Natural compounds inhibiting
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4624",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biosensors - Micro and Nanoscale Applications",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Micro and Nanoscale Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nowadays, the implementation of novel technological platforms in biosensor-based developments is primarily directed to the miniaturization of analytical systems and lowering the limits of detection. Rapid scientific and technological progress enables the application of biosensors for the online detection of minute concentrations of different chemical compounds in a wide selection of matrixes and monitoring extremely low levels of biomarkers even in living organisms and individual cells. This book, including 16 chapters, characterizes the present state of the art and prospective options for micro and nanoscale activities in biosensors construction and applications.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2173-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5762-5",doi:"10.5772/59391",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"biosensors-micro-and-nanoscale-applications",numberOfPages:468,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9793f3e7640905f75bac8ad7c237752e",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken",publishedDate:"September 24th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4624.jpg",numberOfDownloads:38857,numberOfWosCitations:100,numberOfCrossrefCitations:68,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:166,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:334,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 9th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 30th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 3rd 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 4th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 3rd 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhRjQAK/Profile_Picture_1636637493542",biography:"Toonika Rinken is an associate professor in environmental chemistry and is leading a biosensor development lab at the Institute of Chemistry in the University of Tartu, Estonia. She received her PhD degree in chemistry in 2000 in the same university for the modeling and calibration studies of biosensors and has passed professional self-improvement in Uppsala (Sweden) and Gröningen (the Netherlands). Dr. Rinken's research activities are focused on the studies and development of biosensing systems for automatic monitoring along with testing and application of biosensor based analytical systems.",institutionString:"University of Tartu",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Tartu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Estonia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1166",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-biophysics-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"48322",title:"New Materials for the Construction of Electrochemical Biosensors",doi:"10.5772/60510",slug:"new-materials-for-the-construction-of-electrochemical-biosensors",totalDownloads:3544,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development of electrochemical sensors has attracted great interest due to these sensors’ high sensitivity and selectivity. Here, we present the general concept and the classification of biosensors, their advantages and drawbacks, the main strategies in electrochemical biosensor technology and the materials used in electrochemical sensors, such as electrodes and supporting substrates, materials for improved sensitivity and selectivity, materials for bioreceptor immobilization, and biological recognition elements. Various nanomaterials, such as carbon-based materials (carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon nanoparticles), inorganic and organic nanoparticles (magnetic and metal nanoparticles, nanosized clays), conductive and insulating polymers (nanosized and nanostructured polymers, molecularly imprinted polymers), and hybrid materials, etc., have been successfully applied for the enhancement of the electroanalytical performance of biosensors and for the immobilization of biorecognition elements. Among these, due to their unique physiochemical features, carbon-based materials, such as carbon nanotubes and graphenes, have received special attention in recent years, and examples of surface functionalization using various types of nanoparticles are presented. The future trends in sensor research activities and areas of development that are expected to have an impact in biosensor performance, like immobilization techniques, nanotechnology, miniaturization and multisensor array determinations, are also examined.",signatures:"Robert Săndulescu, Mihaela Tertiş, Cecilia Cristea and Ede Bodoki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48322",authors:[{id:"28983",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Sandulescu",slug:"robert-sandulescu",fullName:"Robert Sandulescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"48443",title:"Graphene — A Platform for Sensor and Biosensor Applications",doi:"10.5772/60676",slug:"graphene-a-platform-for-sensor-and-biosensor-applications",totalDownloads:3764,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:37,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Graphene, mother of all carbon materials, has opened up new era of exploration due to its unique properties. Graphene, one-atom thick, exhibits a unique chemical structure and outstanding electronic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties that made it compelling for various engineering applications. Graphene and graphene-based materials are promising candidates for fabricating state-of-the-art nano-scale sensors and biosensors. They featured with good conductivity and large specific surface area thereby; graphene-based sensors/biosensors performed well with good accuracy, rapidness, high sensitivity and selectivity, low detection limits, and long-term stability. They are ideally used as gas sensors, electrochemical sensors for heavy metal ions, immunosensors and dihydronicotinamide dinucleotide NADH, DNA, catecholamine neurotransmitters, paracetamol, glucose, H2O2, hemoglobin, and myoglobin biosensors. This chapter reviews the applications of graphene in nanotechnology since it came to the field particularly in sensing and biosensing applications. It updates the reader with the scientific progress of the current use of graphene as sensors and biosensors. There is still much room for the scientific research and application development of graphene-based theory, materials, and devices. Despite the vast amount of research already conducted on graphene for various applications, the field is still growing and many questions remain to be answered.",signatures:"Nada F. Atta, Ahmed Galal and Ekram H. El-Ads",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48443",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48443",authors:[{id:"30072",title:"Prof.",name:"Nada",surname:"F. Atta",slug:"nada-f.-atta",fullName:"Nada F. Atta"},{id:"174033",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Galal",slug:"ahmed-galal",fullName:"Ahmed Galal"},{id:"174034",title:"MSc.",name:"Ekram",surname:"El-Ads",slug:"ekram-el-ads",fullName:"Ekram El-Ads"}],corrections:null},{id:"48716",title:"Molecularly Imprinted Sensors — New Sensing Technologies",doi:"10.5772/60781",slug:"molecularly-imprinted-sensors-new-sensing-technologies",totalDownloads:2910,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter we discus molecular imprinting technology (MIT), molecular imprinted polymers (MIPs), and their compatibility on a proper transducer to construct a sensing system. Molecularly imprinted sensors (MISens), in other words, artificial receptor-based sensors synthesized in the presence of the target molecule, are capable of sensing target molecules by using their specific cavities and are compatible with the target molecule. This MIP technology is a viable alternative of artificial receptor technology, and the sensor technology is capable of detecting any kind of molecule without pre-analytic preparations. In this chapter, you can find examples, sensor construction techniques and fundamentals of MIP and sensor combinations to look forward in your studies. For sensor technology, we explained and discussed the new sensing technologies of MIP-based electrochemical, optical (especially surface plasmon resonance, SPR), and piezoelectric techniques. Therefore, this chapter presents a short guideline of MISens.",signatures:"Zihni Onur Uygun, Hilmiye Deniz Ertuğrul Uygun, Nihal Ermiş and\nErhan Canbay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48716",authors:[{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun"},{id:"154660",title:"MSc.",name:"Hilmiye Deniz",surname:"Ertuğrul",slug:"hilmiye-deniz-ertugrul",fullName:"Hilmiye Deniz Ertuğrul"},{id:"174286",title:"MSc.",name:"Nihal",surname:"Ermiş",slug:"nihal-ermis",fullName:"Nihal Ermiş"},{id:"174882",title:"MSc.",name:"Erhan",surname:"Canbay",slug:"erhan-canbay",fullName:"Erhan Canbay"}],corrections:null},{id:"48588",title:"Silicon-based Integrated Microarray Biochips for Biosensing and Biodetection Applications",doi:"10.5772/60441",slug:"silicon-based-integrated-microarray-biochips-for-biosensing-and-biodetection-applications",totalDownloads:1826,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The silicon-based integrated microarray biochip (IMB) is an inter-disciplinary research direction of microelectronics and biological science. It has caught the attention of both industry and academia, in applications such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and immunological detection, medical inspection and point-of-care (PoC) diagnosis, as well as food safety and environmental surveillance. Future biodetection strategies demand biochips with high sensitivity, miniaturization, integration, parallel, multi-target and even intelligence capabilities. In this chapter, a comprehensive investigation of current research on state-of-the-art silicon-based integrated microarray biochips is presented. These include the electrochemical biochip, magnetic tunnelling junction (MTJ) based biochip, giant magnetoresistance (GMR) biochip and integrated oscillator-based biochip. The principles, methodologies and challenges of the aforementioned biochips will also be discussed and compared from all aspects, e.g., sensitivity, fabrication complexity and cost, compatibility with silicon-based complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology, multi-target detection capabilities, signal processing and system integrations, etc. In this way, we discuss future silicon-based fully integrated biochips, which could be used for portable medical detection and low cost PoC diagnosis applications.",signatures:"Lei Zhang, Cheng Zhu, Jinwen Geng, Xizeng Shi, Yunhua Gao, Zhijie\nChang and He Qian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48588",authors:[{id:"6943",title:"Prof.",name:"Lei",surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"48559",title:"Supramolecular Materials for Optical and Electrochemical Biosensors",doi:"10.5772/60710",slug:"supramolecular-materials-for-optical-and-electrochemical-biosensors",totalDownloads:1834,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is incontestable that the interactions and bonds that keep molecules united to generate unique supramolecular compounds, with individual properties, morphologies and behaviour, are of special dynamics and singular forces. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss and consider the types of interactions that may occur in a determined system, their dynamics and number, which directly act on the energetic balance that strengthen the union between participants and give rise to a supramolecule.",signatures:"Tatiana Duque Martins, Antonio Carlos Chaves Ribeiro, Flavio\nColmati, Geovany Albino de Souza, Henrique Santiago de Camargo,\nDiogo Lopes Dias, Paulo Alves da Costa Filho and Diericon de Sousa\nCordeiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48559",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48559",authors:[{id:"35340",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Martins",slug:"tatiana-martins",fullName:"Tatiana Martins"},{id:"165059",title:"MSc.",name:"Antonio Carlos",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"antonio-carlos-ribeiro",fullName:"Antonio Carlos Ribeiro"},{id:"165060",title:"Mr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Costa-Filho",slug:"paulo-costa-filho",fullName:"Paulo Costa-Filho"},{id:"174139",title:"Mr.",name:"Henrique",surname:"Camargo",slug:"henrique-camargo",fullName:"Henrique Camargo"},{id:"174141",title:"MSc.",name:"Diogo",surname:"Dias",slug:"diogo-dias",fullName:"Diogo Dias"},{id:"174142",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diericon",surname:"Cordeiro",slug:"diericon-cordeiro",fullName:"Diericon Cordeiro"},{id:"175556",title:"Dr.",name:"Flavio",surname:"Colmati",slug:"flavio-colmati",fullName:"Flavio Colmati"},{id:"243996",title:"Mr.",name:"Geovany Albino",surname:"De Souza",slug:"geovany-albino-de-souza",fullName:"Geovany Albino De Souza"}],corrections:null},{id:"48359",title:"Immunosensors",doi:"10.5772/60524",slug:"immunosensors",totalDownloads:3115,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Immunosensors are solid-state devices in which the immunochemical reaction is coupled to a transducer. They form one of the most important classes of affinity biosensors based on the specific recognition of antigens by antibodies to form a stable complex, in a similar way to immunoassay. Depending on the type of transducer there are four types of immunosensor: electrochemical, optical, microgravimetric and thermometric. The most commonly used bioelements for the development of electrochemical immunosensors are antibodies (Ab), followed by aptamers (Apt) and, in the last five years, microRNA (miRNA). In order to perform an early diagnosis, a method that is able to measure peptides and proteins directly in a sample, without any sample pre-treatment or any separation, is preferred. This direct detection can be performed with methods making use of the specific interaction of proteins with Ab, Apt and miRNA. The recent developments made in the immunosensor field, regarding the incorporation of nanomaterials for increased sensitivity, multiplexing or microfluidic-based devices, may have potential for promising use in industry and clinical analysis. Some examples of assays for several commercially available biomarkers will be presented. The main application fields, beside biomedical analysis, are drug abuse control, food analysis and environmental analysis.",signatures:"Cecilia Cristea, Anca Florea, Mihaela Tertiș and Robert Săndulescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48359",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48359",authors:[{id:"28983",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Sandulescu",slug:"robert-sandulescu",fullName:"Robert Sandulescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"48945",title:"Cell Concentration Systems for Enhanced Biosensor Sensitivity",doi:"10.5772/61088",slug:"cell-concentration-systems-for-enhanced-biosensor-sensitivity",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Concentration processes for analytical systems based on different types of biosensors are very important for many applications. The sample conditioning is oriented to enhance the sensitivity or directly to make the detection or analysis possible. Processes that may be used for concentration and conditioning of original samples are very diverse, depending on applications that may range from clinical diagnostics to industrial processes control, and there are different strategies to achieve the final goal.",signatures:"Óscar Castillo-Fernandez, Naroa Uria, Francesc X. Muñoz and\nAndrey Bratov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48945",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48945",authors:[{id:"174122",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Bratov",slug:"andrey-bratov",fullName:"Andrey Bratov"},{id:"175940",title:"Dr.",name:"Naroa",surname:"Uria",slug:"naroa-uria",fullName:"Naroa Uria"},{id:"175968",title:"Dr.",name:"Óscar",surname:"Castillo-Fernandez",slug:"oscar-castillo-fernandez",fullName:"Óscar Castillo-Fernandez"},{id:"175969",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesc X",surname:"Muñoz-Pascual",slug:"francesc-x-munoz-pascual",fullName:"Francesc X Muñoz-Pascual"}],corrections:null},{id:"48899",title:"Mechanical Sensing of Living Systems — From Statics to Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/60883",slug:"mechanical-sensing-of-living-systems-from-statics-to-dynamics",totalDownloads:1468,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Living systems are fascinating sensing machines that outmatch all artificial machines. Our aim is to put a focus on the dynamics of mechanosensing in cellular systems through concepts and experimental approaches that have been developed during the past decades. By recognizing that a cellular system is not simply the intricate assembly of active and passive macromolecular actors but that it can also manifest scale-invariant and/or highly nonlinear global dynamics, biophysicists have opened a new domain of investigation of living systems. In this chapter, we review methods and techniques that have been implemented to decipher the cascade of temporal events which enable a cell to sense a mechanical stimulus and to elaborate a response to adapt or to counteract this perturbation. We mainly describe intrusive (mechanical probes) and nonintrusive (optical devices) experimental methods that have proved to be efficient for real-time characterization of stationary and nonstationary cellular dynamics. Finally, we discuss whether thermal fluctuations, which are inherent to living systems, are a source of coordination (e.g., synchronization) or randomization of the global dynamics of a cell.",signatures:"F. Argoul, B. Audit and A. Arneodo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48899",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48899",authors:[{id:"33275",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Argoul",slug:"argoul",fullName:"Argoul"}],corrections:null},{id:"48575",title:"Impedimetric Sensors for Bacteria Detection",doi:"10.5772/60741",slug:"impedimetric-sensors-for-bacteria-detection",totalDownloads:3714,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The application of electrochemical biosensors based on impedance detection has grown during the past years due to their high sensitivity and rapid response, making this technique extremely useful to detect biological interactions with biosensor platforms. This chapter is focused on the use of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for bacterial detection in two ways. On one hand, bacteria presence may be determined by the detection of metabolites produced by bacterial growth involving the media conductivity changes. On the other hand, faster and more selective bacterial detection may be achieved by the immobilization of bacteria on a sensor surface using biorecognition elements (antibodies, antimicrobial peptides, aptamers, etc.) and registering changes produced in the charge transfer resistance (faradic process) or interfacial impedance (nonfaradic process). Here we discuss different types of impedimetric biosensors for microbiological applications, making stress on their most important parameters, such as detection limits, detection times, selectivity, and sensitivity. The aim of the paper was to give a critical review of recent publications in the field and mark the future trends.",signatures:"Sergi Brosel-Oliu, Naroa Uria, Natalia Abramova and Andrey Bratov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48575",authors:[{id:"174122",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Bratov",slug:"andrey-bratov",fullName:"Andrey Bratov"},{id:"175940",title:"Dr.",name:"Naroa",surname:"Uria",slug:"naroa-uria",fullName:"Naroa Uria"},{id:"175939",title:"MSc.",name:"Sergi",surname:"Brosel-Oliu",slug:"sergi-brosel-oliu",fullName:"Sergi Brosel-Oliu"},{id:"175941",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Abramova",slug:"natalia-abramova",fullName:"Natalia Abramova"}],corrections:null},{id:"48632",title:"Bioimpedance Technique for Point-of-Care Devices Relying on Disposable Label-Free Sensors – An Anemia Detection Case",doi:"10.5772/60843",slug:"bioimpedance-technique-for-point-of-care-devices-relying-on-disposable-label-free-sensors-an-anemia-",totalDownloads:2479,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the development of a point-of-care device for bio-medical applications has been discussed. Our main objective is to research new electronic solutions for the detection, quantification, and monitoring of important biological agents in medical environments. The proposed systems and technologies rely on label-free disposable sensors, with portable electronics for user-friendly, low-cost solutions for medical disease diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment. In this chapter, we will focus on a specific point-of-care device for cellular analysis, applied to the case of anemia detection and monitoring. The methodology used for anemia monitoring is based on hematocrit measurement directly from whole blood samples by means of impedance analysis. The designed device is based on straightforward electronic standards for low power consumption and low-cost disposable sensor for low volume samples, resulting in a robust and low power consumption device for portable monitoring purposes of anemia. The device has been validated through different whole blood samples to prove the response, effectiveness, and robustness to detect anemia.",signatures:"Jaime Punter-Villagrasa, Joan Cid, Jordi Colomer-Farrarons, Ivón\nRodríguez-Villarreal and Pere Ll. Miribel-Català",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48632",authors:[{id:"24740",title:"Dr.",name:"Pere. Ll.",surname:"Miribel-Català",slug:"pere.-ll.-miribel-catala",fullName:"Pere. Ll. Miribel-Català"},{id:"27608",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordi",surname:"Colomer-Farrarons",slug:"jordi-colomer-farrarons",fullName:"Jordi Colomer-Farrarons"},{id:"165967",title:"MSc.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Punter Villagrasa",slug:"jaime-punter-villagrasa",fullName:"Jaime Punter Villagrasa"},{id:"173932",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan",surname:"Cid",slug:"joan-cid",fullName:"Joan Cid"},{id:"173933",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivón",surname:"Rodríguez-Villarreal",slug:"ivon-rodriguez-villarreal",fullName:"Ivón Rodríguez-Villarreal"},{id:"175714",title:"MSc.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Punter Villagrasa",slug:"jaime-punter-villagrasa",fullName:"Jaime Punter Villagrasa"}],corrections:null},{id:"48891",title:"Electrochemical and Optical Biosensors in Medical Applications",doi:"10.5772/60967",slug:"electrochemical-and-optical-biosensors-in-medical-applications",totalDownloads:2337,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Analysis of many biochemical processes is of great significance for clinical, biological, food, environmental as well as bioterror applications. But, exchanging of the biochemical information to kind of electronic signal is a defiance due to connecting an electronic tool directly to a biological surrounding. Electrochemical detection instrument due to its advantageous to analyze the subject of a biological sample has a great potential in conversion of a biochemical occurrence to an electronic signal.",signatures:"Jadwiga Sołoducho and Joanna Cabaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48891",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48891",authors:[{id:"35713",title:"Dr.",name:"Jadwiga",surname:"Sołoducho",slug:"jadwiga-soloducho",fullName:"Jadwiga Sołoducho"}],corrections:null},{id:"49132",title:"Nanomaterials for Advancing the Health Immunosensor",doi:"10.5772/61149",slug:"nanomaterials-for-advancing-the-health-immunosensor",totalDownloads:2356,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanotechnology has exerted a significant impact in the development of biosensors allowing more sensible analytical methods. In health applications, the main challenge of the immunoassay is to reach the suitable limit of detection, recognizing different analytes in complex samples like whole blood, serum, urine, and other biological fluids. Different nanomaterials, including metallic, silica and magnetic nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, and graphene, have been applied, mainly to improve charge electron transfer, catalytic activity, amount of immobilized biomolecules, low-background current, signal-to-noise ratio that consequently increase the sensitivity of immunosensors. Given the great impact of nanotechnology, this chapter intends to discuss new aspects of nanomaterials relating to immunosensor advancement.",signatures:"Blanca A.G. Rodriguez, Erika K.G. Trindade, Diego G.A. Cabral, Erika\nC.L. Soares, Cayo E.L. Menezes, Danielle C.M. Ferreira, Renata K.\nMendes and Rosa F. Dutra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49132",authors:[{id:"33090",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Fireman",surname:"Dutra",slug:"rosa-fireman-dutra",fullName:"Rosa Fireman Dutra"}],corrections:null},{id:"48503",title:"Real-Time Detection of Nitric Oxide Release in Live Cells Utilizing Fluorinated Xerogel-Derived Nitric Oxide Sensor",doi:"10.5772/60614",slug:"real-time-detection-of-nitric-oxide-release-in-live-cells-utilizing-fluorinated-xerogel-derived-nitr",totalDownloads:1509,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule that regulates a diverse range of physiological and cellular processes in many tissues. Therefore, the accurate detection of physiological NO concentration is crucial to the understanding of NO signaling and its biological role. There has been growing interest in the development of electrochemical sensors for direct and real-time monitoring of NO. As the direct electrooxidation of NO requires a relatively high working potential, further surface modification with permselective membranes is required to achieve the desired selectivity for NO via size exclusion or electrostatic repulsion. Here we reported a planar-type NO sensor with a fluorinated xerogel-derived gas permeable membrane for real-time detection of NO release in live cells. First, we evaluated the biocompatibility of xerogel-derived NO permeable membranes modified with fluorinated functional groups by growing RAW 264.7 macrophages on them. And we performed the AFM measurements to examine the morphology of RAW 264.7 macrophages on xerogel membrane. Finally, we successfully detected NO release in RAW 264.7 macrophages, using a planar-type xerogel-derived NO sensor. As a result, fluorinated xerogel-derived membrane could be utilized as both NO permeable and cell-adhesive membranes. Besides, planar-type xerogel-based NO sensors can be easily applied to the cellular sensing system, with a simple coating procedure.",signatures:"Gi-Ja Lee, Sung Wook Kang, Bochan Seo, Jae Ho Shin and Hun-Kuk\nPark",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48503",authors:[{id:"173572",title:"Prof.",name:"Hun-Kuk",surname:"Park",slug:"hun-kuk-park",fullName:"Hun-Kuk Park"},{id:"175559",title:"Prof.",name:"Gi-Ja",surname:"Lee",slug:"gi-ja-lee",fullName:"Gi-Ja Lee"},{id:"175560",title:"Dr.",name:"Sung Wook",surname:"Kang",slug:"sung-wook-kang",fullName:"Sung Wook Kang"},{id:"175561",title:"Mr.",name:"Bochan",surname:"Seo",slug:"bochan-seo",fullName:"Bochan Seo"},{id:"175563",title:"Prof.",name:"Jae Ho",surname:"Shin",slug:"jae-ho-shin",fullName:"Jae Ho Shin"}],corrections:null},{id:"48726",title:"Evaluation of the Structure-Activity Relationship of Hemoproteins through Physicochemical Studies: Hemoglobins as a Prototype of Biosensor",doi:"10.5772/60576",slug:"evaluation-of-the-structure-activity-relationship-of-hemoproteins-through-physicochemical-studies-he",totalDownloads:1430,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present work, we have studied a group of prerequisites in terms of “structure-function relationship” of hemoproteins, especially hemoglobins, emphasizing the role of the heme and its chemical environment in the biochemical and physicochemical properties of the biomolecule. We have discussed the ferrous center and its properties as coordination center; the macrocyclic ligands, especially the porphyrins; the esterochemical and electronic properties of the iron-porphyrins (heme groups); and the interaction between heme groups and globins, which is related to several redox and oligomeric properties of hemoprotein systems and its potential applications with respect to novel materials. One of the main uses of hemoglobins in new materials is also discussed, which is its employment as a biosensor. Therefore, we have discussed the development of novel biosensors based on hemoglobins and their physico-chemical properties as well as on the main molecules of biological relevance that have been detected by these biosensors, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), nitric oxide (NO), and cholesterol, among others. Indeed, several important biomolecules and biological processes can be detected and/or evaluated by devices that present hemoglobins as leading chemical components. Different apparatus are covered with respect to distinct characteristics, such as chemical stability, sensitivity, selectivity, reproducibility, durability, optimum conditions of measurements, etc. and their respective characteristics are analyzed.",signatures:"Leonardo M. Moreira, Juliana P. Lyon, Vanessa J. S. V. Santos and\nFabio V. Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48726",authors:[{id:"33297",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo",surname:"Moreira",slug:"leonardo-moreira",fullName:"Leonardo Moreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"49131",title:"Graphene-Polyaniline Biosensor for Carbamate Pesticide Determination in Fruit Samples",doi:"10.5772/61220",slug:"graphene-polyaniline-biosensor-for-carbamate-pesticide-determination-in-fruit-samples",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, a simple, sensitive, and low cost electrochemical biosensor for the quantitative determination of carbamate pesticides has been constructed. A composite consisting of polyaniline (PANI) and graphene oxide was electrochemically synthesised on a platinum electrode. This sensor platform was then used in the biosensor construction by electrostatic attachment of the enzyme, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) onto the surface of the Pt/GO-PANI electrode. Voltammetric results concluded that HRP immobilised on the Pt/GO-PANI composite retained its bio-electrocatalytic activity towards the reduction of H2O2 and was not changed during its immobilisation. The Pt/GO-PANI/HRP biosensor was then applied to successfully detect standard carbamate pesticides in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer (PB; pH = 6.8) solution. Various performance and stability parameters were evaluated for the Pt/GO-PANI/HRP biosensor, which included the optimal enzyme loading, effect of pH and long-term stability of the biosensor on its amperometric behaviour. The Pt/GO-PANI/HRP biosensor was finally applied to the detection of three carbamate pesticides of carbaryl, carbofuran, and methomyl using the enzyme inhibition method. Carbaryl, carbofuran, and methomyl analyses were amperometrically determined using spiked real samples of orange, pear, and grapes, within a concentration range of 0.01–0.3 mg/L. These results indicated that the biosensor is sensitive enough to detect carbamate pesticides in real fruit matrices. The detection limit for carbaryl, carbofuran, and methomyl in real fruit samples by amperometric method was determined to be 0.136 mg/L, 0.145 mg/L, and 0.203 mg/L, respectively. The application of the Pt/GO-PANI/HRP biosensor has demonstrated that the biosensor is sensitive enough for amperometric detection and could be a useful tool in the screening of these pesticides at low concentrations.",signatures:"Luleka Luzi-Thafeni, B. Silwana, E. Iwuoha and V. Somerset",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49131",authors:[{id:"6648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vernon",surname:"Somerset",slug:"vernon-somerset",fullName:"Vernon Somerset"},{id:"174228",title:"Ms.",name:"Luleka",surname:"Luzi-Thafeni",slug:"luleka-luzi-thafeni",fullName:"Luleka Luzi-Thafeni"}],corrections:null},{id:"48494",title:"Biosensors for the detection of antibiotic residues in milk",doi:"10.5772/60464",slug:"biosensors-for-the-detection-of-antibiotic-residues-in-milk",totalDownloads:3270,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Milk and dairy products are important nutrients for all age groups. However, the use of antibiotics for the treatment of food-producing animals generates the risk to human health, as these compounds and their metabolites can be transferred into milk. Rapid testing of the presence of antibiotics in raw milk to grant its quality has become a major task for farmers and dairy industry. The conventional analytical methods are either too slow or do not enable quantitative detection of antibiotic residues, so alternative methods that are rapid, cost effective, and easy to perform should be considered. The present chapter gives an overview of the recent developments and issues of the construction of different biosensors for the detection of antibiotic residues in milk.",signatures:"Kairi Kivirand, Margarita Kagan and Toonika Rinken",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48494",authors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"},{id:"174179",title:"Dr.",name:"Kairi",surname:"Kivirand",slug:"kairi-kivirand",fullName:"Kairi Kivirand"},{id:"174180",title:"Ms.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Kagan",slug:"margarita-kagan",fullName:"Margarita Kagan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3222",title:"State of the Art in Biosensors",subtitle:"General Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0057daafc7f0654587e99f5fc3f03a34",slug:"state-of-the-art-in-biosensors-general-aspects",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3222.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3484",title:"State of the Art in Biosensors",subtitle:"Environmental and Medical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b84ae4104612ff69dc3061cf297137f7",slug:"state-of-the-art-in-biosensors-environmental-and-medical-applications",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7007",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f0aa079c718ff38aece0a8cecb65f98",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken and Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6319",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",subtitle:"A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f05d502dd643d2bd94344235d6e13199",slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken and Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6319.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4616",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity and Risk Assessment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a96b5d34ca84aecacbab309ba1e7e563",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-and-risk-assessment",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4616.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2259",title:"The Delivery of Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ca3c54296ceb94d17500474ed6f0ee71",slug:"the-delivery-of-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"Abbass A. Hashim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2259.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1330",title:"Advances in Unconventional Lithography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96f98ca60d487eabffec289d8b25895d",slug:"advances-in-unconventional-lithography",bookSignature:"Gorgi Kostovski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1330.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63186",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorgi",surname:"Kostovski",slug:"gorgi-kostovski",fullName:"Gorgi Kostovski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"corrigendum-to-evaluation-of-psoriasis-patients",title:"Corrigendum to: Evaluation of Psoriasis Patients",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65200.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65200",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65200",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65200",chapter:{id:"63332",slug:"evaluation-of-psoriasis-patients",signatures:"Meda Sandra Orasan, Iulia Ioana Roman and Andrei Coneac",dateSubmitted:"April 17th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 26th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 17th 2019",book:{id:"7045",title:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",slug:"tailored-treatments-in-psoriatic-patients",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202125",title:"Dr.",name:"Meda",middleName:"Sandra",surname:"Orasan",fullName:"Meda Orasan",slug:"meda-orasan",email:"meda2002m@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"205669",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Coneac",fullName:"Andrei Coneac",slug:"andrei-coneac",email:"andrei.coneac@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255002",title:"Dr.",name:"Iulia Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Roman",fullName:"Iulia Ioana Roman",slug:"iulia-ioana-roman",email:"iuliaroman09@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63332",slug:"evaluation-of-psoriasis-patients",signatures:"Meda Sandra Orasan, Iulia Ioana Roman and Andrei Coneac",dateSubmitted:"April 17th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 26th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 17th 2019",book:{id:"7045",title:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",slug:"tailored-treatments-in-psoriatic-patients",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202125",title:"Dr.",name:"Meda",middleName:"Sandra",surname:"Orasan",fullName:"Meda Orasan",slug:"meda-orasan",email:"meda2002m@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"205669",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Coneac",fullName:"Andrei Coneac",slug:"andrei-coneac",email:"andrei.coneac@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255002",title:"Dr.",name:"Iulia Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Roman",fullName:"Iulia Ioana Roman",slug:"iulia-ioana-roman",email:"iuliaroman09@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7045",title:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",slug:"tailored-treatments-in-psoriatic-patients",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10634",leadTitle:null,title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tMinimally invasive spinal fusion is one of the fastest-growing areas in surgery. Patients are demanding better treatment for a variety of spinal disorders. Patients expect faster recoveries, better outcomes, and techniques and technologies for treating spinal disorders that reduce surgical complications and post-operative pain. Minimally invasive spinal procedures work to limit damage to normal anatomical structures of the spine that can achieve patients' goals to quick recovery and better outcomes. Surgeons wish to learn minimally invasive spinal techniques and technologies that improve patient outcomes.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will focus on innovative techniques and technologies that can be used to improve patient outcomes and have been developed by minimally invasive spine experts. The textbook is well illustrated with the inclusion of a variety of cases. These cases will be presented to show pre-operative patient evaluation and radiographic studies, rational to technique and technology selected intra-operative images, and post-operative images and patient outcomes. It is hoped that this technique will instruct patients and surgeons as to the best operative minimally invasive procedures to achieve optimal clinical outcomes.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-302-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-301-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-303-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b6658fda99691e4942e550fb04dc3f8d",bookSignature:"Prof. Mick Perez-Cruet",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg",keywords:"Minimally Invasive, Spine, Fusion, Improved Outcomes, Patient Outcomes, Quality of Life, Fast Recovery, Fusion Rates, Case Review, Radiographic Images, Patient Selection, Pre-Operative Workup",numberOfDownloads:1336,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Perez-Cruet is an internationally recognized pioneer in minimally invasive spine surgery. He is Vice-Chairman and Professor of the Department of Neurosurgery, Oakland University William Beaumont, School of Medicine, Royal Oak, MI. He has served as the Michigan delegate to the Council of State Neurosurgical Societies (CSNS) for 20 years, was president of the Michigan Association of Neurological Surgeons (MANS), and holds several administrative positions within Beaumont.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"62623",title:"Prof.",name:"Mick",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Cruet",slug:"mick-perez-cruet",fullName:"Mick Perez-Cruet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62623/images/system/62623.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mick Perez-Cruet is an internationally recognized pioneer in the treatment of spinal disorders using minimally invasive surgical techniques. His experience spans more than thirty years. He is vice chairman and professor of the Department of Neurosurgery, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, MI. He is one of the core faculty for the recently established ACGME Neurosurgery Residency Program at the same university. He is the Beaumont Neurosurgeon Champion for the Michigan Spine Surgery Improvement Collaborative (MSSIC), which is the largest comprehensive spine surgery outcome registry in the country. He dedicates much of his time to teaching neurosurgeons, fellows, residents, and medical students. He has served as the Michigan delegate to the Council of State Neurosurgical Societies (CSNS) for more than twenty years, was president of the Michigan Association of Neurological Surgeons (MANS), and holds several administrative positions within Beaumont. 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For decades, antibiotics, although less effective in biofilm-growing bacteria [2], have represented our best weapon against bacterial diseases. However, the on-going emergence and worldwide spreading of resistant bacteria is considerably reducing the antibiotic pallet available for the treatment of bacterial infections [3]. This alarming situation forces researchers to consider other strategies to combat bacterial infections, notably the use of phages [4] or the use of alternative agents, such as essential oils [5], silver nanoparticles [6], bacteriocins [7], and antimicrobial peptides [8]. Some interesting strategies propose original compounds that disrupt biofilm formation without affecting the viability of invading bacteria; this strategy is expected (i) to reduce the bacterial aptitude to build protective barriers, but without exerting a selective pressure
In most bacteria, the expressions of virulence factors are coordinated by quorum sensing (QS) mechanisms, a cell-to-cell communication which allows bacteria to detect their population density by producing and perceiving diffusible signal molecules to synchronize common actions [9]. This cell-to-cell communication has been largely investigated in
Like most bacteria,
The biofilm formation can be delimited in five main stages (Figure 1, image A). A first reversible phase corresponds to the initial adhesion of bacteria to surfaces; this adhesion becomes irreversible in the second stage (image B). Then, thanks to a proliferation period corresponding to the third stage, microcolonies are built concomitantly with the production of extracellular matrix (image C), leading to the fourth stage of biofilm structuration and organization in which the growth of three dimensional communities is observed with amplified extracellular matrix production (image D). This biofilm cycle is completed by a dispersion step (image E) [12].
\nSketch of the different steps of a biofilm development (A) [
The secreted extracellular matrix mainly consists of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and exopolysaccharides (EPS). These account for 50–90% of total organic matter [16].
Extracellular DNA (eDNA) is an important component of
The complex regulation of biofilm formation involves multiple bacterial machineries including the QS systems. In
Systems involved in
Functions positively regulated by QS in
Evidence that the
Furthermore, Gilbert et al. [33] observed the binding of the QS regulator LasR to the promoter region of the
Notably, the production of rhamnolipids and lectins is under QS control, indicating a further indirect link between biofilm formation/degradation and QS.
\nIndeed, the
The QS systems are not the sole key actors intervening in biofilm formation by
Microorganisms known to have the ability to produce anti-QS enzymes are still limited to a few bacteria from the families of (i)
Four types of enzymes are known to degrade AHLs [57, 58], a phenomenon sometimes described as “quorum quenching” (QQ) [59]; these include AHL-lactonases and decarboxylases that attack the lactone ring (
\n
The acetic and phenyl lactic acids, found in the supernatant of probiotic strains
Penicillin produced by
Erythromycin, a macrolide antibiotic isolated from
Recently, Kim et al. [77] indicated that the alkylcyclopentanone terrein, isolated from
Many phenolic compounds and derivatives with anti-QS and antibiofilm activities have been isolated from plants [79]. Cinnamaldehyde [the dominant compound of certain essential oils, in particular
Ellagic acid derivatives from
Flavonoids have been investigated for their roles as QS modulating compounds. From these, naringenin and taxifolin reduced the expression of several QS-controlled genes (i.e.,
Furocoumarins from grapefruit can inhibit the QS signaling (AHLs and AI-2) of
Malabaricone C, a diarylnonanoid isolated from the bark of
A screening of various herbs revealed that a clove extract [
Recently, caffeine (a purine alkaloid) has been shown to inhibit AHLs production and swarming mobility in
The pentacyclic triterpenoid ursolic acid was identified as an inhibitor of biofilm formation from
Isothiocyanates produced by many plants are also QS inhibitors in
A further compound known to affect the QS-regulated genes in
A series of studies have indicated that marine organisms are a potential source of anti-QS [102–104]. The halogenated furanones produced by the red alga
Following a screening of 284 extracts from the marine sponge
Type I porcine kidney acylase inactivates QS signals such as C6-HSL and 3-oxo-C12-HSL but not C4-HSL [50]. This type I acylase moderately reduces biofilm formation in
Mammalian cells release enzymes called paraoxonases 1 (extracted from human and murine sera) that have lactonase activity; degrading
The
This review presents natural compounds reported to exhibit anti-QS and antibiofilm properties against
\n | Origin | \nCompounds (class) | \nTarget (QS) | \nSynergy with antibiotics | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Prokaryotes | \n\n | \nAHL-acylase (Enzyme) | \nAHL degradation | \nNC | \n
AHL-lactonase (Enzyme) | \nNC | \n|||
\n | \nAcetic acid, lactic acid, phenyl lactic acid | \nAHL antagonist | \nNC | \n|
Fungi | \n\n | \nPenicillic acid (Furanone) | \nLasR and RhlR | \nNC | \n
Patulin (Furopyranone) | \nLasR and RhlR\nǂ\n\n | \n+\n1\n\n | \n||
\n | \nErythromycin (Macrolide) | \n\n | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nTerrein (alkylcyclopentanone) | \nLasR and RhlR antagonist; c-di-GMP | \nNC | \n|
marine organisms | \n\n | \nhalogenated furanones and derivative | \nAHL antagonist | \n+\n1\n\n | \n
\n | \nManoalide (Sesterterpenoid) | \n\n | \nNC | \n|
Plants | \n\n | \nCassipourol (terpenoid), β-sitosterol (terpenoid) | \n\n | \n+\n1\n\n | \n
\n | \nCatechin (Flavonoid) | \n\n | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nOleanolic aldehyde Coumarate (Phenolic compound) | \n\n | \n+\n1\n\n | \n|
\n | \nAjoene (Organosulfur) | \n\n | \n+\n1\n\n | \n|
\n | \nIberin (Isothiocyanate) | \n\n | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nEllagic acid derivatives (Phenolic compound) | \n\n | \n+\n1\n\n | \n|
\n | \nEugenol (Phenylpropanoid) | \n\n | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nCurcumin (Phenolic compound) | \nAHLs inhibition | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nBergamottin and dihydroxybergamottin (Furocoumarins) | \nAHLs inhibition | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nEmodin (Anthraquinone) | \ndocking traR\n*\n\n | \n+\n2\n\n | \n|
\n | \nBaicalin (Flavonoid) | \n\n | \n+\n1\n\n | \n|
\n | \n6-gingerol (Phenolic compound) | \ndocking lasR | \nNC | \n|
Animals and Human | \nPorcine kidney [50, 107] | \nType I acylase | \nAHL degradation | \nNC | \n
Human and murine sera [109, 110] | \nParaoxonases 1 Enzyme (lactonase) | \nAHL degradation | \nNC | \n|
\n | \nSolenopsin A (Alkaloid) | \n\n | \nNC | \n
Natural compounds inhibiting
Patulin alone does not affect the development of biofilm.
LuxR-type transcription factor of Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
Aminoglycosides.
Ampicillin.
+, yes; NC, not communicated.
The increasing presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria certainly pushes scientists to reorient the strategy of fight against bacterial infections to defer entry into a post-antibiotic era where major antibiotics would not be effective even for banal infections. Antivirulence approaches and antivirulence drugs are being increasingly considered as potential therapeutic alternatives and/or adjuvants to currently failing antibiotics. For example, oleanolic aldehyde coumarate and cassipourol, anti-QS compounds, exert interesting antibiofilm properties, restoring the effectiveness of the antibiotic tobramycin in the clearance of biofilm-encapsulated
\n
Despite these important prospects, however, the big breakthrough in antibacterial strategies is still out of reach. This is probably due to a very complex entanglement between different QS systems, to the ability of
The authors would like to thank ARES (Académie de Recherche et d’Enseignement Supérieur, Belgium) for financial support throughout PRD projects.
\nThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
Many of the detergents that had used worldwide comprised of anionic surfactant about 50–60% and nonionic surfactant 40% [1]. Surface active agents abbreviated to surfactants, which is one of the significant components of detergents that consisted of one or more hydrocarbon chains (organic compounds) and hydrophobic or hydrophilic characteristics [2]. In addition to the widespread uses of surfactants in washing purposes, besides used in the composition of emulsifiers, pesticide formulations, fibers, wetting agents, cosmetics, and treatment of textiles [3].
\nAccording to the charge of the hydrophilic part, the surfactants classify into anionic, cationic, nonionic, and amphoteric, and for this reason, it’s applied in various domestic and industrial purposes. Thence, they could be passed into all ecosystem compartments (soil, water, and sediment) in multiple ways, after that subjected to different physicochemical processes in an environment like sorption, degradation, and transformation freely [4, 5, 6]. These compounds have a high propensity to adsorb in sediments, which represents an extreme concentration [7, 8]. Often, the solid wastes had thrown into the river from sewage treatment plants. These compounds in the environment are different in their fate, behavior, actions, and interaction with other components [9]. The environmental danger of surfactants is bioaccumulation, which has a detrimental effect on aquatic organisms, such as toxicity and endocrine homeostasis. It also improves the solubility of organic compounds in water, which can contribute to movement and aggregation in various divisions of the environmental [8].
\nThe contamination of sediments is a major environmental problem worldwide. Weak ecological management in the past has contributed to natural bodies and erratic incidents, resulting in deposits being swept away by other pollutants [10, 11]. At low concentrations of surfactants in the environment are considered as safe as organic pollutants, while the toxicities at a high level had taken of great interest [12].
\nOne of the main justifications for this study is that surfactants are very toxic and hazardous substances for aquatic organisms, and their everyday uses in domestic and industrial fields encourage their quantitative and qualitative examination in the Tigris River sediment. There is also a vast knowledge discrepancy that needs to explore concerning a surfactant product on the Tigris River. However, the quantitative and qualitative distribution of these surfactant compounds in river sediment had investigated in this study. Besides, this study also offers quantitative details on the effect of such surfactant classes on some of the river water’s physicochemical properties and correlates this evidence with known standards.
\n\nFigure 1 illustrates the detergent ingredients, which consist of three groups [13].
\nTypical detergents group.
A detergent is a surfactant that has cleaning characteristics in a dilute solution. Almost the alkylbenzene-sulfonates are usually substances of these compounds, and according to Authors [1, 13] which they mentioned that surfactant has a less ability to link with hard water compenent ions such as calcium in contrast with soap in hard water because its polar carboxyl. The word detergent in most domestic settings specifically refers traditionally the detergent known as agent of cleaning in restaurants and laundries, also as different home uses.
\nDetergents are widely present as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents like soaps work because they are amphiphilic, partly hydrophilic (polar), and somewhat hydrophobic (nonpolar). These properties facilities the mixture of hydrophobic compounds (such as oil and grease) with water. One of the essential features of detergents is degraded in aquatic systems by microorganisms in the presence of O2 into more toxic and harmless products (CO2, H2O, carbonates, and bicarbonates) [14].
\nSurfactants are a component that mainly responsible for the cleaning action of detergents [14].
\nSurfactants have a unique structure of molecules; one soluble part in polar media (hydrophilic), which is known as the head, while the other part nonpolar media (hydrophobic) is called the tail (Figure 2) [13]. They classified according to the head group into anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and nonionic compounds [2]. Anionic and cationic compounds have permanently, negative and positive charges, respectively, that are associated with the C-C chain (Figure 2). Anionic compounds have no charge. Instead, they have several atoms that are weakly electropositive and electronegative. That is because of the attraction of electrons to oxygen atoms [15].
\nSurfactant structure [
The presence of polar and nonpolar groups in a surfactant molecule provides them with specific properties against all media; surfactant tends to absorb various surfaces. At a low concentration in water, the surfactant molecules are found as monomers [8], while at high levels, they exist as micelles (Figure 3) [16]. Such micelles are adsorbed at boundary phases in order to eliminate hydrophobic sections from water and the system’s free energy [17, 18].
\nA detergent and soap-micelle in water [
Because of a unique structure of surfactants, they found to use in different anthropogenic activities, including household or industrial products that improve the efficiency of the following processes:
Wetting/waterproofing,
Foaming,
Emulsification,
Dispersion or flocculation of vital objects in liquid forms,
Dissolving soluble reagents (non−/ in small quantities) in solvents,
And the viscosity of solution levels rises or decreases [19].
Areas of use of surfactants are shown in Table 1 [6].
\n\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
The areas of surfactants application [6].
Surfactants show a significant impact on biological activities and function, especially AS when bound to proteins, enzymes, and DNA [20]. Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) (a type of cationic surfactant) can associate bacterial internal membranes [21]. One of the mixtures of surfactants that can bind to the components of the bacterial membrane is NS. It is found as anti-microbial compounds, as it increases the permeability properties that ultimately cause cell death [22].
\nBecause of the high use of surfactants during everyday life needs to increase the study, the ecotoxicity of these compounds on aquatic life. A significant problem is the concentration of these surfactants in the sewage sludge, which is at high levels. Holt [23] noticed that despite the high concentrations of these surfactants found to degraded in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), some of them remain in surface water, soil, or sediments [23]. The accumulation of these surfactants at high concentrations inhibits or prevents the sludge of microorganisms from the decomposition of pollutants in WWTP. Different types of surfactants exist in various environmental sections such as surface waters, sewage effluents, etc. Significant risks to the water surface ecosystem as a result of the extensive use and disposal of these surfactants [24]. Therefore, Croatian has identified specific criteria for their presence in the water body in Table 2 [25]. Numerous studies have examined the toxicity of surfactants on bacteria, algae, invertebrates, and fish in the aquatic environment [26].
\nClass of surfactants | \nMAC/mgL−1\n | \n|
---|---|---|
Surface waters | \nSewage system | \n|
Anionic surfactants | \n1.0 | \n10.0 | \n
Nonionic surfactants | \n1.0 | \n10.0 | \n
Cationic surfactants | \n0.2 | \n2.0 | \n
The maximum allowed concentrations (MAC) of surfactants in wastewater effluent, which can release in a natural aquatic recipient and sewage system in Croatia [25].
Because of the particular structure of surfactant molecules, its use in different fields for human life activities. After the use of surfactants or their decomposition products, they will dispose of the WWTP. In case of the absence of WWTP, it will drop into surface water directly and impact aquatic ecosystems such as in the rural area. At the same time, sorption and biodegradation in the WWTP had observed to decompose all surfactants [8, 27].
\nAfter treatment processes in WWTP (second stage) for chemical compounds of surfactants, these compounds degraded under optimal conditions about 90–95% of initial surfactant concentration presented in inflowing streams can remove which depending on the efficiency of WWTP [28]. A large part of pollutants extracted as sewage sludge with a percentage ranging from 15% to more than 90%, while it notices that alkylphenol ethoxylates (APE) turned into more toxic when it decomposition [29, 30].
\nAfter all processes in WWTP effluents and sewage sludge, different types of surfactants and their degradation (several μg/L or g/Kg) can be existed [28, 31]. As a result of the toxic effects of surfactants through their concentration in different environmental departments, literary studies have increased significantly.
\nIn the water ecosystem, the surfactants are undergoing sorption and aerobic/anaerobic degradation processes. As a result of these processes, they lead to the elimination of pollutants and their transport to water systems.
\nAbsorption and adsorption are considered a single process. While the sorption process prevents chemical compounds from degradation and hence their bioavailability can be decreased. Sorption processes are affected by some of the environmental parameters such as temperature, pH, salinity, carbon, or clay content of the particulate phase [8, 32]. Many researchers had observed that there is a relationship between higher salinity of water samples and higher sorption percentages for linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) on suspended solids such as calcium and magnesium [33]. Some surfactants have turned into more toxic decomposition products (e.g., for alkyl-phenol ethoxylates (APE) products). The researcher recorded a high concentration of the polar compounds in the dissolved form [33, 34], such as C10 LAS, short-chain SPC (carboxylic sulfo-phenyl acids), and NPEC (nonyl-phenoxy-monocarboxylates).
\nThe sorption process is associated with the hydrophobic nature of compounds such as:
more polar AS were noticed in the dissolved phases;
less polar CS (cationic surfactant) and NS notified in the particulate phases where their transport is associated with suspended solids [35].
Through WWTP, the primary degradation of surfactants occurs by the activity of microorganisms to decrease toxic effects on living organisms. Microbes can use surfactants as their energy source and growth requirements during degradation processes. The efficiency of biodegradation of surfactant compounds in the environment is affected by many factors such as the chemical composition of analytes and physic-chemical parameters such as temperature, light, presence of oxygen, and salinity. On the other hand, some of the compounds (e.g., LAS, ditallow dimethyl ammonium chloride (DTDMAC)) may be persistent under anaerobic conditions [8, 35, 36]. Quiroga et al. [37] discovered that salinity adversely affects sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) degradation, while temperature increases the degradation process. Also, sediment enhances the biodegradation rate by gathering both surfactants and bacteria together. Cserhati et al. [20] reported that the adsorption of surfactants on sediment leads to stimulate the bacteria to attach them and cause biodegradation of these compounds. Manzano et al. [38] noticed that APE degradation was increased by temperature; at 7°C, about 68% of surfactant degraded while 96% at 25°C. While the degradation of APEs was slow down with light [36].
\nThe presence of surfactants in the water networks leads to their natural decomposition (half-life time of hours to a few days) according to their characteristics and environmental parameters. These surfactants can also be subjected to either adhesion to suspended solids or accumulation in sediments. In environments with a shortage of oxygen (starting at a depth of a few cms), only anaerobic pathways can degrade surfactants. Although processes in the anaerobic state are slower or not detected (e.g., DTDMAC), and pollutants in the sediment are stay longer time [8, 35]. In experimental studies, researchers found that the acceptable degradation percent of LAS with the use of anoxic marine sediments (up to 79% in 165 days) [34, 35].
\nThe adsorption of surfactants on sediments depends on their charge, which is a significant factor. The CA can undergo sorption in deposit much faster. In contrast to AS like sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) [39]. Factors that increase the ability of CS to adsorb on sediment particles are pH, organic carbon contents, charge of its head, and surface sediment charge. So SDBS shows lower sorption than the CS due to the negative charge of SDBS as compared to CS that have a positive charge [39]. Thus the adsorption of surfactant types in sediment can be put in the order as Cationic > Nonionic > Anionic. Marcomini et al. [40] showed a significant temporal difference in LAS concentration and nonyl-phenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) in Lake Venice. They have explained high temperature that affects biodegradation. Temporal variation had for some surfactants in Glatt River (Switzerland) [30]. The surfactants are nonyl-phenol, lipophilic nonylphenol monoethoxylate and nonylphenol diethoxylate.
\nThe types of equipment and instruments used in the current study as below (Table 3)
\nItem | \nDevices | \nCompany/Origin | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nTemperature, pH, Salinity, EC (portable meter H19811) | \nWTW/Germany | \n
2 | \nIncubator | \nMemmer/Germany | \n
3 | \nHigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Spectrometry (HPLC 8040) | \nSyknmS1122/Germany | \n
4 | \nCOD Meter | \nLovibond/Germany | \n
5 | \nDistillation device | \nWaterpia/Korea | \n
6 | \nMultiparameter photometer/C99 | \nHanna/Romania | \n
7 | \nMultiparameter photometer/HI83200 | \nHanna/Romania | \n
8 | \nTurbidity meter | \nLovibond/Germany | \n
9 | \nOven | \nMemmer/Germany | \n
10 | \nSensitive balance | \nPhoenix/Korea | \n
11 | \nVacuum pump | \nChina | \n
12 | \nEkman Grape Sampler | \nBDH/Germany | \n
13 | \nPhotolab S12 (PHD) | \nWTW/Germany | \n
14 | \nFilter paper 0.45 μm | \nWhittman/UK | \n
15 | \nUltrasonic Bath | \nISOLAB/Germany | \n
16 | \nGPS device | \nGPS Map 78 s Germin/Tiwan | \n
List of equipments and instruments in this study.
See Table 4.
\nItem | \nMaterial | \nCompany/Origin | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nMnSO4.H2O | \nFluka/Germany | \n
2 | \nKOH | \nFluka/Germany | \n
3 | \nKI | \nSigma-Aldrich/Germany | \n
4 | \nNaN3\n | \nFluka/Germany | \n
5 | \nNaOH | \nFluka/Germany | \n
6 | \nNa2, NO3, PO4 Kit | \nHanna/Romania | \n
7 | \nCOD | \nLovibond/Germany | \n
8 | \nK2Cr2O7\n | \nFluka/Germany | \n
9 | \nFe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O | \nFluka/Germany | \n
10 | \nH2SO4\n | \nFluka/Germany | \n
11 | \nH3PO4\n | \nFluka/Germany | \n
12 | \nNaF | \nFluka/Germany | \n
13 | \nHCL | \nFluka/Germany | \n
14 | \nFormaldehyde 37–40% | \nRomil/UK | \n
15 | \nMethanol | \nRomil/UK | \n
16 | \nEthylacetate | \nFluka/Germany | \n
17 | \nDichloromethane | \nRomil/UK | \n
18 | \nAcetic acid | \nFluka/Germany | \n
19 | \nAcetonitrile | \nFluka/Germany | \n
20 | \nAnionic surfactant Kit | \nWTW/Germany | \n
21 | \nNonionic surfactant | \nWTW/Germany | \n
22 | \n4-dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid mixture of isomersm ≥95% | \nSigma-Adrich/Germany | \n
23 | \n4-nonylphenyl-polyethylene glycol non-ionic | \nSigma-Adrich/Germany | \n
24 | \nNa2S2O3.5H2O | \nFluka/Germany | \n
List of chemical materials in this study.
This research was done along the Tigris River within Baghdad city in Iraq for four specific locations for the period from February 2017 to February 2018. Samples (water and sediment) had collected per month for five months of the wet season and eight months of the dry season. The collection of samples had done between 8.30 am to 2.30 pm hours. Four sites had chosen to cover from north to south of Baghdad city. Sample locations are; Al-Muthanna bridge (Site 1-upstream), Al-Sarrafia Bridge (Site 2-midstream), Al-Shuhada Bridge in the north of Baghdad city (Site 3-midstream) and Al-Dora Bridge in the south of Baghdad city (site 4-downstream); (Figure 4). Global Positioning System (GPS) (Table 5), locations of the research sites were determined.
\nThe study sites in the Tigris River, Baghdad city-Iraq.
Site number | \nSite name | \nCoordinates | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Longitude (E) | \nLatitude (N) | \n||
1 | \nAl-Muthanna Bridge | \n44°34′55.50” | \n33°42′83.22” | \n
2 | \nAl-Sarrafia Bridge | \n44°37′36.01” | \n33°35′37.53” | \n
3 | \nAl-Shuhada Bridge | \n44°38′79.03” | \n33°33′79.59” | \n
4 | \nAl-Dora Bridge | \n44°45′02.84” | \n33°28′96.82” | \n
The geographical positions (GPS) of the study sites.
Duplicate water samples (1 liter) had collected from the surface layer (depth 20–30) in stopper fitted clean polyethylene bottles pre-washed with distilled water. The polyethylene bottles were rinsed several times before filling with water samples from the river. The physical and chemical properties for water samples were measured directly after collection. Air temperature (AT), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity (Tur.), water flow (WF), water temperature (WT), pH were all measured in the field. At the same time, other parameters were analyzed directly in the Environmental Research Center at the University of Technology, Iraq. Such as salinity (S‰), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), nitrite (NO2), nitrate (NO3), phosphate (PO4), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), organic matter percent (OM%), and total organic carbon percent (TOC%). All tests had done by the standard methods [41].
\nSediment samples had collected using an Ekman Grab (n = 3) for each site to 5 cm depth from the river. Excess water drained and added an adequate 10% formalin volume to submerge the sediment for storage as glass jars and transported to the laboratory. Aluminum foil cleaned with methanol was put over the pot’s mouth and then put into the cap to avoid sample contamination. Laboratory sediment samples had reserved at approximately 4°C before surfactant analysis [42].
\nFor 16 hours at 80°C in the oven, the sediment sample for AS dried. After excluding large stones and grit from the dry sediments, surfactant compounds were then extracted (10 gm) with methanol at 50°C (240 V, 3A, 50 Hz) by Ultrasonic water bath (ISOLAB/Germany). Three 10 min extractions (50 ml and 2 x 40 ml) had been done, and then by centrifugation. It then concentrated the combined extract to 2 ml [42].
\nFor NS, sediment samples were homogenized before extraction by sieving with a 2 mm stainless steel sieve. Also, in the same method above, extraction of surfactant compounds was done with Ultrasonic water bath by using a mixture of methanol-dichloromethane (7:3, v/v). The final elutes evaporated afterward with a gentle stream of nitrogen gas and reconstituted with 1 ml of methanol [33].
\nThe photometer photo lab S12 (PHD) and the High-Performance Liquid Chromatography system configuration (HPLC) (Syknm-S1122- Germany) measured both AS and NS after extraction. The 4-dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid and 4-nonyl-phenyl-polyethylene glycol were used as standard solutions in this study for AS and NS, respectively.
\nData had exposed to descriptive statistical analysis and one-way variance analysis (ANOVA). Probabilities less than 0.05 (P ˂ 0.05) have been used statistically significant. Also, Cluster Analysis (CA) had used the Statistical Release 7 program to classify data, cases, or objects or clusters. The principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted as a series of irrelevant variables to retrieve critical information. Results provided plotting graphs in which the elements of the forecasts groups, along with the loading of the variables. Through the value of Eigenvalue had concluded the essential component or by the proportion of the explained variance [43, 44].
\nThe results of the physicochemical parameters of the Tigris River water samples had compared with the Iraqi Maintaining System Law [45] and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) [46, 47] guidelines illustrated in Table 6.
\nParameters | \nRange | \nMean | \nStandard Deviation | \nStandard values | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | \nMaximum | \nLaw 25/1967 | \nCCME | \n|||
Physical Parameters | \n||||||
Air temperature (AT) (°C) | \n12.55 (w) | \n43.73 (d) | \n26.27 | \n±9.64 | \n— | \n— | \n
Electrical conductivity (EC) (μs/cm) | \n580.50 (d) | \n1108.75 (w) | \n876.27 | \n±148.05 | \n0.5–1.0 | \n— | \n
Salinity (S) ‰ | \n0.20 (d) | \n0.48 (w) | \n0.35 | \n±0.08 | \n— | \n— | \n
Total dissolved solids (TDS) (mg/L) | \n362.75 (d) | \n711.75 (w) | \n563.87 | \n±105.47 | \n1000 | \n500 | \n
Total suspended solids (TSS) (mg/L) | \n3.00 (d) | \n84.50 (d) | \n18.58 | \n±22.05 | \n60 | \n— | \n
Turbidity (Tur) (NTU) | \n10.61 (w) | \n193.75 (d) | \n67.83 | \n±65.36 | \n5 | \n5 | \n
Water flow (WF) (m/s) | \n0.31 (w) | \n0.71 (d) | \n0.47 | \n±0.13 | \n— | \n— | \n
Water temperature (WT) (°C) | \n10.36 (w) | \n30.11 (d) | \n21.59 | \n±6.83 | \n>35 | \n15 | \n
Chemical parameters (standard values) | \n||||||
pH | \n7.43 (d) | \n8.25 (w) | \n7.75 | \n±0.22 | \n6–9.5 | \n6.5–9 | \n
Nutrients (mg/L) | \n||||||
Nitrite (NO2) | \n0.01 (d) | \n0.45 (d) | \n0.11 | \n±0.12 | \n0.06 | \n0.06 | \n
Nitrate (NO3) | \n0.64 (d) | \n8.97 (d) | \n4.18 | \n±2.82 | \n15 | \n13 | \n
Phosphate (PO4) | \n0.07 (w) | \n1.52 (w) | \n0.66 | \n±0.43 | \n0.4 | \n0.1 | \n
Organic | \n||||||
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) (mg/L) | \n0.53 (w) | \n3.67 (d) | \n1.5 | \n±0.79 | \n>5 | \n— | \n
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) (mg/L) | \n3.75 (w) | \n88.25 (d) | \n36.73 | \n±34.9 | \n>100 | \n— | \n
Dissolved oxygen (DO) (mg/L) | \n4.63 (d) | \n11 (w) | \n6.18 | \n±2.06 | \n˂5 | \n5.5–9 | \n
Organic matter (OM) (%) | \n0.43 (d) | \n5.55 (d) | \n1.7 | \n±1.44 | \n— | \n— | \n
Total organic carbon (TOC) (%) | \n0.27 (d) | \n2.24 (w) | \n0.88 | \n±0.56 | \n— | \n— | \n
Physicochemical characteristics of Tigris River for wet and dry seasons.
- = not applicable, w = wet season, d = dry season.
Law 25/1967 = Iraqi River Maintaining System Law.
CCME = Canadian Council of Management of the Environment.
Air temperature (AT) had ranged between 12.55–43.73°C. In comparison, the water temperature (WT) showed a noticeable seasonal trend with a minimum value of 10.36°C recorded in the wet season and a maximum value of 30.11°C in the dry season.
\nAn EC in this study had ranged between 580.50 and 1108.75 μs/cm in dry and wet seasons, respectively, indicated levels higher than the limit standards.
\nThe concentration of salinity (S‰) varied from 0.2 to 0.48‰, respectively, in the dry and wet seasons. The TDS ranged from 362.75 mg/L during the dry season to 711.75 mg/L during the wet season, but these high concentrations for S‰ and TDS are within the limited value.
\nThe lowest value of total suspended solids (TSS) in the dry season was 3.00 mg/L, and the highest level in the dry season was 84.50 mg/L, while turbidity varied from 10.61 to 193.75 NTU in the wet and dry seasons, respectively.
\nWater flow (WF) had recorded the highest value in the dry season (0.71 m/s) (Table 6).
\nThe pH value was between 7.43 in the dry season and 8.25 in the wet season.
\nNutrients include nitrite (NO2), nitrate (NO3), and phosphate (PO4). Concentration ranges recorded in dry and wet seasons were 0.01–0.45 mg/L for NO2, 0.64–8.97 mg/L for NO3, and 0.07–1.52 mg/L for PO4, respectively. Naturally occurring ions in water as part of the nitrogen cycle are NO2 and NO3. Concentrations were remarkably higher for all three nutrients in the wet season than those in the dry season except for PO4 in the wet season. NO2 displayed higher concentrations than dry season requirements, while NO3 had declined significantly compared with acceptable values for both dry and wet seasons (Table 6).
\nIn this study, the measured organic materials are biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), percent organic matter (OM%), and total organic carbon (TOC%). Ranges observed in wet and dry seasons were 0.53–3.67 mg/L for BOD, 3.75–88.25 mg/L for COD, while DO values ranged from 4.63–11.00 mg/L respectively in dry and wet seasons. In this study, the DO is within the allowed limit (Table 6).
\nOM% ranged from 0.43 to 5.55% in the dry season in the present study, although the TOC% in dry and wet seasons ranged from 0.27% to 2.24%, respectively. In this study, the highest values had been registered in dry season for OM% and in wet season for TOC% (Table 6).
\nThe findings of the soil texture differed among the sites of the study as follows (Table 7): in S1 it was clay loam (40.4% silt, 30.6% sand, and 29% clay), in S2 it was clay loam (37.7% silt, 27.5% clay and 34.8% sand), S3 it was clay loam (38.6% silt, 33% clay and 28.4% sand) and silty clay loam (51.6% silt, 37% clay and 44.4% sand) at S4.
\nSite | \nSoil percentage | \nSoil class | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Clay% | \nSilt% | \nSand% | \nSoil texture | \n|
S1 | \n29 | \n40.4 | \n30.6 | \nClay loam | \n
S2 | \n27.5 | \n37.7 | \n34.8 | \nClay loam | \n
S3 | \n33 | \n38.6 | \n28.4 | \nClay loam | \n
S4 | \n37 | \n51.6 | \n11.4 | \nSilty clay loam | \n
Soil texture of sediment samples.
Descriptive analysis for anionic surfactant (AS) and nonionic surfactant (NS) concentrations in sediment from the Tigris River sites during the study period by using photo lab S12 (PHD) and HPLC had demonstrated in Table 8.
\nParameters | \nRange | \nMean | \nStandard deviation | \nStandard values | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | \nMaximum | \nLaw 25/1967 | \nCCME for rivers | \n|||
Phtolab (μg/g) | \n||||||
Anionic Surfactant (AS) | \n41.83 (w) | \n72.05 (w) | \n52.85 | \n9.88 | \n— | \n— | \n
Nonionic Surfactant (NS) | \nND (w&d) | \n56.19 (d) | \n17.12 | \n26.73 | \n— | \n— | \n
HPLC (μg/g) | \n||||||
Anionic Surfactant (AS) | \n10.80 (d) | \n135.74 (d) | \n34.15 | \n35.32 | \n— | \n— | \n
Nonionic Surfactant (NS) | \nND (w) | \n467.31 (d) | \n163.80 | \n147.38 | \n— | \n— | \n
Surfactant concentrations in the sediment of the Tigris River for wet and dry seasons.
- = not applicable, w = wet season, d = dry season.
Law 25/1967 = Iraqi River Maintaining System Law.
CCME = Canadian Council of Management of the Environment.
The concentrations of AS using PHD ranged from 41.83 μg/g to 72.05 μg/g during the wet season. In comparison, the minimum NS levels in the wet or dry season were not measurable while the maximum concentrations in the dry season had registered 56.19 μg/g. HPLC results showed concentrations of AS in dry season ranging from 10.80 μg/g to 135.74 μg/g. During the wet season the minimum NS level was not measurable, and the maximum concentration in the dry season was 467.31 μg/g.
\nThe two measurement methods (PHD and HPLC) have been compared by using a T-test analysis. The results revealed no significant variations between the tests obtained by the two instruments for measuring AS at P˂0.05 (t = 0.088), while considerable discrepancies for measuring NS had been obtained at P˂0.05 (t = 0.004).
\nTwo clusters diagram shows (Figure 3a) during the wet and dry season. Whereas two highest values (72.05 and 69.71 (μg/g) for AS by PHD, (ND) for NS by PHD) had recorded, whereas during the wet season they were 14.83 and 18.20 μg/g for AS (HPLC) and 56.17 and 55.03 μg/g for NS (HPLC). No detectable (ND) for NS (by HPLC) was recorded in dry season, particularly in June and August 2017 and May 2017, which indicates a marked variation in the season.
\nDuring the study period the cluster diagram (Figure 6a) shows two clusters. The first consisted of two sub-clusters; first, the pair of S3-S4: HPLC (37.5 and 235.79 μg/g, respectively) had reported specifically high concentrations of AS and NS in these sites. However, measurement with PHD did not show any detectable NS levels. Second, the pair of S1-S2: PHD (57.88 and 53.17 μg/g) had registered at S1, the closest highest values for AS. In comparison, S2 registered the similarly highest by PHD values (34.32 and 34.17 μg/g) for NS.
\n\nTable 9 shows the correspondence matrix of the results that recorded the following strong correlations (P˂0.05): Significant negative correlation of AT with NS (PHD) (r = −0.997) and a strong positive correlation with AS (HPLC) (r = 0.999) obtained. The correlation matrix also shows a strong degree of correlation between NS determined by PHD and TSS (r = 0.998), COD (r = 0.998), and NO2 (r = 0.999).
\nParameters | \nAT (°C) | \nTSS (mg/L) | \nCOD (mg/L) | \nNO2 (mg/L) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
AS (μg/g) PHD | \n−0.778 P = 0.432 | \n−0.170 P = 0.892 | \n−0.294 P = 0.810 | \n−0.206 P = 0.868 | \n
NS (μg/g) PHD | \n−0.997 P = 0.050 | \n−0.697 P = 0.509 | \n−0.783 P = 0.428 | \n−0.723 P = 0.485 | \n
AS (μg/g) HPLC | \n0.999 P = 0.029 | \n0.720 P = 0.488 | \n0.803 P = 0.407 | \n0.745 P = 0.465 | \n
NS (μg/g) HPLC | \n0.787 P = 0.423 | \n0.998 P = 0.036 | \n0.998 P = 0.045 | \n0.999 P = 0.012 | \n
Correlation between physicochemical and surfactants in Tigris River sediment during the study period.
The correlation marked is significant at P˂0.05.
\nTable 10 demonstrated the correlation matrix between soil texture and occurrence of AS and NS at Tigris River deposit. Nevertheless, the results revealed no clear correlation.
\nParameters | \nClay % | \nSilt % | \nSand % | \n
---|---|---|---|
AS (μg/g) PHD | \n0.269 P = 0.73 | \n0.191 P = 0.81 | \n−0.232 P = 0.77 | \n
AS (μg/g) HPLC | \n0.940 P = 0.06 | \n0.807 P = 0.19 | \n−0.897 P = 0.10 | \n
NS (μg/g) HPLC | \n0.389 P = 0.61 | \n0.824 P = 0.18 | \n−0.678 P = 0.32 | \n
Correlation between soil texture and surfactants in sediment.
he analysis had done according to temporal variation for all four sites.
All the data for AT and WT during the study period was within the permissible limit of weather rates for Baghdad city during wet and dry seasons (Table 6) [48]. This result is consistent with the previously reported role of AT for the heat budget of the Tigris River [49].
\nThe excellent indicator assessment for total dissolved solids (TDS) in the water of the aquatic ecosystem is electrical conductivity (EC) [41]. During the wet season, such high concentrations of major ions have recorded as those of the dry season may be attributed to increased surface runoff, the flow of irrigation water return, soil salinity, and increased human activities [50].
\nHigh values of S‰ and TDS parameters may result from increased surface runoff, river geological erosion, increased evaporation rate, and increased human activity, all of which may result in increased ion concentrations [50].
\nThe factors that can lead to an increase of the TSS level are silt, decaying plant and animal matter, industrial wastes, and sewage. But such high TSS values will cause many stream health and aquatic life problems [51, 52]. River sediments represent suspended solids that are reliant on discharge [41]. Turbidity found values above the allowable limits, with turbid water evident by the eye, probably due to the presence of organic, inorganic matter, bacteria, silt, algae, etc. [53].
\nWF determines the degree and type of deposition and, thus, the nature of sediment [54]. Water flow is an essential factor that moves the pollutants into regions far from their origin. The reason that might cause an increase in flow rate is melting snow in the summer season; this explains much lower levels of sediment-measured pollutants [55].
\nThe values of pH indicating river water is typically alkaline slightly and within the permissible amount for aquatic living [56].
\nIn the environment, the NO3 had known to be more stable than NO2 [57]. The microbial activity, especially during the summer season because most biological processes take place during this season, is one of the reasons that led to a decrease in the nitrate concentration in the Tigris River due to the uptake process by these microorganisms [58]. For the concentration of PO4, it was higher than the permitted level of aquatic life for both seasons, and the highest value had recorded in the wet season. In the water body, the PO4 is an important nutrient, and only the soluble form, inorganic phosphorus, can be directly utilized by aquatic biota [59]. The presence of phosphorus in the environment is either through the natural or activities of humans. Natural phosphorus sources include atmospheric precipitation, natural rock, and mineral dissolution, weathering of inorganic soluble minerals, biomass decomposition, runoff, and sedimentation. The anthropogenic source, by comparison, contains detergents, animal wastes, fertilizers, wastewater, and effluent from the septic tank, and industrial discharge [60].
\nBOD is a function of the amount of oxygen the bacteria consume, which decomposes organic matter into both surface water and waste [58]. The BOD in this study is within the permissible limits [45]. COD is a measure of the number of chemicals, usually organics, that consume dissolved oxygen [61]. All values in wet and dry seasons were within the permissible limits, and they agree with those found by previous investigations [62]. One of the parameters that maintain biological life in water is DO, and its variations depend on temperature and the presence of algal communities [63]. Raising a water body’s flow rate would increase the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, due to the flow rate increases the atmospheric oxygen diffusion and movement from and into the water. Organic matter (quantitly) in the water impacts the dissolved oxygen levels by decreasing it [64].
\nTOC% estimate in sediment and soil samples is an essential criterion for determining environmental quality. In the ecosystem, organic matter exists in components of soil, ground, water, and sediment. The presence of these compounds in the sediment results in their interaction with metal ions allowing soluble or insoluble complexes to form. Such complexes, in effect, associate with minerals in the sediment to form particles capable of absorbing them into other pollutants [65]. TOC indicated river pollution because of the proportionality between TOC content and organic matter, which has an affinity for trace anionic and nonionic surfactant contaminants [66].
\nUrano et al. [67] showed that the sediment’s adsorption potential tends to be independent on the residual surface area but is more related to the organic carbon content. Also found adsorption of AS and NS values on the microbiota equal to their sediment adsorption values. Organic matter (quantity) in the sediment supplies matrices for the adsorption of hydrophobic compounds and disposed them incomplete slowly [33].
\nThe soil texture differed among the sites in this study (Table 7) from clay loam at S1, S2, S3, and silty clay loam at S4 [68, 69].
\n\nTable 8 illustrates the descriptive analysis for anionic surfactant (AS) and nonionic surfactant (NS) concentrations in the sediment of the Tigris River. There is no standard has found, whether Iraqi or international, about the permissible limits of the presence of the surfactants in river sediments to compare with data of the present study [70].
\nThe main important factor to absorption surfactants compound on sediment is the different charges of these compounds, so the cationic surfactants (CA) can undergo sorption in sediment much more significant in contrast to AS such as sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) [39]. The coefficient of equilibrium distribution for CS is twice more significant than that for SDBS. Also, low organic carbon content and neutral pH provide CS with more excellent sorption capability to the sediment, due to the electrostatic interactions between the positively charged ammonium groups ([(CH3)3NR]+), forming the heads of CS and the overall negatively charged sediment surface. SDBS shows lower sorption than CS, because the negative charge of SDBS compared to CS, which has positively charged [39]. And the adsorption of surfactant forms in sediment as Cationic > Nonionic > Anionic may be classified in the sequence. No measurable NS concentrations were reported using PHD in this study during 9 of the 13 months of the study period (3 in the wet season and 6 in the dry season), as opposed to higher AS concentrations. Lif and Hellsten [71] have shown that the NS has an amide group, comprising a small portion of the total volume of NS. However, their development and use are growing due to excellent chemical stability with rapid biodegradation and relatively simple processes of manufacture based mainly on renewable raw materials.
\nThe seasonal variation illustrates in Figure 5b. In comparison to the wet season with lower temperatures, concentrations of NS and AS (by HPLC) observed the highest values in the dry season. The explanation could be either to lower pollutant (surfactant) inputs into the river or to more effective biodegradation of compounds studied in the dry season in the river water. Marcomini et al. [40] observed a significant seasonal variation in LAS and nonyl-phenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) concentrations at Lake Venice. Mainly due to increased biodegradation at temperatures above 20°C (late spring and summer). In 1994, coworkers observed the similar seasonal variation of some compounds in the Glatt River (Switzerland) [30]. Such as nonyl-phenol (NP), lipophilic nonyl-phenol monoethoxylate, and nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP1EO, and NP2EO).
\na- Cluster diagram of temporal of the sampling period for wet and dry seasons, b- temporal variation of surfactants in sediment for wet and dry seasons.
A significant difference had observed for NS (HPLC) in which the two highest values at S1 and S4. At the same time, the lowest NS (HPLC) levels were at both S2 and S3. Nevertheless, during the study period, no apparent difference was found for other surfactants (Figure 6b), which suggests that S1and S4 reported the highest levels of pollution with NS (by HPLC) relative to the lowest in S2 and S3, indicating these sites as hot spots for point sources of municipal and industrial discharges.
\na-cluster diagram of spatial clustering of sampling sites for the wet and dry season, a b-spatial variation of surfactants in sediment for dry and wet seasons.
The correlation matrix between Physicochemical and surfactants in Tigris River sediment during the study period (Table 9) shows strong correlations (P˂0.05) of (AT, TSS, COD, and NO2) with AS and NS, which means that only these parameters affect on the presence and degradation of anionic and nonionic surfactants either positive and negative correlation.
\nCano and Dorn [72] and Brownawell et al. [73] reported that the alcohol ethoxylate surfactant sorption is better associated with the sediment’s clay content than to its organic carbon content (Table 10). This study found no clear correlation.
\nSeveral conclusions that drown based on the findings of this study:
Two measuring techniques had applied with similar efficiency to measure anionic (AS) in river sediments while HPLC was more efficient for nonionic surfactants (NS)
The sediment serves as a sink for the sedimentation of AS and NS, the residual in the river water.
Four environmental parameters (air temperature, total suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, and nitrite) were more critical factors impact on surfactants.
Nonionic surfactants and, most likely, their degradation products, nonylphenol, are significant contaminants because of toxic impacts in the aquatic environment, especially during the dry season. The highest concentration in the dry season recorded (467.31 and 56.19 by HPLC and PHD, respectively) due to the high temperature that has likely led to the higher microbial organism’s activity for compound degradation than in the wet season.
It was possible to use surfactants as markers for the presence of organic pollutants in sediments.
In fertilized soils, surfactants may also be possible to used to remove the organic compound.
The texture of soil does not affect the efficiency of the adsorption precipitation of AS and NS on river sediment.
The authors would like to acknowledge all laboratories in the Department of Environmental Pollution/ Environmental Research Center/University of Technology-Baghdad-Iraq and Department of Biology/College of Science for Women/Bagdad University-Baghdad-Iraq for conducting the experiments.
\nAlso, the authors would like to extend thanks and appreciation to the members of the Ministry of Interior/Baghdad Operations Command/River Polices for protecting the collection of samples.
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Hypoxia can occur with ischemia, a lack of blood flow to tissues, or independent of ischemia as in acute lung injury, anemia, and carbon monoxide poisoning. Hypoxia may be observed in patients with diseases such as obstructive sleep apnea, cerebrovascular diseases, systemic hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary hypertension and congestive heart failure (CHF), inflammatory disease states, and acute and chronic renal diseases. In the past decade, research has shown hypoxic signaling to be involved in a range of responses from adaptation of the body to reduced oxygen to pathogenesis of disease. Hypoxic signaling intermediates orchestrate a whole host of responses from angiogenesis, glycolysis, and erythropoiesis to inflammation and remodeling, which could be beneficial or harmful to the hosting organ. The length of exposure to low oxygen pressure as well as the existing signaling pathways within different cells dictates their benefit or disadvantage from hypoxic signaling. Therefore, activation or inhibition of hypoxic intermediates could serve as novel therapeutic strategies. In this chapter, we review the role of hypoxic signaling in neurodegenerative, inflammatory, and renal disease states and the emerging therapeutic approaches involving hypoxic signaling.",book:{id:"5444",slug:"hypoxia-and-human-diseases",title:"Hypoxia and Human Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypoxia and Human Diseases"},signatures:"Deepak Bhatia, Mohammad Sanaei Ardekani, Qiwen Shi and\nShahrzad Movafagh",authors:[{id:"189604",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahrzad",middleName:null,surname:"Movafagh",slug:"shahrzad-movafagh",fullName:"Shahrzad Movafagh"},{id:"192092",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepak",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatia",slug:"deepak-bhatia",fullName:"Deepak Bhatia"},{id:"192093",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sanaei Ardekani",slug:"mohammad-sanaei-ardekani",fullName:"Mohammad Sanaei Ardekani"},{id:"195341",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiwen",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",slug:"qiwen-shi",fullName:"Qiwen Shi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]},{id:"42773",title:"Propionibacterium acnes as a Cause of Sarcoidosis",slug:"propionibacterium-acnes-as-a-cause-of-sarcoidosis",totalDownloads:2493,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3279",slug:"sarcoidosis",title:"Sarcoidosis",fullTitle:"Sarcoidosis"},signatures:"Yoshinobu Eishi",authors:[{id:"57567",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshinobu",middleName:null,surname:"Eishi",slug:"yoshinobu-eishi",fullName:"Yoshinobu Eishi"}]},{id:"57668",title:"Pneumonia of Viral Etiologies",slug:"pneumonia-of-viral-etiologies",totalDownloads:3200,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Pneumonia is a common illness that continues to cause significant morbidity and mortality in both adults and children. Bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae are generally considered as the main pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia and Legionella species, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumonia in atypical pneumonias. In contrast the proportion of pneumonias due to viruses has been both difficult to detect and quantify with any precision. However, with the advent of powerful molecular techniques and rapidly developing technologies a greater number of viruses are being implicated as pathogens and co-pathogens in pneumonia. In the case of adults, the most commonly detected viruses are influenza virus, RSV and parainfluenza. Other viruses that have recently received considerable attention, are H5N1 influenza virus and coronaviruses. Infectious causes of pneumonia in immunocompromised patients include measles, HSV, CMV, HHV-6 and Influenza viruses. Pneumonias caused by other viruses are more rarely reported and include outbreaks of rhinovirus, adenovirus (particularly serotype 14 in military institutions), coronavirus, and metapneumovirus. A range of promising therapeutic targets have been identified and numerous innovative therapeutic treatments demonstrated to improve lung injury due to viral infections.",book:{id:"5938",slug:"contemporary-topics-of-pneumonia",title:"Contemporary Topics of Pneumonia",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics of Pneumonia"},signatures:"Al Johani Sameera and Akhter Javed",authors:[{id:"76522",title:"Dr.",name:"Javed",middleName:null,surname:"Akhter",slug:"javed-akhter",fullName:"Javed Akhter"},{id:"80162",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameera",middleName:"M.",surname:"Al Johani",slug:"sameera-al-johani",fullName:"Sameera Al Johani"}]},{id:"67117",title:"Eosinophilic Asthma",slug:"eosinophilic-asthma",totalDownloads:1265,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Eosinophilic asthma is known as a main phenotype of asthma classified on the basis of immune cells involved in inflammatory response in the respiratory airway. Eosinophilic asthma can be related to increased severity of asthma, allergic sensitization, adult onset, and increased resistance to corticosteroids. The prevalence of eosinophilic asthma is 32–40% among asthmatic patients. Different cells and cytokines are involved in its pathogenesis including eosinophil, mast cells, type 2 helper T cells, innate lymphoid cells, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. Eosinophil count in induced sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage is the yardstick for recognizing and distinguishing eosinophilic asthma from non-eosinophilic asthma, while various tests which are noninvasive such as fractional exhaled nitric oxide and periostin are arising as possible substitutes. Novel and advanced therapies new and advanced therapies and more convenient biological drugs, Leads to high requirement for particular endotype- and phenotype-related treatment plans. Identification and knowledge of the specific pathophysiology of eosinophilic asthma have great association with disease management and chances for better patient prognosis.",book:{id:"8738",slug:"asthma-biological-evidences",title:"Asthma",fullTitle:"Asthma - Biological Evidences"},signatures:"Bushra Mubarak, Huma Shakoor and Fozia Masood",authors:null},{id:"66258",title:"Historical Aspects of Hyperbaric Physiology and Medicine",slug:"historical-aspects-of-hyperbaric-physiology-and-medicine",totalDownloads:1575,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The history of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) makes for fascinating reading. From pneumatic chambers and compressed air baths to empirical therapeutic applications during the nineteenth century, the impetus to scientific application of HBOT began in seeking solution for decompression sickness during various construction ventures. French physiologist Paul Bert’s research was pathbreaking and provided a scientific explanation on the etiology of the “bends.” In 1908, JS Haldane’s experiments recommended staged decompression and made diving safe. In 1921, OJ Cunningham employed HBOT to treat hypoxia secondary to lung infections successfully. It was cardiac surgeon Ite Boerema who put HBOT on a solid footing with his open-heart surgery results in various pediatric cardiac conditions and rightly deserved the title of father of modern-day hyperbaric medicine. From 1937 onwards, HBOT research snowballed into treating a wide variety of diseases. In 1999, the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society and Food and Drug Administration recognized the value of HBOT, and this led to its becoming a major tool in the armamentarium of clinicians, either as a primary or adjunctive therapy for a spectrum of diseases.",book:{id:"9126",slug:"respiratory-physiology",title:"Respiratory Physiology",fullTitle:"Respiratory Physiology"},signatures:"Chandrasekhar Krishnamurti",authors:[{id:"257885",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrasekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnamurti",slug:"chandrasekhar-krishnamurti",fullName:"Chandrasekhar Krishnamurti"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1047",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82740",title:"Secondary Pneumothorax from a Surgical Perspective",slug:"secondary-pneumothorax-from-a-surgical-perspective",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105414",abstract:"Although less frequent than the primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP), secondary pneumothoraces (SP) are a common clinical problem with a wide range of severity, depending on the triggering cause(s) and patient clinical condition. By definition, an SP occurs in those patients with an underlying condition that alters the normal lung parenchyma and/or the visceral pleura and determines air entry in the pleural space (e.g., COPD) or, eventually, following trauma or invasive procedures (i.e., iatrogenic pneumothorax). Less frequent, yet described, is SP occurring in neoplastic patients or infectious ones. The gravity of an SP is directly correlated to the underlying cause and patients’ clinical conditions. For example, it may be a life-threatening condition in an end-stage COPD but less severe in a catamenial related syndrome. In this chapter, we are providing a surgical overview of the most relevant and updated information on etiology, incidence, pathophysiology, and management of secondary pneumothoraces.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Simona Sobrero, Francesco Leo and Alberto Sandri"},{id:"80875",title:"Pneumothorax: A Concise Review and Surgical Perspective",slug:"pneumothorax-a-concise-review-and-surgical-perspective",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101049",abstract:"Pneumothorax is the collection of air in pleural cavity, which is commonly due to development of a communication between pleural space and alveolar space (or bronchus) or the atmosphere. In this chapter, we will discuss the various aetiologies of pneumothorax, the differences in their pathophysiology and the implications on the management of the disease. The chapter focusses on the surgical aspects in the management, the revolution brought in by video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) and the advancement of the field by introduction of uniportal VATS and robotic-assisted thoracic surgery. The principles of management of catamenial pneumothorax are revisited. The chapter also throws light on the nuances of anaesthesia techniques and the latest developments are outlined. Lastly, a section is dedicated to COVID-19 associated pneumothorax and the approach to its management.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Shilpi Karmakar"},{id:"79289",title:"Indwelling Pleural Catheters",slug:"indwelling-pleural-catheters",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100645",abstract:"Indwelling pleural catheters (IPC) are now being considered worldwide for patients with recurrent pleural effusions. It is commonly used for patients with malignant pleural effusions (MPE) and can be performed as outpatient based day care procedure. In malignant pleural effusions, indwelling catheters are particularly useful in patients with trapped lung or failed pleurodesis. Patients and care givers are advised to drain at least 3 times a week or in presence of symptoms i.e. dyspnoea. Normal drainage timing may lasts for 15–20 min which subsequently improves their symptoms and quality of life. Complications which are directly related to IPC insertion are extremely rare. IPC’s are being recently used even for benign effusions in case hepatic hydrothorax and in patients with CKD related pleural effusions. Removal of IPC is often not required in most of the patients. It can be performed safely as a day care procedure with consistently lower rates of complications, reduced inpatient stay. They are relatively easy to insert, manage and remove, and provide the ability to empower patients in both the decisions regarding their treatment and the management of their disease itself.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Yuvarajan Sivagnaname, Durga Krishnamurthy, Praveen Radhakrishnan and Antonious Maria Selvam"},{id:"79221",title:"Surgical Challenges of Chronic Empyema and Bronchopleural Fistula",slug:"surgical-challenges-of-chronic-empyema-and-bronchopleural-fistula",totalDownloads:118,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100313",abstract:"Chronic empyema has always been a clinical challenge for physicians. There is no standard procedure or treatment to deal with the situation, and multi-modality approach is often necessary. Surgical intervention plays a very crucial role in the treatment of chronic empyema. Since bronchopleural fistula is often seen in chronic empyema patients, therefore it should also be mentioned. In this chapter, the focus will be on the different treatment options, various surgical approaches, and the rationale behind every single modality. Certain specific entity will be included as well, such as tuberculosis infection, post lung resection empyema, and intrathoracic vacuum assisted closure system application. Even with the advancement of technology and techniques, chronic empyema management is still evolving, and we look forward to less traumatic ways of approach with better outcome in the future.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Yu-Hui Yang"},{id:"78826",title:"Pneumothorax in Children",slug:"pneumothorax-in-children",totalDownloads:94,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100329",abstract:"Pneumothorax is a common pleural disease worldwide and is defined as the free accumulation of air between visceral and parietal pleura. Pneumothorax can be spontaneous, iatrogenic, and traumatic. Although it is less common than adults, it is seen in about 1.1–4 per 100,000 per year in the childhood age group. In patients presenting with variable clinic according to the cause of etiology, diagnosis is confirmed on a PA chest radiograph, sometimes a computed tomography may be required. The management of pneumothorax is varying from conservative, over intermediate (chest tube drainage) to invasive methods (video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery—VATS, thoracotomy). Here, we planned to write a chapter that includes a text containing general information about pediatric pneumothorax, algorithms, and visual and clinical cases of the causes of pneumothorax in children, including age, etiology, and treatment approach of pneumothorax in children.",book:{id:"11045",title:"Pleura - A Surgical Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11045.jpg"},signatures:"Hatice Sonay Yalçın Cömert"},{id:"78760",title:"Bronchopleural Fistula after Pulmonary Resection: Risk Factors, Diagnoses and Management",slug:"bronchopleural-fistula-after-pulmonary-resection-risk-factors-diagnoses-and-management",totalDownloads:234,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100209",abstract:"Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) after a pulmonary resection is rare with some of the most life-threatening consequences and a high mortality rate. 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