA). Such therapy leads to mitigation of inflammatory activity and also improvement of quality of life and fitness of patients. Better fitness enables physical activity and thus facilitates the elimination of traditional risk factors and thereby reduces the CV risk [13].
\nRheumatic patients are significantly more at risk of atherosclerosis and its complications than individuals from the general population. Traditional risk factors are in rheumatic patients more frequent. Moreover, these risk factors are often hard to manage by modification of life style. Nowadays, a wide range of therapeutic options is available for elimination of traditional risk factors and reduction of the cardiovascular risk. The appropriate anti-inflammatory therapy represents the golden standard. Despite the growing evidence on the cardiovascular risk in rheumatic patents, the adequate recommendations for management of these patients and early detection of a higher risk are still lacking. The task for the future is to create an examination algorithm to prevent underestimation and negligence of risk in rheumatic patients and also to extend the knowledge on the cardiovascular risk in rare rheumatic diseases.
\nThis study was supported by AZV NV18-01-00161 A, MHCR 023728, and GAUK 312218.
\nCorporate governance refers to the processes and mechanisms by which the company is managed in order to achieve the interests of the owners, where good governance is an advantage of the company in the business community. Jordan has adopted corporate governance by issuing a guide to the rules of Jordanian corporate governance since 2007, but it is not mandatory. Previous studies related to corporate governance and its relationship to culture have not been addressed much in developing countries: one of the mechanisms of corporate governance is the board of directors which is considered the most important body that implements governance mechanisms to achieve the interests of owners. Where the principles of corporate governance stipulated rules regarding the board of directors such as independence of the board, the separation between the CEO and the chairman, as well as the board size, these rules assistant the members to conduct their activities effectively. Many studies conducted the relationship between culture and corporate governance. In the Jordan context, there are no related studies on this issue. The current study contributes to the literature as a new study conducted to investigate the impact of culture on corporate governance in the Jordan context for the duration (2013–2018). The study used Board Structure as different proxies to measure corporate governance. This study employed the agency theory and Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory. SPSS program has been used to test the developed hypotheses.
Finally, the study covered the main sections: Introduction, Literature review, Methodology, Empirical Results and Discussion, Conclusion, The importance of research for the future, and Recommendations.
Culture and corporate governance have been considered an important issue in the literature recently. This study aims to investigate the impact of the culture (CL) on corporate governance in terms of Board structure (BS) in Jordanian companies. It is notable after reviewing the literature that there is a gap regarding this issue in Jordan’s context. To fill this gap this study will answer the following question:
Is there is an impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in Jordan’s context?
The current study tries to investigate the impact of the culture (CL) on corporate governance in terms of Board structure (BS) in Jordanian companies. For this purpose, the study uses the six Hofstede dimensions to measure the culture, namely, Power distance index (PDI), Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV), Uncertainty avoidance (UAI), Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS), Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO), Indulgence vs. restraint (IND). To measure corporate governance this study uses different proxies, Board size (BZ); Board independence (BI); Non- CEO duality (NCEO). Using these proxies of Board structure and the six of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions will contribute to the literature locally and globally, since this combination of the six dimensions and the board dimensions has not been used together in previous studies.
The main objective of the study is to investigate the impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in Jordan context.
This paper used the agency theory and Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory as the theoretical framework to investigate the impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in Jordan companies. Board structure is the dependent variable, and Hofstede cultural dimensions are the independent variables. Figure 1 show the conceptual framework of paper.
The conceptual framework of paper.
Many studies have been conducted on culture and corporate governance and their relationship with performance. While, there is a lack of studies that addressed the relationship between culture and corporate governance particularly, in the Jordan context. Some studies conducted on culture and corporate governance that confirmed that there is a relationship between culture and corporate governance. Where the culture in the country influences corporate governance “in [1]”. Furthermore, culture impacts the tools of corporate governance. This is because the culture of the organization is affected decision-makers particularly their values. Thus, this affects corporate governance “in [2]”. Empirical studies have been reviewed on this issue. Where the literature indicated that (Licht, Amir) is considered one of the famous authors who conducting many studies on culture, he indicated in his study “in [3]” that it is necessary to pay attention to culture when analyzing the mechanisms of governance in any organization. Where cultures can be compared through it.
With regard to the board of directors, the culture of the country plays a critical role in influencing it, as “in [3]” noted that Western Europe supports gender diversity in the boards of directors. Whereas in developing countries is characterized by a weak control as well as weak governance, which negatively affects foreign investment “in [2]”, where investors prefer large firms with strong corporate governance that is that takes into account the culture “in [4]”.
Agency theory suggests that there are conflicts of interest between principal and management. This management conducts the activities on the behalf of the principal. The Agency theory is established to clarify corporate governance and the conflict of interest between the principal and management “in [5]”. This theory, suggests mechanisms represented in good corporate governance that eliminating the conflict and the Agency’s problems “in [6]”.
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory is developed by Greet Hofstede, it is the structure of the connection between cultures “in [7]”. This study employed the Hofstede cultural dimensions CL in terms of (Power distance index (PDI), Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV), Uncertainty avoidance (UAI), Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS), Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO), Indulgence vs. restraint (IND) as the (Independent variable).
The literature presented different dimensions to measure corporate governance, one of these dimensions is the board structure, where literature defines the board of directors as a number of members appointed by shareholders to achieve their interests “in [8]”. The board of directors is considered a power of the firm “in [3]”. Where the board of directors consists of executive members and non-executive members, the non-executive members should be independent. The current study employed the board structure in terms of Board size (BZ), Board independence (BI), and Non- CEO duality (NCEO) as the (dependent variable DV).
The board size is referred to the total number of board members. The literature regarding the board size is mixed, some studies indicated that the Larger boards are not preferred since there are difficulties in the meeting between the members “in [9]”. Furthermore, a large board means bad communication and coordination “in [10]”. On the other hand, some studies indicated that the large board has experience and knowledge that can be useful in the taking a right decision.
Board independence is considered an important tool of corporate governance that eliminates agency cost. The literature defined the independent members of the board that the members who own a part of the shares of the firms “in [11]”. These members are controlling the managers on the behalf of the shareholders that assure that the firm applying good corporate governance “in [12]”. Furthermore, the independent members are not tended to achieve their private goals “in [7]”. The agency theory advocate that the board of directors should be independent, and prefer the outsider members should be more than rather than the insider, this leads to good controlling “in [9, 13]”.
According to the agency theory, the separation between the CEO and the chairman is considered one of the important governance mechanisms, as in the event that these two functions are combined, this will negatively affect the decisions of the board of directors and this weakens the independence of the board, as many studies have shown that the separation enhances corporate governance “in [14, 15, 16]”.
Behavioral science theories highlight the role of cultural values and attitudes in shaping board-and-CEO relationships regarding controlling and strategy development. The culture through cultural orientations plays an important role in formulating the board composition. The cultural orientation in the institutional environment in a particular country could be towards a focus on equality by allowing gender diversity on boards, as is the case in Western European countries. In European societies that focus on entrepreneurship, it is characterized by individuality, low uncertainty avoidance, the composition of the board of directors directing to the interest of (external) shareholders by providing more independent members.
Regarding the relationship between culture and board structure, the literature has poor studies regarding this issue. “in [17]” found there is a positive relationship between the outsider member and individualism, uncertainty avoidance, femininity, and power distance, Furthermore, he found that found there is a positive relationship between the combine of the chairman and the CEO and individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance. The following Table 1 summarize the most of the empirical studies regarding the culture and corporate governance.
Culture/ corporate governance | Authors | Empirical studies Title | Findings |
---|---|---|---|
Legal transplants, corporate goals, corporate social responsibility, dividend distribution, the structure of the board. | “in [3]” | Culture and Law in Corporate Governance | there is a role of culture in formulating corporate governance |
| “in [2]” | The cultural influence in the practice of corporate governance in emerging markets | Emerging market features with a high PDI, high UAI, low IDV, and low MAS. Poor corporate governance |
| “in [18]” | Culture Rules: The Foundations of the Rule of Law and Other Norms of governance. | Social norms of governance correlate with cultural dimensions. |
| “in [19]” | Cultural Determinants of Ownership Concentration Across Countries |
|
(PDI): Power distance index; (IDV): Individualism vs. collectivism); (UAI): Uncertainty avoidance Index; (MAS): Masculinity versus Femininity; (LTO) Long-term orientation |
Empirical studies of the culture and corporate governance.
Source: (Author’s own, 2021).
Finally, Based on the above, It is notable there is a gap in the literature regarding the impact of culture on corporate governance. Particularly, in the Jordan context. This study will fill this gap by investigating the impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in Jordan companies in terms of Board Size (BS); Board Independence (BI); Non- CEO duality (NCEO).
The sample of this paper consists of the (105) companies from the financial sectors companies in Jordan that are listed in Amman Stock Exchange for the period (2013–2018). The corporate governance (Board structure) data were collected from the annual report from Amman Stock Exchange (ASE). And the data of cultural dimensions were collected through questionnaires that was distributed to the selected companies.
The current study employed the multiple regression model with board structure BS as a dependent variable DV. The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in the Jordan context. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions HCL is the independent variables IDV. The study adopts the following multiple regression model:
Where:
BS: Board Structure (Board size (BZ), Board independence (BI), and Non- CEO duality (NCEO).
PDI: Power Distance Index.
IDV: Individualism versus collectivism.
MAS: Masculinity versus Femininity.
UAI: Uncertainty Avoidance index.
LTO: Lon0g-versus Short- Term Orientaion.
IND: Indulgence versus Restraint.
α:Is the constant.
β:The coefficiet of the independent variables.
ε:Residual.
Based on the reviewed literature and the objectives of the study, important null hypotheses were developed as follows:
Variables used in this study include: (1) Independent variable IDV (culture), to measure the culture the study used the Hofstede cultural dimensions CL as in terms of (Power distance index (PDI), Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV), Uncertainty avoidance (UAI), Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS), Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO), Indulgence vs. restraint (IND). (2) dependent variable DV (corporate governance) this study used different proxies to measure CG by using board structure in terms of board size (BZ); Board independence (BI); Non- CEO duality (NCEO). The following Table 2 show the description and the measurement of the variables.
Variable | Description | Measurement |
---|---|---|
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (IDV) | ||
PDI | Power Distance Index | Survey Questionnaire |
IDV | Individualism versus Collectivism | |
MAS | Masculinity versus Femininity | |
UAI | Uncertainty Avoidance Index | |
LTO | Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation | |
IND | Indulgence versus Restraint | |
Board Structure BS (DV) | ||
BZ | Board size | The total number of board members |
BI | Board Independence | |
NCEO | Non- CEO duality |
The description and the measurement of the variables.
Source: (Author’s own, 2021).
The current study employs statistical tests: Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and the regression analysis.
This section presents the Descriptive Statistics of DV the Board structure in terms of board size (BZ), Board independence (BI), and Non- CEO duality (NCEO), and INV Hofstede cultural dimensions (Power distance index (PDI), Individualism vs. collectivism (IDV), Uncertainty avoidance (UAI), Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS), Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation (LTO), Indulgence vs. restraint (IND). Such as (Maximum, Minimum, Mean and standard deviations). The following Table 3 shows the Descriptive Statistics of DV (BI) and, IND (PDI, UAI) Variables.
Variable | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Std. Deviation | Skewness | Kurtosis | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Statistic | Std. Error | Statistic | Std. Error | |||||
LPDI | 1.00 | 5.00 | 3.9193 | .88501 | −1.016 | .186 | .583 | .369 |
LTO | 1.00 | 5.00 | 3.9661 | .91561 | −.746 | .186 | .312 | .369 |
COLL | 1.67 | 5.00 | 4.0000 | .67585 | −.631 | .186 | .817 | .369 |
MAS | 1.00 | 5.00 | 3.8023 | 1.08183 | −.564 | .186 | −.552 | .369 |
REST | 1.00 | 5.00 | 3.8094 | 1.09905 | −.214 | .186 | −1.107 | .369 |
HUAI | 1.25 | 5.00 | 3.9988 | .56680 | −1.049 | .186 | 1.012 | .369 |
BZ | 4.00 | 12.00 | 6.8253 | 2.18413 | .460 | .237 | −.734 | .469 |
BI | .00 | 1.00 | .910 | .12514 | −1.810 | .237 | .716 | .469 |
NCEO | .00 | 1.00 | .903 | .26564 | .753 | .237 | 1.127 | .469 |
LPDI: Low Power Distance Index; LTO: Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation, COLL: Collectivism; MAS: Masculinity; HUAI: High Uncertainty Avoidance Index; REST: Restraint; BZ: Board size; BI: Board independence; NCEO: Non- CEO duality |
Descriptive statistics of DV (BI) and, IND (PDI, UAI) variables.
Source: (Author’s Survey, 2021).
The descriptive statistics show the normality of the data, Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum. The mean value of LPDI, LTO, COLL, MAS, REST, HUAI are (3.9193, 3.9661, 4.0000, 3.8023, 3.8094, 3.9988) respectively with Standard Deviation of .88501, .91561, .67585, 1.08183, The descriptive statistics show the normality of the data, Mean, Standard Deviation, Minimum, and Maximum. The mean value of LPDI, LTO, COLL, MAS, REST, HUAI are (3.9193, 3.9661, 4.0000, 3.8023, 3.8094, 3.9988) respectively with Standard Deviation of .88501, .91561, .67585, 1.08183, 1.09905, .56680. The COLL has the highest mean value of 4.0000 among all other cultural dimensions.
Regarding the Board size (BZ) the mean value is (6.8253) that ranges between a minimum of (4.67) and a maximum of (13) which means there is some companies the board member less than (11). Independence board (BI) the mean value is (.910) that ranges between a minimum of (.00) and a maximum of (1) which means most of the companies in Jordan characterized by the independence that reveals these companies binder with this mechanism. Non- CEO duality (NCEO) registers average with (.903) and standard deviation of (.26564) Which means that that there are separate between the chairman and the CEO in most Jordanian companies. The COLL has the highest mean value of 4.0000 among all other cultural dimensions.
Multicollinearity test has been conducted within the regression model. This test is reveals if there is high correlation between the independent variables that should be excluded from the model to achieve more true results. The results of the test show that the (VIF) is less than (10), which means there is no high correlation between the independent variables.
Multiple regression has been used to investigate the impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in Jordan companies. The researcher adopted the significant level (.1) as this level of significance could be adopted in the social sciences. In the following the proposed models of the study:
Model (1): This model measures the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on.
Board size (BZ).
Model (2): This model measures the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on Board independence (BI).
Model (3): This model measures the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on Non- CEO duality (NCEO).
Model (1): This model measures the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on.
Board size (BZ).
H01: There is no impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions (HCL) on Board size (BZ) in Jordanian companies.
The following Table 4 shows The Regression analysis result of Model (1) the impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on Board size (BZ).
Variable | R Square | F- value | Significance of F (Sig) | Durbin-Watson |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hofstede cultural dimensions, Board size (BZ) | .080 | 2.162 | .079b | 1.132 |
Beta | T | Sig | ||
(Constant) | 9.454 | 5.044 | .000 | |
LPDI | −.565 | −2.278 | .025* | |
COLL | .484 | 1.357 | .178 | |
REST | .176 | .865 | .389 | |
HUAI | −.577 | −1.742 | .085*** |
The regression analysis result of model (1) the impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on board size (BZ).
*, **, *** significant at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 levels, respectively.
Table 4 shows the results of the regressions analysis of the model (1) consists of the dependent variables Board size (BZ) and the independent variable the Hofstede cultural dimensions. This is model is fitted with the Hofstede cultural dimensions (LPDI, COLL, REST, HUAI). While the other HLC (MAS, LTO) are not fit for this model. The R square is (.08) the explanatory power of the model. This means that the model explains just (8%) of the change that occurs in the dependent variable Board size (BZ). The F-statistics is (2.162) at a significant level (.079). This means that the explanatory power of the model is statistically significant at the level of significance (0.1), which means that the Hofstede cultural dimensions affect Board size (BZ). The values of (β, t, Sig) for each dimension of the Hofstede cultural dimensions show that the (LPDI, HUAI) are effect on Board size (BZ) at a statistically significant level with the value of (0.025, 0.085) respectively.
This means Board size (BZ) is significantly determined by (LPDI, HUAI). Where (LPDI, HUAI) are affected negatively on Board size (BZ) with a coefficient value of (−.565, −.577). This means (BZ) is significantly determined and affected by (LPDI, HUAI) in a negative manner. While there is no effect of (COLL, REST) on (BZ). This means (BZ) is not significantly determined by (COLL, REST).
Based on the above results, the tested hypothesis H01: There is no impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions (HCL) on Board size (BZ) in Jordanian companies is rejected and accepted the alternative Hypotheses regarding the (LPDI, HUAI) while the tested hypothesis H01 is accepted regarding (COLL, REST). This means that (LPDI, HUAI) are the most dimensions that affect significantly on Board size (BZ).
Model (2): This model measures the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on Board independence (BI).
H02: There is no impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions (HCL) on Board Independence (BI) in Jordanian companies.
The following Table 5 shows the Regression analysis result of Model (2) impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on Board Independence (BI).
Variable | R Square | F- value | Significance of F (Sig) | Durbin-Watson |
---|---|---|---|---|
of the Hofstede cultural dimensions, Board Independence (BI) | .036 | 3.789 | .054b | 1.749 |
Beta | T | Sig | ||
(Constant) | 1.051 | 13.598 | .000 | |
COLL | −.037 | −1.947 | .054*** |
The regression analysis result of model (2) impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on board Independence (BI).
*, **, *** significant at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 levels, respectively.
Table 5 shows the results of the regressions analysis of model (2) consists of the dependent variable Board Independence (BI) and the independent variable the Hofstede cultural dimensions. This is model is fits just with the Hofstede cultural dimension (COLL). While the other HLC (LPDI, REST, HUAI, MAS, LTO) are not fit for this model. The R square is (.036) the explanatory power of the model. This means that the model explains just (3.6%) of the change that occurs in the dependent variable Board Independence (BI). The F-statistics is (3.789) at a significant level (.054). This means that the explanatory power of the model is statistically significant at the level of significance (0.1), which means that the Hofstede cultural dimension (COLL) affects Board Independence (BI). The values of (β, t, Sig) for (COLL) show that the (COLL) is an effect on Board Independence (BI) at a statistically significant level with the value of (0.054).
This means Board Independence (BI) is significantly determined by (COLL). Where (COLL) is affect negatively on Board Independence (BI) with a coefficient value of (− 0.037). This means (BI) is significantly determined and affected by (COLL) in a negative manner. This result is inconsistent with “in [17]” who found there is a positive relationship between the outsider member and individualism, uncertainty avoidance, femininity, and power distance. On the other hand, (BI) is not significantly determined by (LPDI, REST, HUAI, MAS, LTO).
Based on the above results, the tested hypothesis H02: There is no impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on Board Independence (BI) in Jordanian companies is rejected and accepted the alternative Hypotheses regarding the (COLL) while the tested hypothesis H02 is accepted regarding the other HLC (LPDI, REST, HUAI, MAS, LTO). This means that (COLL) is the most dimensions affect significantly on Independence (BI).
Model (3): This model measures the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on Non- CEO duality (NCEO).
H03: There is no the impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions (HCL) on Non- CEO duality (NCEO) in Jordanian companies.
The following Table 6 show The Regression analysis result of Model (3) the impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on Non- CEO duality (NCEO.
Variable | R Square | F- value | Significance of F (Sig) | Durbin-Watson |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hofstede cultural dimensions, Non- CEO duality (NCEO) | .105 | 1.899 | .089b | 1.776 |
Beta | T | Sig | ||
(Constant) | −.199 | −.823 | .413 | |
LPDI | .022 | .598 | .551 | |
LTO | −.010 | −.274 | .785 | |
COLL | .068 | 1.559 | .122 | |
MAS | .005 | .190 | .849 | |
REST | −.064 | −2.500 | .014** | |
HUAI | .050 | 1.244 | .216 |
The regression analysis result of model (3) the impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on non- CEO duality (NCEO.
*, **, *** significant at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 levels, respectively.
Table 6 shows the results of the regressions analysis of the model (3) consists of the dependent variable Non- CEO duality (NCEO) and the independent variable the Hofstede cultural dimensions. This is model is fitted with all of the Hofstede cultural dimensions (LPDI, LTO, COLL, MAS, REST, HUAI). The R square is (.105) the explanatory power of the model. This means that the model explains just (10.5%) of the change that occurs in the dependent variable Non- CEO duality (NCEO). The F-statistics is (1.899) at a significant level (.089). This means that the explanatory power of the model is statistically significant at the level of significance (0.1), which means that all of the Hofstede cultural dimensions affect Non- CEO duality (NCEO). The values of (β, t, Sig) show that the (REST) is effect on Non- CEO duality (NCEO) at a statistically significant level with the value of (0.014).
This means Non- CEO duality (NCEO) is significantly just determined by (REST). Where (REST) is affect negatively on Non- CEO duality (NCEO) with a coefficient value of (− 0.064). This means Non- CEO duality (NCEO) is significantly determined and affected by (REST) in a negative manner. This result is inconsistent with “in [17]” who found there is a positive relationship between the combine of the chairman and the CEO and individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance. On the other hand, (Non- CEO duality (NCEO) is not significantly determined by (LPDI, LTO, COLL, MAS, HUAI).
Based on the above results, the tested hypothesis H03: There is no impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions (HCL) on Non- CEO duality (NCEO) in Jordanian companies is rejected and accepted the alternative Hypotheses regarding the (REST) while the tested hypothesis H02 is accepted regarding the other HLC (LPDI, LTO, COLL, MAS, REST, HUAI). This means that (REST) is the most dimensions that affect significantly on Non- CEO duality (NCEO).
This section presents model (M4), this model were conducted for additional results, this model combines the Hofstede cultural dimensions and the proxies of Board Structure (BZ, BI, NCEO).
The following Table 7 shows The Regression analysis result of the impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on Board structure.
Variable | R Square | F- value | Significance of F (Sig) | Durbin-Watson |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hofstede cultural dimensions, Board Structure | .076 | 2.043 | .094b | 1.106 |
Beta | T | Sig | ||
(Constant) | 3.488 | 5.758 | .000 | |
LPDI | −.232 | −2.360 | .020 | |
LTO | .081 | .849 | .398 | |
COLL | .166 | 1.392 | .167 | |
HUAI | −.183 | −1.649 | .102 |
The regression analysis result of the impact of the Hofstede cultural dimensions on board structure.
*, **, *** significant at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 levels, respectively.
Table 7 shows the results of the regressions analysis of the model (4) consist of the dependent variable board structure BS and the independent variable the Hofstede cultural dimensions HCL. This is model is fitted with the Hofstede cultural dimensions (LPDI, LTO, COLL, HUAI). The R square is (.076) the explanatory power of the model. This means that the model explains just (7.6%) of the change that occurs in the dependent variable board structure. The F-statistics is (2.043) at a significant level (.094). This means that the explanatory power of the model is statistically significant at the level of significance (0.1), which means that all of the Hofstede cultural dimensions affect board structure. The values of (β, t, Sig) show that the (LPDI) is an effect on board structure at a statistically significant level with the value of (.020).
This means board structure is significantly just determined by (LPDI). Where (LPDI) is affected negatively on board structure with a coefficient value of (− 0.232). This means board structure is significantly determined and affected by (LPDI) in a negative manner. On the other hand, board structure is not significantly determined by (LTO, COLL, HUAI).
Many studies have been conducted on culture and corporate governance and their relationship with performance. While, lack studies addressed the relationship between culture and corporate governance particularly, in the Jordan context. Some studies conducted on culture and corporate governance that confirmed that there is a relationship between culture and corporate governance “in [17, 18]”.
The current study has added a contribution to the debate regarding this issue. This paper provides new contributions by presenting significant results and critical managerial implications to the literature as a new study conducted to investigate the impact of culture on corporate governance in terms of board structure in the Jordan context. The current study aims to investigate the impact of the culture on corporate governance (Board Structure) in Jordan companies for the duration (2013–2018). The study used different proxies to measure corporate governance in terms of Board Structure. For this purpose developed hypotheses were tested. The findings indicated that there is an impact of culture on corporate governance (Board Structure), this impact is negative and significant. The results show regarding the Board size (BZ) that the Jordanian companies are somewhat committed to the rules of the board member. Furthermore, most of the companies in Jordan characterized by the independence of the board (BI). As well as there are separate between the chairman and the CEO in most Jordanian companies. Regarding the Hofstede cultural dimensions, the results show that the COLL has the highest mean value of 4.0 among all other cultural dimensions.
Regarding the regressions analysis, the results of model (1) show that the Hofstede cultural dimensions (LPDI, HUAI) are effect negatively on Board size (BZ). Model (2) shows that the Hofstede cultural dimension (COLL) affects negatively Board Independence (BI). Model (3) shows that (REST) is effect negatively on Non- CEO duality (NCEO). From the previous results, it is notable that despite the commitment of Jordanian companies to rules of the board size, but there is no impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on board size, except for the dimensions (LPDI, HUAI). As well as although most of the companies in Jordan characterized by the independence of the board, there is no impact of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions on Board Independence, except for (COLL). Furthermore, most of the companies in Jordan characterized by the Non- CEO duality, but there is no impact of Hofstede cultural dimensions on Non- CEO duality except for (REST).
The current study provides new contributions by presenting significant results to the literature regarding the culture and corporate governance in the Jordan context as a modern study that conducted to investigate the impact of the culture on corporate governance. The current study used different proxies to measure the corporate governance by using board structure in terms of board size (BZ); Board independence (BI); Non- CEO duality (NCEO) to investigate the impact of culture on corporate governance.
The results of the current study show there are impacts of the culture on the board structure. These results are consistent with the previous studies that indicated that there is a relationship between culture and corporate governance. However, this impact is somewhat weak as the empirical results show that not all of the cultural dimensions are affected the board structure. Where (LPDI, HUAI) impacts negatively on Board size (BZ). (COLL) impacts negatively on Board Independence (BI), and (REST) impacts negatively on Non- CEO duality (NCEO). This weak impact and in a negative direction could be explained due that the developing countries are characteristics with weak corporate governance practices are weak. In addition, the culture in these countries is different from that of developed countries. Therefore, the current study recommends applying managerial implications and regulations that could help the related parties such as investors, managers, and policymakers in making decisions in the Jordan context. Such as companies should concern with the culture and the local norms when constructing the board or the structure of the company as well as focus on the values of the organization that plays a critical role in the values of the individual and shaping the behavior of the individual that affects the culture that could impact the organizational structure, particularly, on the board of directors. As the human factor is the essence of culture.
In addition, increasing the interest and awareness about the environment when improving company regulations. As a result, that could play an important role in changing the culture as building a strong culture encourages all employees to perform their roles. In addition, adopting and practicing good CG tools leads to attracting foreign investors. Finally, the current study showed that the results of literature related to culture and its impact on the board of directors are controversial. And there is a lack of studies regarding this issue. Therefore, the Current study recommends further future studies in this field, which contributes to enriching the literature.
I would like to offer my gratitude to my mother “Nusaibah” for all the support, love, and encouragement she provided me to produce this research. I also offer my extensive gratitude to IntechOpen Limited for gaving me the opportunity for publishing my research work as a book chapter in the Corporate Governance chapter.
HCL | Hofstede cultural dimensions |
CG | Corporate governance |
BS | Board structure |
BZ | Board size |
BI | Board independence |
NCEOD | Non CEOD duality |
LPDI | Low Power distance index |
LTO | Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation |
COLL | Collectivism |
MAS | Masculinity |
REST | Restraint |
HUAI | High Uncertainty avoidance Index |
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
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\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
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After introducing the link between PSE and parental competence, the role of PSE on parenting quality, its multiple influences, and transactional effects connected to contextual or cultural variables are discussed. The chapter addresses some key issues: (a) the levels of PSE measurement (i.e., domain- or task-specific approach), their interrelationship and magnitude as mutual predictors (study 1); (b) infant-caring, parent’s adjustment, and PSE development in the transition to parenthood (study 2); (c) parenting difficult children and the role of PSE as a “buffer” variable moderating the effects of negative child’s characteristics on parenting skills; and (d) PSE beliefs in family context, the relationships with other family measures (marital self-efficacy and stress), and their associations with children’s adjustments (study 3). Finally, in the study 4, PSE is presented as an outcome variable in a parent training. 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Parental involvement and parenting styles are defined and analyzed as possible parameters of adolescent problems, including bullying and victimization. Special emphasis is given to the distinction between behavioral and psychological parental control. Furthermore, issues such as parent‐adolescent conflict, locus of control, and parental values are discussed as correlates of these problems, since prior research has identified them as either risk or protective factors for child and adolescent social and emotional adaptation.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Stelios N. Georgiou and Maria Symeou",authors:[{id:"193345",title:"Prof.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiou",slug:"stelios-georgiou",fullName:"Stelios Georgiou"},{id:"197682",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Symeou",slug:"maria-symeou",fullName:"Maria Symeou"}]},{id:"67167",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86517",title:"Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational Performance: How Human Resource Practices Support Knowledge Management Strategies?",slug:"aligning-human-resource-management-with-knowledge-management-for-better-organizational-performance-h",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Contributing to the HR-approach to knowledge management (KM), this chapter aims at outlining the role of human resource management (HRM) in supporting KM through utilizing the theoretical and empirical literature. The article is divided into two sections. The first section presents various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies. This section ends up by linking these topics in a KM sequential model which helps us to track the philosophical underpinnings and perspectives of each KM strategy. The second section investigates various HR orientations and HR practices and situates their differing contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. It aligns various HR practices with different KM strategies; suggesting that HRM is most effective as a combination of practices that are consistent and sharpened in supporting each KM strategy, which is part of the organizational strategy. The debated practices are recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Each of those practices is speculated to alter based on the chosen KM strategy; presenting a framework that is useful for practitioners and academics alike. The review ends up by identifying some research gaps and opportunities to be carried out in future studies. 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Nonetheless, family factors—especially those related to parenting—seem to be crucial during childhood, because children are nested within their families and family factors are able to indirectly influence other factors as well. The current chapter focuses on the relationship between parental style and internalizing symptoms in childhood. In the first part of the chapter, the most important studies on the topic are reviewed in detail and differences in parenting behaviors between mothers and fathers are illustrated. A discussion on the cognitive and metacognitive factors as possible pathways of the relation between parenting and childhood symptoms is also proposed. The last part of the chapter reviews studies investigating the efficacy of parental involvement in cognitive behavior therapy for children who exhibit internalizing symptoms.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Simona Scaini, Sara Palmieri and Marcella Caputi",authors:[{id:"240074",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Scaini",slug:"simona-scaini",fullName:"Simona Scaini"},{id:"240906",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcella",middleName:null,surname:"Caputi",slug:"marcella-caputi",fullName:"Marcella Caputi"}]},{id:"67575",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86757",title:"Toward Management Based on Knowledge",slug:"toward-management-based-on-knowledge",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In a world overwhelmed with pervasive digital technologies, the organization is transformed and becomes a socio-technical system which is constantly renewed. Organization needs specific skills, adapted to the values and to the cultures peculiar to each location. The cooperation and the mobility become a shape of inescapable work which rests on a permanent personal and collective learning. Beyond the information handled in the digital information systems, the role of the tacit knowledge, which is in each individual’s head, cannot be ignored. A constructivist attitude replaces a determinist attitude strongly deep-rooted in our educational modes. The managers have to pass from a posture of authority and of control to a posture of incitation, of support, and of accompaniment. The notions that are introduced in this chapter result from a managerial and socio-technical vision of knowledge management. They arouse essential reflections to develop a mode of management adapted to the digital transformation of the organizations called management based on knowledge.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Michel Grundstein",authors:[{id:"292425",title:"Mr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Grundstein",slug:"michel-grundstein",fullName:"Michel Grundstein"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55633",title:"Parental Self-efficacy in Promoting Children Care and Parenting Quality",slug:"parental-self-efficacy-in-promoting-children-care-and-parenting-quality",totalDownloads:2099,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Parental self-efficacy (PSE) emerges as a crucial variable into exploring variability in parenting quality. After introducing the link between PSE and parental competence, the role of PSE on parenting quality, its multiple influences, and transactional effects connected to contextual or cultural variables are discussed. The chapter addresses some key issues: (a) the levels of PSE measurement (i.e., domain- or task-specific approach), their interrelationship and magnitude as mutual predictors (study 1); (b) infant-caring, parent’s adjustment, and PSE development in the transition to parenthood (study 2); (c) parenting difficult children and the role of PSE as a “buffer” variable moderating the effects of negative child’s characteristics on parenting skills; and (d) PSE beliefs in family context, the relationships with other family measures (marital self-efficacy and stress), and their associations with children’s adjustments (study 3). Finally, in the study 4, PSE is presented as an outcome variable in a parent training. In all summarized studies, a special attention was devoted to father’s PSE as a specific factor affecting childrearing and parent’s well-being. As Bandura says, PSE is not a personality trait, but a learnable set of beliefs producing positive effects on parenting quality. 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The chapter is based on an empirical study starting from the classification of oil district and aims to understand how firms’ position affect knowledge transfer process within the district. We support the idea that knowledge transfer is deeply affected by firms’ contractual power as well as by their position within the district. The companies of the industrial districts have the advantage of exploiting and sharing knowledge with each other. The literature generally holds that knowledge transfer requires a sense of equality and fairness among the firms, to create conditions in which firms will share their own knowledge for joint competitive advantage. However, empirical evidence shows that the value chains are often characterized by hierarchical relations and asymmetry between the parties: this feature is particularly evident in the oil districts. For companies attempting to acquire new information, the typologies of their intercompany collaboration and their cultural relationships are crucial.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Giovanna Testa",authors:[{id:"293404",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Testa",slug:"giovanna-testa",fullName:"Giovanna Testa"}]},{id:"67167",title:"Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational Performance: How Human Resource Practices Support Knowledge Management Strategies?",slug:"aligning-human-resource-management-with-knowledge-management-for-better-organizational-performance-h",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Contributing to the HR-approach to knowledge management (KM), this chapter aims at outlining the role of human resource management (HRM) in supporting KM through utilizing the theoretical and empirical literature. The article is divided into two sections. The first section presents various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies. This section ends up by linking these topics in a KM sequential model which helps us to track the philosophical underpinnings and perspectives of each KM strategy. The second section investigates various HR orientations and HR practices and situates their differing contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. It aligns various HR practices with different KM strategies; suggesting that HRM is most effective as a combination of practices that are consistent and sharpened in supporting each KM strategy, which is part of the organizational strategy. The debated practices are recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Each of those practices is speculated to alter based on the chosen KM strategy; presenting a framework that is useful for practitioners and academics alike. The review ends up by identifying some research gaps and opportunities to be carried out in future studies. Those research gaps, if addressed, will extend our understanding of KM and the supporting role HRM.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Hadi El-Farr and Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh",authors:[{id:"293827",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"El-Farr",slug:"hadi-el-farr",fullName:"Hadi El-Farr"},{id:"293834",title:"Dr.",name:"Rezvan",middleName:null,surname:"Hosseingholizadeh",slug:"rezvan-hosseingholizadeh",fullName:"Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh"}]},{id:"53767",title:"Parenting Practices and the Development of Internalizing/ Externalizing Problems in Adolescence",slug:"parenting-practices-and-the-development-of-internalizing-externalizing-problems-in-adolescence",totalDownloads:1708,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter examines the existing relationship between different types of parental practices and the development of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in adolescence. Parental involvement and parenting styles are defined and analyzed as possible parameters of adolescent problems, including bullying and victimization. Special emphasis is given to the distinction between behavioral and psychological parental control. Furthermore, issues such as parent‐adolescent conflict, locus of control, and parental values are discussed as correlates of these problems, since prior research has identified them as either risk or protective factors for child and adolescent social and emotional adaptation.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Stelios N. Georgiou and Maria Symeou",authors:[{id:"193345",title:"Prof.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiou",slug:"stelios-georgiou",fullName:"Stelios Georgiou"},{id:"197682",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Symeou",slug:"maria-symeou",fullName:"Maria Symeou"}]},{id:"59028",title:"Parent Training Interventions for Children and Adolescents with Aggressive Behavioral Problems",slug:"parent-training-interventions-for-children-and-adolescents-with-aggressive-behavioral-problems",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Children who display early disruptive and aggressive behavior are also at greater risk for delinquency, mood and anxiety disorders, and substance use in the long term. As is the case for many forms of childhood psychopathology, a number of factors are associated with the emergence of aggressive and disruptive behavior, including family factors. Indeed, conduct problems during childhood are usually associated with peculiar parenting practices, such as increasingly coercive cycles of harsh parenting and noncompliance exhibited by child; insensitive and nonresponsive parenting; inconsistent, severe discipline and vague commands and directions; lack of parental warmth and involvement; and absence of parental monitoring and supervision. That is why behavioral parent trainings (BPTs) represent one of the gold standard interventions for conduct problems. The main goal of BPT is to decrease coercive interchanges and, consequently, children aggressive problems by teaching parents strategies in order to apply a more effective discipline. Therefore, the putative mechanism for change in youth behavior in BPT is change in parent behavior. Some of the most employed parent training interventions for aggressive behavior problems are presented.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Pietro Muratori, Valentina Levantini, Azzurra Manfredi, Laura\nRuglioni and Furio Lambruschi",authors:[{id:"238556",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Muratori",slug:"pietro-muratori",fullName:"Pietro Muratori"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1388",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:58,paginationItems:[{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"