Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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1. Introduction
Some individuals tend to eat out of the home, often at food service operations, such as cafeterias, canteens, fast food outlets, bars, and restaurants [1]. In recent years, the catering sector has been experiencing an increase in technological innovation in correspondence with changes in consumer habits of the population, transformed by numerous factors and changing lifestyles, demographic trends, and so on, which have increased consumer preferences for healthy, safe, and convenient foods.
Food service or catering industry defines those businesses, institutions, and companies responsible for any meal prepared outside home. These industries include restaurants, school and hospital cafeterias, catering operations, and some other small- and big-scale establishments. A catering food establishment also means an approved food establishment that is serving or preparing food at a location other than its permitted location for a contracted food service event. During these operations, foods are often transported, distributed, handled, and consumed in a short-time framework (often less than 1 week).
The catering sector can be divided into three groups based on the population they serve, the way of working, the technology used, or the food types served (Table 1): commercial (residential and non-residential) catering sector, and non-commercial residential establishments.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Residential
\n\t\t\t
Hotels, guest houses, holiday parks, farmhouses, public houses, bed, and breakfasts
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Non-residential
\n\t\t\t
Restaurants, cafes, fast-food outlets, wine bars, delicatessen and salads, bars, take-away outlets, schools catering, and burger vans
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Non-commercial residential establishments
\n\t\t\t
Hospitals, residential homes, prisons, and armed services
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Types of catering establishments
The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCPs) system has been recognized as a useful tool to prevent food contamination in food service establishments. Control measures are mainly focused on training of food handlers in hygiene practices to improve safety of served meals.
Unquestionably, consumption outside home is linked to a fact of modern life that causes some concern among health professionals and food authorities because of the potential adverse effects that may entail for human health. Food poisoning poses a serious problem for public health worldwide, and the most vulnerable population (children, elderly, pregnant, and sick) counts among the most affected.
Data from the World Health Organization assert that about 2.2 million people become daily ill in the world for more than 200 foodborne diseases and about two-thirds of the outbreaks that occur originate in their homes and in catering establishments. Given the higher volume of meals prepared in the later ones together with meals exposure to handling and environmental factor, the risk of becoming ill is expected to be considerably higher [2]. In Europe, an increasing trend in foodborne diseases outbreaks has been attributed to catering businesses [3]. This fact highlights that the impact of prevention measures in the past few years has not been sufficiently effective as expected. Important aspects such as the size of establishments and heterogeneity of foods served justify the creation of specific regulations on food safety management, to reduce the risks of foodborne illness.
Moreover, it seems to be necessary to strengthen food hygiene and compliance with HACCP system to prevent food outbreaks. These outbreaks are mainly caused by foodborne pathogens and norovirus. Special attention should be paid to food services destined to susceptible population, such as hospitals, long-term care facilities, or school canteens, because people could be more susceptible to become ill when exposed to foodborne agents. Besides this, the large number of meals served per day could have an impact on public health if prepared foods are contaminated.
In food service environments, various factors may be related to foodborne diseases. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), these factors are the food served coming from unsafe sources, poor personal hygiene, inadequate cooking, improper holding temperatures, or utilization of contaminated equipment. On the other hand, the World Health Organization (WHO) [4] suggested that drinking water could be an important factor related to foodborne diseases. It was already demonstrated that training of food handlers and knowledge acquisition in hygienic food preparation, processing, and distribution of meals is crucial in the prevention of most types of foodborne diseases [5]. The use of normalized questionnaires on good manufacturing practices (GMPs) was achieved to evaluate training of food handlers. It was found that, after implemented, there is a substantial improvement in GMP [6–8]. However, it is recognized that these training activities should be repeated over time to minimize the reluctance of food handlers to apply the acquired knowledge [9].
Legislation in food hygiene at EU level prioritizes control measures to protect public health, making food operators responsible to assure product safety [10]. Implementation of HACCP system in food service operations may increase food safety management. However, given the complexity of the food chain and variety of menus and meals prepared, simplified and flexible self-control measures must be required in most cases to increase efficiency and homogeneity of implemented food safety management systems [7]. Evaluation of microbial risks is crucial to determine food safety of prepared meals [11].
In the present chapter, a review of the most significant risk factors influencing microbial contamination of foods in food service centers will be described with special focus on those establishments where susceptible population (i.e., children, elderly, immunocompromised people) is present. Besides, potential preventive measures to be considered in that establishments and correct implementation of food safety actions will be given to provide useful recommendations to food handlers, food operators, and risk managers.
The increase in the global burden of foodborne diseases constitutes a concern to governments and food operators today than a few years ago. Identification of emerging pathogens (or environmentally adapted) causing life-threatening conditions, introduction of ethnic foods, environmental changes, food security aspects, migrant populations, the ease of worldwide shipment of fresh and frozen food, and the development of new food industries including aquaculture are some of the reasons for this concern. Over the past years, foodborne diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and prions have been prioritized by governments of industrialized countries generating substantial media attention.
However, to monitor foodborne diseases, an effective surveillance system at the local, national, and international levels should be implemented. The appearance of multistate outbreaks (i.e., contamination in a commercial product occurring in one country and affecting persons in several other countries, or tourists being infected abroad and possibly transmitting the pathogen to others at home) contributes to the increase in the number of illnesses at international level. Currently, funding sources are not easily available for non-developed countries and regions where most of the information comes from passive reporting mechanisms [12]. In the industrialized countries, a need for funding sources allocated to the improvement of foodborne disease surveillance, and control is required.
Several factors (such as environmental, socioeconomic, chemical, physical, and biological) are influencing on such public concern.
Environmental factors such as weather influence the transport and dissemination of microbial hazards via rainfall and runoff and their survival and/or growth through according to temperature or humidity conditions [13]. It is shown that the increase in climate variability influences on current and future deficiencies in areas, such as watershed protection, infrastructure, and storm drainage systems, thus enhancing the risk of food contamination events. More knowledge is needed about transport processes and fate of microbial hazards to predict risks associated to weather variability. In this sense, application of existing technologies such as molecular fingerprinting to track contaminant sources could be expanded.
On the other hand, despite of the development of novel traceability systems and inspection controls, infectious diseases still remain a leading cause of global disease burden with high morbidity and mortality in non-developed countries. The emerging and re-emerging diseases have been a big impact at socioeconomic and public health levels. Their control requires continuing surveillance, research and training, better diagnostic facilities, and improved public health system. Food safety is of particular concern in a developing country context given the higher incidence of foodborne illnesses and their associated economic and social cost [14]. Furthermore, the economic and social changes associated with development (i.e., urbanization, changes in food production systems, and consumption patterns) could increase the risk of emerging foodborne illnesses. This recognizes the connections between disease and socioeconomic factors such as poverty and malnutrition and the wider economic, social, physical, and cultural environment in which people live [15]. Promotion of trade together with improvement of agricultural and animal practices at primary production will definitely help developing countries to better manage food safety. Improving food safety in international trade would also require numerous policy and technical interventions that include an effective market access; a better analysis of the costs and benefits of global trade rules for developing countries or integration of developing countries into the global economy [16].
Besides environmental and socioeconomic factors, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the absence of control, a key elementary factor along the production chain, contributes to the extension of foodborne outbreaks, some of them affecting to food service centers:
Producing and harvesting food: lack of quality assurance programs and unsafe agricultural practices.
Processing foods: absence or undefined inspection systems at industrial facilities; poor processing preservation technologies (i.e., thermal treatments, addition of preservatives, and unsafe food formulations).
Distributing and preparing foods: absence of food purchasing specifications, untrained food handlers, improper hand-washing procedures and facilities, and lack of food safety education programs for consumers.
3. Residential catering
Institutional food establishments have a key role to public health. Consumers that are generally more likely to suffer from foodborne diseases occupy them, such as children, elderly, sick, or immunocompromised individuals. Their physiological characteristics often require high degree of food safety in the meals served.
According to the European Federation of Contract Catering Organizations (FERCO), approximately 33% of firms or collective organizations currently have a contract with a Contract Catering company. Indeed, this is a sector that represents an alternative to meet the basic food needs of a group of very important people. Among institutional catering companies stand Eurest SA authorities; Serunión S.A; Sodexho S.A. Spain; and Aramark catering services, SL, among others, that allocate their production mainly to hospitals, nursing geriatric, dining, and study centers.
The fact of preparing and serving large volumes of food in a relatively short-time framework involves the use of new technologies for conservation and/or optimization of existing technologies, to ensure the hygienic and sanitary quality and shelf life of food.
Studies related to systems development, maintenance, and transportation of prepared meals cite the refrigerated cold chain, frozen cold chain, hot chain, or vacuum cooking [17]:
In the refrigerated cold chain, food is abated once drawn up, from 65°C to 10°C in a time not exceeding 90 min, before being stored at 0–3°C. Afterward, food is regenerated until reaching the appropriate temperature before serving.
In the frozen cold chain, food is placed in a blast chiller given the same procedures above and subsequent cold storage at –18° C until consumption, at which time must be regenerated to its proper serving temperature (65°C).
In the hot chain, foods are maintained at temperatures above 65°C and should be consumed within a maximum of 12 h.
In the vacuum cooking, the food is prepared at low temperatures and for a long time. The food is then packaged in a waterproof material, which is not affected by high temperatures. Before cooking, air is extracted and sealed. After cooking, the product is cooled quickly and is cooled, and then regenerated (65°C) before consumption.
Utilization of more traditional food preservation techniques is also common [17] such as industrial pasteurization or chemical preservation (salting, smoking, marinating, and pickling).
Lastly, other preservation technologies are used to reduce the amount of food handling in the kitchen, such as high hydrostatic pressure, the light pulses, dehydration, irradiation, and modified atmosphere preservation, among others [17–19].
4. Health and socioeconomic implications of microbial contamination and its effects on international trade
Provision of safe foods supports national economies, international trade, and consumer confidence, thus underpinning sustainable development. However, globalization and changes in consumers’ habits to a more convenient and healthy foods led to increase the awareness of potential and/or emerging hazards for public health. This also triggered a growing consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, thus leading to a more complex food chain.
The consequence of the population growth is an intensification of agriculture and animal production to meet consumer demands. Food safety challenges should consider the potential effect of climate change because temperature changes can modify the risk profile of a given food commodity during the whole production chain [20]. These effects produce a greater degree of responsibility to food producers and handlers to ensure food safety. It should be highlighted that the spread of a localized outbreak can increase largely due to the globalized food chain and international trade. Examples include the contamination of infant formula with melamine in 2008, and the 2011 Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli outbreak in Germany linked to contaminated sprouts. This multistate outbreak was reported in eight countries in Europe and North America, leading to 53 deaths. Losses caused to farmers and food industries were quantified in US$ 1.3 billion, while emergency aid payments to 22 EU member states were around US$ 236 million [21].
According to data reported by USDA, foodborne illnesses are annually costing the economy more than $15.6 billion. Each year, more than 8.9 million Americans will be sickened by one of the 15 pathogens, with more than 5.4 million of those illnesses due to the stomach churning, but usually short-lived, Norovirus. In EU countries, 5196 foodborne outbreaks, such as waterborne outbreaks, were reported [22]. Governmental authorities should make food safety a public health priority, as they play key role in developing policies and regulatory frameworks. They also are in charge of establishing and implementing effective food safety systems that ensure that food producers and suppliers along the whole food chain operate responsibly and supply safe food to consumers.
Among the food commodities causing outbreaks, meat products are the most frequently reported, given the high consumption associated to these products. Vegetable salads are recognized as potential vehicles for enteric pathogens, as they are not subjected to any heat treatment before consumption. In Table 2, notified outbreaks in EU and the United States for produce commodities are reported. Scientific studies highlight the importance of an adequate training of food handlers and implementation of GMPs when elaborating vegetable salads in catering establishments.
Regarding cooked meat products, they are susceptible to be contaminated after heat treatment, during storage, and distribution. This is because they can be subjected to poor handling practices (i.e., slicing, packaging) during preparation in catering establishments. As an example, in Table 3, notified outbreaks in EU countries and the United States associated to consumption of meat products are reported. It is concluded that problems in kitchen design, inadequate handling and disinfection practices, and lack of knowledge on food safety by handlers are the main risk factors influencing microbial contamination.
Notified foodborne outbreaks in Europe and the United States by consumption of meat commodities
5. Microbial contaminants of prepared meals in catering establishments
During the whole production chain, there is constant exposure of food to microbial contamination. Therefore, a strict quality and safety food control should be promoted with a view to minimize the incidence of food poisoning.
Undoubtedly, for catering establishments, the HACCP system assesses the condition under which the product was elaborated, determines the main risk factors of food contamination, and manages effective measures to reduce contamination by pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms.
Microbial indicators are able to highlight deficiencies in the hygienic and sanitary food quality. Indeed, their presence at high levels leads to a reduction of shelf life and is probably related to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms.
According to the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF), microbial indicators do not offer a direct risk to human health. These groups are mainly aerobic mesophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, enterococci, enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli [45]. In the next subsections, the most representative microbial indicators will be described. Besides, Listeria monocytogenes is included due to its relevance and presence in a wide range of food commodities as well as for the current EU regulation (No. 1441/2007) [46] where it is included as safety criteria for ready to eat foods.
5.1. Aerobic mesophilic microorganisms
Microbial species belonging to this group are quite heterogeneous and include all bacteria, fungi, and yeasts growing at aerobic conditions. The presence of aerobic mesophilic microorganisms in fresh foods demonstrates the effectiveness of sanitary procedures during processing, handling, and storage before [47].
Ready to eat foods (apart from fermented foods, cheeses, and dairy products) with significant concentration levels of aerobic mesophilic microorganisms should not be considered suitable for human consumption, even if microbial species are not pathogenic.
Generally, contamination occurs because of the use of contaminated raw materials or inefficient health treatments as well as inadequate conditions of storage time and temperature [48].
In general, high levels pose a greater risk of pathogen contamination. Several authors agree that the recommended concentrations for ready to eat foods should be less than 5.0 log cfu/g [49]. However, other guidelines for ready to eat foods such as those proposed by the Health Protection Agency (UK) [50] establish acceptable limits between 6 and 8 log cfu/g, depending on the food type.
5.2. Lactic acid bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria comprise a wide range of microorganisms with common morphological, metabolic, and physiological characteristics. Some of the most representative species are Streptococcus spp., Pediococcus spp., Leuconostoc spp., Lactobacillus spp., and Lactococcus spp. [51].
In the food industry, they have multiple uses as starter cultures in the manufacture of cheese, yogurt, and fermented meats. They are also recognized as natural antimicrobial agents against foodborne pathogens in biopreservation processes [52]. They represent the predominant group in fermented meat products reaching levels between 8 and 9 log cfu/g during the maturation processes. The most common species are Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus curvatus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus pentosus, Pediococcus acidilactici, and Pediococcus pentasaceus [53].
Despite its protective function, they are able to produce end metabolites that lead to food spoilage and thus shortening its shelf life. Their final levels depend largely on the storage temperature and packaging methods [54]. Deterioration caused by the growth of lactic acid bacteria is shown by undesirable changes in smell, taste, color, and gas production. Some studies have found these changes in vacuum-packed meat products or modified atmosphere products [55].
5.3. Enterobacteriaceae
Enterobacteriaceae are considered as food quality indicators including E. coli being mainly related to fecal contamination. Generally, the presence of these microorganisms in foods is closely linked with the implementation of inadequate handling practices, inefficient cooking processes, cross-contamination, inadequate personal hygiene of food handlers, equipment and food-contact surfaces as well as inadequate holding time and temperature conditions [56].
Enterobacteriaceae species are Gram-negative bacteria, aerobic or facultative anaerobic, non-sporulated, mobile or immobile, and being able to ferment glucose and to reduce nitrate to nitrite. Some of the most representative species include Salmonella enterica, Shigella spp., Yersinia spp. (intestinal pathogens in humans), Edwarsiella spp., Hafnia spp., Proteus spp., Morganella spp., Erwinia spp., E. coli, Enterobacter spp., Citrobacter spp., Serratia spp., or Klebsiella spp. Most of them produce endotoxins and thermolabile and/or thermostable exotoxins. Some E. coli serotypes are producing verotoxins and shigatoxins, which are linked to a high rate of morbidity and mortality in humans [57].
Food commodities where Enterobacteriaceae can be found are processed meat products [58], nutritional formulas for infants [59], mixed salads, raw vegetables, and milk/dairy products, among others [60].
5.4. Total and fecal coliforms
Total and fecal coliforms are specific groups within the Enterobacteriaceae family, including species, such as E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., or Citrobacter spp. These are Gram-negative bacteria, aerobic or facultative anaerobes, non-sporulated, whose optimal growth temperature is around 35–40°C. These food quality indicators are taking part of the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals and other organisms often located on the ground or plant.
The main difference between total and fecal coliforms is that the latter group ferments lactose at temperatures between 44 and 45°C. The group includes primarily E. coli (~90%) with certain Klebsiella and Citrobacter species. Coliforms are considered a reliable indicator of fecal contamination and are sometimes found in contaminated equipment and utensils, as well as in a wide variety of foods.
Contamination of ready to eat foods by coliforms is commonly attributed to environmental contamination, the use of inadequate hygiene practices, and/or insufficient control of the storage temperature. In the case of thermally treated food, the presence of coliforms is indicative of inadequate treatment or post-processing contamination as they are thermolabile microorganisms [47].
5.5. Escherichia coli
Enteropathogenic E. coli comprise different serotypes that can be present in contaminated foods. Most of them are able to produce Shiga-like toxins and/or other heat-labile or heat-stable toxins that can potentially cause diarrheagenic diseases in humans [61]. Besides, some serotypes of enterotoxigenic E. coli can also produce a cytotoxin to Vero cells (VTEC E. coli).
Normally, outbreaks caused by VTEC serotypes are of low prevalence (1.2 cases per 100,000 people in the EU) [39]; however, the high infectivity and severity of the disease increase the importance of performing novel research on this pathogen. It is reported that human outbreaks attributed to E. coli serotypes were mostly originated from catering services or restaurants [62].
Generally, E. coli can be present in animal origin foods (pork, beef, and poultry), water sources, or produce such as cabbage, lettuce, or spinach. They can enter the food chain through cross-contamination or recontamination phenomena [63] or through the irrigation with contaminated water, which may result in the internalization of certain E. coli serotypes in vegetables [64].
E. coli O157:H7 was the most studied serotype due to the severity of the illnesses caused and its low infective dose, around 100 cells [65]. However, other non-O157 serotypes have been associated to human infections through the ingestion of risk food products, such as fermented and minced meats or raw milk [66].
5.6. Staphylococcus aureus
S. aureus has been reported as a microbial indicator most likely associated to reduced water activity (aw) foods, such as ready to eat cooked or cured meats [67, 68]. The presence of S. aureus is often associated to contamination of raw material, such as poultry carcasses or raw chicken samples [69] or cross-contamination events occurring because of mishandling during processing and storage [63].
Food poisoning is attributed to the ingestion of foods that contain thermotolerant Staphylococcal Enterotoxins (SEs) in doses around 20–100 ng [70]. The staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) is the one most frequently reported. A wide range of environmental factors, such as pH, aw, temperature, food type, and processing conditions, have been suggested to play an important role on SEs production. Generally, growth of S. aureus is necessary for SE production, although this phenomenon does not always accompany growth [67]. Indeed, some published studies consider hazardous S. aureus levels from 6 log cfu/g in contaminated foods for SE production [71].
5.7. Listeria monocytogenes
L. monocytogenes is a foodborne pathogen causing listeriosis, with high mortality rates between 20% and 30% [72]. It is mainly distributed in the field, soil, contaminated water sources, and decaying vegetation. It is also categorized as a psychrotrophic microorganism, being ubiquitous in food-processing environments. Consequently, L. monocytogenes is often found as a post-contamination pathogen in food products like sliced cooked meat products, smoked fish, cut vegetables, or ready-to-eat (RTE) products. Raw chicken, milk, and raw meat are frequently implicated in foodborne outbreaks [73]. The associated high mortality rates to pregnant women and their unborn child, neonates, elderly people, and immunocompromised people makes that its level in food products should remain low. The Commission Regulation No. 1441/2007 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs states that, for L. monocytogenes, in the food category RTE foods able to support the growth of L. monocytogenes other than those intended for infants and for special medical purposes, two different microbiological criteria are proposed: (i) L. monocytogenes levels should not exceed 100 cfu/g throughout the shelf life of the product and (ii) absence in 25 g of the product before the food has left the immediate control of the food business operator, who has produced it. Their application depends on the ability of the food operator to demonstrate that the targeted food is able or not to support the growth of L. monocytogenes up to the end of the shelf life. Also in the United States, the limit of 100 cfu/g for L. monocytogenes that does not support growth of the microorganism in foods is being considered [74].
6. Risk factors associated to microbiological contamination and foodborne outbreaks
Foods can become contaminated during growth and harvesting of raw materials, storage and transport to the industry, and processing into finished products. Recontamination can also occur during transport to retail outlets and before consumption at domestic homes and/or in catering establishments. Contamination vectors are mainly animals, surfaces, environment (air, water), and people in contact with foods (food handlers). Processing conditions, packaging materials, and equipment used can also be contamination sources. Survival of microorganisms on contaminated surfaces could lead to their multiplication at high levels, thus compromising food quality and safety [75].
Animals are important reservoirs of microorganisms, and slaughter of animals could introduce high concentration of microorganisms in food industries. Zoonotic pathogens are normally present on the skin and in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Pathogens carried on the hands are also a major source of contamination [76].
Airborne contamination represents a significant medium for the microbial transfer to food products. [77] Installation of proper air filters is recommended; otherwise, microorganisms can be present together with dust, debris, or insects.
Water sources are used in the food industry as an ingredient, a processing aid, and for cleaning. Therefore, not to increase both microbial and chemical contaminations, it is important to use decontaminated water (i.e., chlorinated and electrolyzed). Water used in hand-washing facilities can pose a potential risk because of the presence of condensations, leaking pipes, or aerosols. Microorganisms colonizing these surfaces can multiply rapidly if conditions are favorable. Thus, checking the microbiological quality of water is essential to guarantee food safety.
Food handlers can act as vectors for food contamination leading to the transmission of enteric and respiratory pathogens to food, e.g., through aerosol droplets from coughing near the processing line [78]. They can also favor cross-contamination through the skin if hand-washing is not properly done.
Finally, pests, such as birds, insects, and rodents, are potentially a major contamination problem. Therefore, care must be taken to avoid their entrance into food factories. Facilities should be designed in such a way they cannot live and breed. To do so, appropriate disinsectization fumigation methods must be achieved.
The above factors when combined together may increase the risk of food contamination. According to CDC data, 1527 foodborne disease outbreaks, resulting in 29,444 cases of illness, 1184 hospitalizations, and 23 deaths were reported within 2009–2010. [79] Among the 790 outbreaks with a laboratory-confirmed illness, norovirus was the most commonly reported infection, accounting for 42% of outbreaks, followed by Salmonella, with 30% of outbreaks. Outbreaks caused by some pathogens were particularly severe. For example, Listeria outbreaks resulted in the highest proportion of persons hospitalized (82%), followed by Clostridium botulinum (67%). Among the 23 deaths, 22 were linked to bacteria (9 Listeria, 5 Salmonella, E. coli O157, 3 Clostridium perfringens, and 1 Shigella), and 1 was linked to norovirus. Regarding European data [22], in 2013, Campylobacter continued to be the most commonly reported gastrointestinal bacterial pathogen in humans in the European Union (EU) and has been so since 2005 (214,779 cases) with an EU notification rate of 64.8 per 100,000 population. However, the high mortality rate associated to L. monocytogenes was confirmed since 191 deaths were reported in 2013, much higher than deaths associated to Campylobacter or Salmonella (59 or 56, respectively).
6.1. Risk factors affecting microbial safety of foods in catering establishments
6.1.1. Hygienic food handlers` practices
In production processes, storage, and distribution of prepared foods, the role of food handlers seems essential to ensure food safety, supported mainly on good hygienic practices and implementation of improved self-control measures. The food handler is defined as “anyone who by their work have direct contact with food during preparation, manufacture, processing, manufacturing, packaging, storage, transport, distribution, sale, supply and service.”
Then existing laws applied to food handlers are cited as follows:
Regulation (EC) 852/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs [10].
Regulation (EC) 882/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on official controls performed to ensure the verification of compliance with the legislation on feed and food law, animal health, and animal welfare [80].
In a food catering environment, hygiene procedures may be improved as part of food poisoning occurs as a result of the risk factors associated with food handling, related to poor hygiene, improper cooking procedures, cross-contamination, or improper storage of food [81].
Handlers sometimes act as vehicles for the spread of indicators or pathogens directly and indirectly through the hands to other food-contact surfaces and handlers. In the United States, the hygienic practices of food handlers are one of the five most important risk factors of food poisoning and about 89% of the outbreaks occur mainly by inadequate hygiene [78].
In certain circumstances, the hands may represent the most important vehicle of fecal and respiratory microorganisms [82]. It has been shown that microorganisms, such as S. aureus, E. coli, and S. enterica., can survive on the hands if hygiene measures are not sufficiently appropriate. Several studies describe outbreaks of food poisoning associated with catering establishments [83]; these studies indicate that sanitary measures may be insufficient when dealing with consumer food safety.
Ayçiçek et al. [84] evaluated the sanitary measures of food handlers in a hospital central kitchen. They concluded that these measures were insufficient as significant counts of S. aureus and E. coli in both gloved hands and bare hands were presented when handling food. Specifically, S. aureus positive samples were obtained in 70% of the isolates. Other microorganisms, such as Bacillus spp. or Staphylococcus coagulase negative, were also isolated. Lues and Van Torden [85] attempted to relate the microbiological contamination found in the hands of food handlers and that presented in cloths and aprons. To do this, they visited several retail points in South Africa dedicated to the selling of RTE meat. In the study, it was found aerobic mesophilic counts (hands and aprons, respectively) in 98% and 8% of analyzed samples, total coliforms (40% and 26%), Enterobacteriaceae (44% and 16%), and S. aureus (88% and 40%). However, they did not find any significant correlation between the microbial counts, so potential cross-contamination could not be concluded. Besides, they considered that inadequate hygiene could be a potential risk factor in the microbiological contamination of food, as 32% of the hands analyzed presented high counts for total coliforms. Fecal coliforms also prevailed in more than half of the samples from the hands (55.6%) of food handlers of several school canteens in Brazil [8]. The lack of the annual medical examination (51.9%), lack of regular training for handlers (74.1%), and poor hygiene practices (100%) could have an influence of these results, as stated by other authors [86]. Other microbial agents, such as norovirus and hepatitis A virus in humans, can survive in the hands of food handlers when they do not follow good hygienic practices [2]. In this case, contamination is often associated with asymptomatic carriers and direct hand contact with contaminated food. At the same time, contamination of food-contact surfaces is also promoted.
While hand-washing is a quick and simple method, it is also considered by many authors as the most convenient and effective way to reduce foodborne pathogens [82]. If done correctly, it prevents the risk of cross-contamination and the presence of high microbial loads in foods not submitted to intense inactivation treatments.
The principles for hand-washing are universal, though effective reduction of microorganisms depends on the following considerations [82]:
Origin and level of organic and microbial contamination.
The use of water power.
Washing time (15–30 s).
Type of soap and amount used.
Degree of exposure to the washing process of the fingers, palms, back, wrists, nails, and subungual region.
Frequency and intensity of rubbing fingers and palms during rinsing.
In the light of the importance of maintaining adequate hygiene habits and attitudes of food handlers to ensure food safety, various methods have been used according to legal regulations for guidance handlers’ hygiene. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) has been advocated by many researchers to predict determinants of food handler\'s behavior [87].
However, some studies warn of possible deficiencies in hygiene by food handlers. For example, Green et al. [88] conducted a study to identify factors related to the hygienic practices of food handlers. To do this, they performed an observational study that evaluated the hand-washing and use of gloves of 321 food handlers. The results showed that washing hands and wearing gloves were most frequent in food preparation activities than when handling soiled equipment and direct contact with body parts. They also found that the use of gloves resulted in a decrease in the frequency of washes hands. In Clayton and Griffith [89], the habits of 115 handlers in 29 establishments during food preparation together with their corresponding hygiene measures were analyzed. The results indicated that only 9% of handlers washed their hands after touching their hair or face and 25% washed their hands after handling of contaminated equipment. Lubran et al. [90] examined the frequency of contact of the hands of food handlers with objects and food ready for consumption before the sale, washing hands and changing gloves during food preparation, as well as hygienic measures used for the equipment, utensils, and food-contact surfaces. The study was conducted in nine retail stores of RTE food and found a high percentage (60–80%) of handlers that did not wash their hands when handling food while maintaining contact with other surfaces. Likewise, the hygiene of the hands of food handlers in 15 retail shops was evaluated in another study [91]. Out of the 29 food handlers examined, only 48.3% used soap to wash their hands properly and rubbed hands including washing between fingers, fingertips, and wrists. They also found that most handlers who washed their hands in less than 10 s (41.4%) had slightly higher levels of contamination of aerobic mesophilic bacteria and S. aureus than those food handlers who took a longer time for hand-washing. To this end, some studies [82] highlight the importance of rubbing hands and increase in the frequency of hand-washing to have higher efficiency to remove microbial load.
On the other hand, hand-drying is also a very important in the hand-washing stage. Some authors consider most critical is the last washing stage and needs to be implemented correctly to ensure proper hygiene, thus reducing the risk of cross-contamination [92]. According to the study conducted by Michaels et al. [93], effective hand-drying may reduce microbial population up to 90%. As result of inappropriate drying practices, residual moisture of hands, drying hands with sheets of cloth, or inefficient air dryers that lengthen the drying time are encountered [94]. It should be pointed out that rubbing hands during drying could promote skin contamination after washing. In an observational study by Clayton and Griffith [89], it was found that the effectiveness of hand-washing was affected by a high percentage of inappropriate drying practices (61%).
6.1.2. Availability of health resources
Obviously, the availability of resources and the functioning of health facilities (sink, hot water, soap, etc.) in the catering establishments constitute also another factor that may adversely affect the personal hygiene practices of food handlers [94]. Another study aimed at evaluating the implementation of the HACCP system and knowledge of hygiene and food safety as well as food handlers’ attitudes and practices in 20 establishments in Spain. [95] revealed that the difficulties encountered were improper maintenance of sinks and showers in 95% of the establishments visited, as well as the availability of hot water in bathrooms and changing rooms (50%). Likewise, another study evaluated 123 food retail outlets in the United States to investigate the knowledge and hygienic practices of food handlers, as well as the availability of resources for hand-washing [96]. The results indicated that the main constraints were linked to the absence of brushes to wash the nails (38%) and insufficient sinks (24%) concluding that only the fully equipped establishments (55%) had a properly trained supervisory staff.
6.1.3. Gloves
It is already demonstrated that hand-washing does not always guarantee complete removal of microorganisms. Thus, the use of gloves is necessary to prevent direct hand contact with food and food-contact surfaces as a measure of increasing food safety and minimizing risks of cross-contamination in the food industry. The most important issue is that sometimes the use of gloves can create a false sense of hygiene among handlers [97] and jeopardize the food safety.
It should be noted that the irregular change of gloves as well as their improper use could enhance cross-contamination. In the United States, this is attributed as one of the main reasons that favor the occurrence of food poisoning [98]. In another study [99], it was found that the use of the same pair of gloves for handling different foods increases the risk of transfer of pathogens. In this case, they found an increased risk of transfer of L. monocytogenes from contaminated raw chicken to cooked meat slices. In turn, if gloves are changed, this risk was minimized. Besides, not only the frequency of gloves changing but also their integrity is highly important to avoid cross-contamination. Some authors state that washing hands before and after the change of gloves is highly desirable to reduce this microbial contamination [81]. Even the process of changing gloves is fraught with hazards, because many glove materials cause excess moisture build-up, causing difficulty in disinfecting contamination from the nail region to spread all over the hand. However, gloves should be changed regularly because the risk of transmission of foodborne pathogens could be higher from dirty, unchanged gloves than from bare hands.
The pros and cons of using gloves are extensively explained [97]. However, it should be highlighted that a proper glove change must be done because their efficiency as physical barrier for microorganisms is limited over working time.
Besides this, physical properties of gloves (tensile strength, flexibility, resistance to puncture, and tears), material used (natural rubber gloves, vinyl, nitrile, polyurethane), and glove features (single use vs. multiuse, powder-free, allergenic reactions, etc.) should be primarily considered in the quality control system as they have a great impact on pathogens transmission from food handlers to prepared meals.
Gloves can be made of different types of material, according to their use and physical properties. Polyethylene copolymer gloves could be the least expensive of all glove types. Density materials are quite variable, and they usually have a loose fit. They are built for using in short-time periods, and some glove types contain antibacterial compounds. However, their use is quite limited in comparison to other gloves.
Vinyl gloves (PVC) can be used as an alternative to latex gloves being more resistant to heat damage. However, they are susceptible to being torn with snag on nail edges. They also have a limited use in food industries because of their short shelf life.
Nitrile gloves were also developed to replace latex gloves. They are less elastic but have a longer shelf life. They are more resistant to chemicals but sensitive to alcohol degradation. Although they are sensible to be torn, their garish color helps them to be distinguished within a food lot.
Natural rubber latex gloves are most commonly used because they are most cost-efficient and comfortable. They provide good tactile sensitivity and good dexterity. However, latex and chemical compounds added to the gloves can produce allergies and migration of particles to food, especially in the presence of bleach.
In summary, according to the intended use, convenience, and cost-effectiveness, glove material should be carefully chosen. However, it has been demonstrated that regardless of the gloves used, handling practices and gloves changing are critical steps that influence microbial transfer to foods.
6.1.4. Cross-contamination
As mentioned above, the cross-contamination is a major cause of food poisoning worldwide. Cross-contamination phenomena arise as a consequence of the application of inadequate hygiene practices, contact with contaminated equipment and utensils, by direct hand contact with foods prepared by the improper storage of food, bad processing food, by direct food contact with air or contaminated environments, and so on [94]. Recontamination routes and sources (e.g., raw materials, food contact surfaces, food handlers) were revised [100] demonstrating their relevance to foodborne disease outbreaks. These information sources should also be incorporated in Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessments (QMRAs) to perform mitigation strategies and reduce foodborne disease [101].
Particularly, RTE foods are highly susceptible to be contaminated during handling. Some studies refer to the direct contact of the RTE food (e.g., meat) with food-contact surfaces and contaminated cutting utensils [58]. It is also emphasized its importance as a source of transmission of enteric pathogens, L. monocytogenes, or S. aureus [102].
6.1.5. Food storage
Temperature is the most important factor that governs microbial growth in food. Most microorganisms grow at temperatures between 5°C and 60°C (called danger zone), being the optimum growth temperature at 37°C. Thus, maintaining the cold chain and a correct heat treatment for hot foods are essential measures to maintain food safety, where food handlers play a key role throughout the production chain.
Table 4 presents the recommended temperature storage/transport and freezing of raw materials and finished products in catering establishments.
Maintaining food to inadequate time intervals/storage temperature often constitutes one of the most common risk factors for food poisoning. Previous studies indicate that in school canteens and other related catering establishments exposure to abuse refrigerated temperature for extended periods of time could lead to an increase of pathogens at hazardous levels for human health from preparation to the distribution thereof [103]. Other possible deficiencies are related to temperature control storage of raw and processed ready for consumption, lack of knowledge of food handlers about cooking and refrigeration temperatures suitable to prevent the growth and survival of microorganisms, inadequate cooling and warming food and preparing several hours before consumption [104], or joint cooling of raw and cooked foods [105].
Prepared meals to be consumed within 24 h from preparation
\n\t\t\t
≤8°C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Prepared meals to be consumed after 24 h from preparation
\n\t\t\t
≤4°C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Prepared meals (frozen)
\n\t\t\t
≤−18°C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Hot meals
\n\t\t\t
≥65°C
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Frozen fruits and vegetables
\n\t\t\t
≤−18°C
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
Recommended storage temperatures of raw ingredients and prepared meals
6.1.6. Training of food handlers
Training of food handlers has been considered an important measure as a part of the HACCP systems, given that it helps to prevent most foodborne diseases. Although knowledge alone is not enough to change practices, food handlers with adequate knowledge can change their practices easier if they are closely supervised and supported by their onsite managers. In addition, guidance and supervision by their managers during work improve attitudes and practices [106].
For some time ago, questionnaires or “checklists” have represented an effective tool to evaluate the level of knowledge and skills on food hygiene and safety of food handlers [98]. Nevertheless, further studies detailing more sophisticated methods to obtain a greater quantity and reliability of information to improve the training of food handlers are needed.
Additionally, novel strategies leading to more effective training methods have been performed. For example, some studies proposed to strengthen the training of less experienced food handlers and validate the knowledge of those more experienced in a period not exceeding 10 years [107]. In this sense, a better knowledge on food safety by food handlers ensures better performance and motivation [108]. In this sense, it is highly important to food handlers in the HACCP systems companies to correct their attitudes and behavior at work. Also, a periodic training is found as an effective way to raise awareness of food handlers [9].
Training of food handlers in food hygiene is a mandatory requirement for the food industry. At EU level, requirements on food safety and hygiene procedures are stated in Regulation (EC) 852/2004 [10].
Specifically, in its Annex II (Chapter XII), the food business operators must ensure the following:
“Supervision and instruction or training of food handlers in food hygiene matters, according to their work.”
“That those who are in charge of the development and maintenance of the procedure referred to in paragraph 1 of Article 5 of this Regulation or the application of relevant guides have received adequate training in regard to the application of the HACCP principles.”
“Compliance with all requirements of national legislation concerning training programs for persons working in certain food sectors.”
Recently, the European Federation of Food, Agriculture and Tourism (EFFAT) and the FERCO launched the project “Food hygiene training for all” [109]. The project is based on the development of a software tool for basic training of food handlers of the contract-catering sector across Europe. This tool is available online free of charge (www.contract-catering-guide.org/food-hygiene-training-for-all) and aims at obtaining a better qualification of workers in catering establishments and also offers the opportunity for training staff in those companies that do not have sufficient resources to invest in training.
6.1.7. Intervention strategies against microbial foodborne outbreaks
The burden reduction of foodborne diseases is a major goal of societies. The strategies developed by countries to achieve this goal are numerous and very different depending on issues, such as political and socioeconomic status, actual or emerging pathogens, resources, trade (import/exports), temporal limitations, and inter-regional cooperation.
Woteki and Kineman [110] described different approaches to reducing foodborne illness and grouped them into four categories: (i) population surveillance and better outbreak detection, (ii) prevention-based regulatory approaches, (iii) information and education, and (iv) risk-based system.
Early identification of foodborne outbreaks and the implicated organism should be directed to controlling the outbreak, stopping exposure, and perhaps more importantly, preventing future outbreaks [111]. Also, a rapid and coordinated response is needed among state officials and federal agencies. Some authors [111, 112] pointed out that surveillance based on molecular analysis of foodborne pathogens involved in outbreaks and sporadic cases together with the creation of a platform to share this information would allow for anticipation of potential future episodes. In this sense, Fisher et al. [113] reported the creation in the EU of platforms where data and information on potential outbreaks of foodborne pathogens are available and can be disseminated rapidly to those who need to know; the Enter-net is a surveillance network database of bacterial enteric pathogens, while Salm-gene is a molecular typing network. In the United States, similar platforms are available [110], i.e., FoodNet, a system of disease surveillance that provides information on the incidence of foodborne illness, and Pulse-net, a common name for National Molecular Subtyping Network for Foodborne Disease Surveillance.
Regulatory agencies allow food business operators to set up performance standards in the industry through the well-known HAZARD plan. The HAZARD plan should be designed upon the analysis of the likely hazards in the food and the strategies put in place to eliminate them or to reduce them to acceptable levels [114]. This system has shown to have a very positive and crucial impact on food safety, thus on public health, as has been recognized by key organizations like the World Health Organization [115]. Special attention deserves establishments, which deliver meals to a large number of people, and even more, in those centers where there is an important proportion of consumers with a weak or impaired immune system like hospitals or nurseries. Unfortunately, in the past years it has been reported some cases where the HACCP plan was not fully implemented. This is the case of the study by Kokkinakis et al. [116], who reported that only two out of the seven major hospitals interviewed in Crete (Greece) had implemented the HACCP plan during the period of 2004–2009. These authors identified 14 crucial elements for HACCP implementation in hospitals. Shih and Wang [117], in their study on factors influencing HACCP implementation in 23 public hospitals in Taiwan, revealed that the most important concern perceived by managers was related to economic issues, i.e., “getting funds from the hospital” and “difficulty of allocation funds for facility improvement.” In addition, it was shown that more support, HACCP training, and coordination with other hospitals were necessary to avoid staff reluctance to implement the HACCP plan. Shih and Wang [117] also pointed out that kitchen design and flow charts of food production are the first two issues to consider before the HACCP implementation. The lack of financial support and poor HACCP training were also reported by Garayoa et al. [95] in their survey directed to staff from 20 contract catering companies throughout Spain.
In the food industry, emerging and existing technologies should be assessed in terms of food safety [118]. However, a new concept of food safety arisen in the early 2000s, with Regulation 178/2002, laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. In this document, risk analysis was introduced as the pillar on which food law should be based on the aim to achieve the general objective of a high level of protection of human health and life. This risk-based approach would enable the setting of national and international targets for disease reduction as well as provide the basis for such reduction efforts [110, 119].
Education and information of consumers are highly relevant to prevent outbreaks, and above all, sporadic cases. The World Health Organization launched in 2001 an educational campaign called “Five keys to Safer Foods,” where five brief and clear messages were given to food handlers: (i) keep clean, (2) separate raw and cooked, (3) cook thoroughly, (4) keep food at safe temperatures, and (5) use safe water and raw materials (WHO, 2006). Other campaigns like Fight bac™ [120] or Thermy™ [121] aimed at getting consumers informed about hygienic food handling practices the former, and the use of thermometers in the cooking of food products the latter. Other most recent campaigns like “The chicken challenge” clearly show short messages with the objective of cutting Campylobacter food poisoning in half by the end of 2015 [122].
The reduction of foodborne illness incidence is a challenge for governments, which should manage the different strategies to lower the risk posed by food hazards up to acceptable levels. Current knowledge and tools on risk assessment allow for science-based decision-making.
7. Conclusions and recommendations
By following a systematic approach in assessing risks from production to serving food safety managers will better define the control measures to be adopted in catering settings to prevent foodborne infections. GMPs and HACCP principles should be followed together with special training of food handlers. Although microbiological quality of prepared meals is often satisfactory, special care should be taken regarding indicator microorganisms or prevalence of pathogens such as L. monocytogenes. Control of time and temperature along the food chain might prevent microbial growth until risk levels. Other measures such us excluding key high-risk foods to the most susceptible population (i.e., children, elderly, immunocompromised people) would also be advisable.
Acknowledgments
AGR-1906 Project of Excellence from the Andalusia Government, RTA-2013-00055-C02-02 project from the Spanish government, and European ERDF funding are greatly acknowledged for providing material and especially human resources, making possible the continuation of risk assessment and management activities at national and European levels by our research group AGR170 “HIBRO.”
\n',keywords:"Food safety, catering establishments, risk factors, handlers, microbial indicators",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50077.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50077.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50077",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50077",totalDownloads:2777,totalViews:2428,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 14th 2015",dateReviewed:"March 11th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 13th 2016",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"An improvement of food service centers in recent years has been made based on the implementation of the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system. Food safety preventive measures have been focused on training of handlers in hygiene practices and on improving the sanitary quality of meals. In Europe, an increasing trend in foodborne outbreaks has been attributed to catering businesses. This fact highlights that the impact of preventive measures in the past few years has not been sufficiently effective as expected. Special attention should be paid to food services destined to susceptible population, such as hospitals, long-term care facilities, or school canteens, because people could be more susceptible to become ill when exposed to foodborne agents. There are numerous relevant factors influencing microbial contamination of foods, according to the preparation method, hygienic sanitary conditions of catering facilities, or food handling, storage, and distribution. In the present chapter, a review of the most significant risk factors influencing microbial contamination of foods in food service centers are described with special focus on those establishments where susceptible population (i.e., children, elderly, immunocompromised people) is present. Besides, potential preventive measures to be considered in that establishments and correct implementation of food safety actions are given to provide useful recommendations to food handlers, food operators, and risk managers.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50077",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50077",book:{slug:"significance-prevention-and-control-of-food-related-diseases"},signatures:"Antonio Valero, Magdevis-Yanet Rodríguez, Guiomar Denisse\nPosada-Izquierdo, Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez, Elena Carrasco and\nRosa Maria García-Gimeno",authors:[{id:"29379",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco",fullName:"Elena Carrasco",slug:"elena-carrasco",email:"bt2cajie@uco.es",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"35212",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Valero",fullName:"Antonio Valero",slug:"antonio-valero",email:"bt2vadia@uco.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"35213",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"García-Gimeno",fullName:"Rosa María García-Gimeno",slug:"rosa-maria-garcia-gimeno",email:"bt1gagir@uco.es",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"82252",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Rodríguez",fullName:"Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez",slug:"fernando-perez-rodriguez",email:"b42perof@uco.es",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"176614",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdevis Yanet",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",fullName:"Magdevis Yanet Rodríguez",slug:"magdevis-yanet-rodriguez",email:"myrcazul@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"176615",title:"Prof.",name:"Guiomar Denisse",middleName:null,surname:"Posada Izquierdo",fullName:"Guiomar Denisse Posada Izquierdo",slug:"guiomar-denisse-posada-izquierdo",email:"guionisse@yahoo.es",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Factors enhancing microbial foodborne outbreaks worldwide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Residential catering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Health and socioeconomic implications of microbial contamination and its effects on international trade",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Microbial contaminants of prepared meals in catering establishments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Aerobic mesophilic microorganisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Lactic acid bacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3. Enterobacteriaceae",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4. Total and fecal coliforms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5. Escherichia coli",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.6. Staphylococcus aureus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.7. Listeria monocytogenes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Risk factors associated to microbiological contamination and foodborne outbreaks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.1. Risk factors affecting microbial safety of foods in catering establishments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"6.1.1. Hygienic food handlers` practices",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"6.1.2. Availability of health resources",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.1.3. Gloves",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"6.1.4. Cross-contamination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"6.1.6. Training of food handlers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"6.1.7. Intervention strategies against microbial foodborne outbreaks",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22",title:"7. Conclusions and recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nyachuba DG. Foodborne illness: is it on the rise? Nutrition Reviews. 2002; 68: 257–269. ISSN 1753-4887. DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00286.x.'},{id:"B2",body:'Hedberg WC, Smith SJ, Kirkland E, Radke V, Jones TF, Selman CA. 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DOI: 10.1016/S0956-7135(03)00064-1.'},{id:"B85",body:'Lues JFR, Van Tonder I. The occurrence of indicator bacteria on hands and aprons of food handlers in the delicatessen sections of a retail group. Food Control. 2007; 18(4): 326–332. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.10.010.'},{id:"B86",body:'Couto-Campos AK, Soares Cardonha AM, Galvão Pinheiro LB, Rocha Ferreira N, Medeiros de Azevedo PR, Montenegro Stamford TL. Assessment of personal hygiene and practices of food handlers in municipal public schools of Natal, Brazil. Food Control. 2009; 20(9): 807–810. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.10.010.'},{id:"B87",body:'Seaman P, Eves A. Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour model in predicting safe food handling practices. Food Control. 2010; 21(7): 983–987. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2009.12.012.'},{id:"B88",body:'Green LR, Radke V, Mason R, Bushnell L, Reimann DW, Mack JC, Motsinger MD, Stigger T, Selman CA. Factors related to food worker hand hygiene practices. Journal of Food Protection. 2007; 70(3): 661–666.'},{id:"B89",body:'Clayton DA, Griffith CJ. Observations of food safety practices in catering using notational analysis. British Food Journal. 2004; 106(3): 211–227. DOI: 10.1108/00070700410528790.'},{id:"B90",body:'Lubran MB, Pouillot R, Bohm S, Calvey EM, Meng J, Dennis S. Observational study of food safety practices in retail deli departments. Journal of Food Protection. 2010; 73(10): 1849–1857. PMID: 21067673.'},{id:"B91",body:'Fawzi M, Gomaa NF, Bakr WM. Assessment of hand washing facilities, personal hygiene and the bacteriological quality of hand washes in some grocery and dairy shops in Alexandria, Egypt. Egypt Public Health Association. 2009; 84(1): 71–93.'},{id:"B92",body:'Michaels B. Are gloves the answer? Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation. 2001; 21: 489–492.'},{id:"B93",body:'Michaels B, Gangar V, Meyers E, Johnson H, Curiale M. The significance of hand drying after handwashing. Journal of Food Protection. 2000; 63(Suppl. A): 106.'},{id:"B94",body:'Todd E, Michaels B, Greig, J, Smith D, Holah J, Bartleson C. Outbreaks where food workers have been implicated in the spread of foodborne disease. Part 7. Barriers to reduce contamination of food by workers. Journal of Food Protection. 2010; 73(8): 1552–1565.'},{id:"B95",body:'Garayoa R, Vitas AI, Díez-Leturia M, García-Jalón I. Food safety and the contract catering companies: food handlers, facilities and HACCP evaluation. Food Control. 2011; 22(12): 2006–2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.05.021.'},{id:"B96",body:'Allwood PB, Jenkins T, Paulus C, Johnson L, Hedberg CW. Hand washing compliance among retail food establishment workers in Minnesota. Journal of Food Protection. 2004; 67(12): 2825–2828. PMID: 15633696.'},{id:"B97",body:'Todd E, Michaels B, Greig J, Smith D, Bartleson C. Outbreaks where food workers have been implicated in the spread of foodborne disease. Part 8. Gloves as barriers to prevent contamination of food by workers. Journal of Food Protection. 2010; 73(9): 1762–1773.'},{id:"B98",body:'McCarthy PV, Guzewich JJ, Braden CR, Klontz KC, Hedberg CW, Fullerton KE, Bogard A, Dreyfuss M, Larson K, Vugia D, Nichols DC, Radke VJ, Shakir FK, Jones TF. Contributing factors (CFs) identified in produce-associated outbreaks from CDC’s National Electronic Foodborne Outbreak Reporting System (eFORS), FoodNet sites, 1999–2002. Presented at the International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, March 19–22, 2006.'},{id:"B99",body:'Pérez-Rodríguez F, Todd ECD, Valero A, Carrasco E, García RM, Zurera G. Linking quantitative exposure assessment and risk management using the food safety objective concept: an example with Listeria monocytogenes in different cross-contamination scenarios. Journal of Food Protection. 2006; 69(10): 2384–2394.'},{id:"B100",body:'Reij MW, den Aantrekker WD, ILSI Europe Risk Analysis in Microbiology Task Force. Recontamination as a source of pathogens in processed foods. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2004; 91: 1–11. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00295-2.'},{id:"B101",body:'Pérez-Rodríguez F, Valero A, Carrasco E, García R, Zurera G. Understanding and modelling bacterial transfer to foods: a review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2008; 19: 130–143. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2007.08.003.'},{id:"B102",body:'Malheiros P, Passos C, Casarin L, Serraglio L, Tondo EC. Evaluation of growth and transfer of Staphylococcus aureus from poultry meat to surfaces of stainless steel and polyethylene and their disinfection. Food Control. 2010; 21(3): 298–301. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2009.06.008.'},{id:"B103",body:'Rodríguez-Caturla M, Valero A, Carrasco E, Posada-Izquierdo GD, García-Gimeno RM, Zurera G. Evaluation of hygienic practices and microbiological status of ready-to-eat vegetable salads in Spanish school canteens. Journal of the Science Food of Agriculture. 2012; 92(11): 2332–2340. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.5634.'},{id:"B104",body:'Jianu C, Chis A. Study on the hygiene knowledge of food handlers working in small and medium-sized companies in western Romania. Food Control. 2012; 26: 151–156. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.01.023.'},{id:"B105",body:'Gomes-Neves E, Araujo AC, Ramos E, Cardoso CS. Food handling: comparative analysis of general knowledge and practice in three relevant groups in Portugal. Food Control. 2007; 18(6): 707–712. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2006.03.005.'},{id:"B106",body:'Vo TH, Lea NH, Lea ATN, Minh NNT, Nuorti JP. Knowledge, attitudes, practices and training needs of food-handlers in large canteens in Southern Vietnam. Food Control. 2015; 57: 190–194. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.03.042.'},{id:"B107",body:'Hislop N, Shaw K. Food safety knowledge retention study. Journal of Food Protection. 2009; 72(2): 431–435. PMID: 19350994.'},{id:"B108",body:'Gomes-Neves E, Cardoso CS, Araújo AC, Correia da Costa JM. Meat handlers training in Portugal: a survey on knowledge and practice. Food Control. 2011; 22(3–4): 501–507. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.09.036.'},{id:"B109",body:'European Federation of Trade Unions in Food, Agriculture and Tourism (EFFAT)-European Federation of Contract Catering Organisations (FERCO). Food Hygiene Training for All; 2011. Available at: www.contract-catering-guide.org/food-hygiene-training-for-all [Accessed August 15, 2015].'},{id:"B110",body:'Woteki CE, Kineman BD. Challenges and approaches to reducing foodborne illness. Annual Review of Nutrition. 2003; 23: 315–344. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.23.011702.073327.'},{id:"B111",body:'Majkowski J. Strategies for rapid response to emerging foodborne microbial hazards. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997; 3: 551–554. DOI: 10.3201/eid0304.970420.'},{id:"B112",body:'Tauxe R. Emerging foodborne diseases: an evolving public health challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1997; 3: 425–434. DOI: 10.3201/eid0304.970403.'},{id:"B113",body:'Fisher IST, Threlfall EJ, Enter-net Salm-gene P. The Enter-net and Salm-gene databases of foodborne bacterial pathogens that cause human infections in Europe and beyond: an international collaboration in surveillance and the development of intervention strategies. Epidemiology and Infection. 2005; 133: 1–7.'},{id:"B114",body:'Woteki CE, Glavin MO, Kineman BD. HACCP as a model for improving food safety. In: Perspectives in World Food and Agriculture. 2003 (eds C.G. Scanes and J.A. Miranowski), Iowa State Press (USA). DOI: 10.1002/9780470290187.ch7'},{id:"B115",body:'Motarjemi Y, Kaferstein F, Moy G, Miyagawa S, Miyagishima K. Importance of HACCP for public health and development – the role of the World Health Organization. Food Control. 1996; 7: 77–85. DOI: 10.1016/0956-7135(96)00003-5.'},{id:"B116",body:'Kokkinakis E, Kokkinaki A, Kyriakidis G, Markaki A, Fragkiadakis GA. HACCP implementation in public hospitals: a survey in Crete, Greece. 11th International Congress on Engineering and Food (Icef11). 2011; 1: 1073–1078.'},{id:"B117",body:'Shih KM, Wang WK. Factors influencing HACCP implementation in Taiwanese public hospital kitchens. Food Control. 2011; 22: 496–500. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.09.034.'},{id:"B118",body:'Juneja VK. Intervention strategies for control of foodborne pathogens. Conference on Monitoring Food Safety, Agriculture and Plant Health. Spie-Int Soc Optical Engineering, Providence, RI, 2003, 147–160.'},{id:"B119",body:'Schlundt J. New directions in foodborne disease prevention. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2002; 78: 3–17. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00234-9.'},{id:"B120",body:'U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Fight bac! Keep Food Safe from Bacteria; 2002. Available at: http://www.fightbac.org/ [Accessed January 13, 2016].'},{id:"B121",body:'U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Thermy; 2002. Available at: http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/teach-others/fsis-educational-campaigns/thermy [Accessed January 13, 2016].'},{id:"B122",body:'FSA. 2015. The chicken challenge; 2015. Available at: https://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/campaigns/chicken-challenge-2015 [Accessed January 13, 2016].'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Antonio Valero",address:"avalero@uco.es",affiliation:'
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rosa Maria García-Gimeno",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
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Adegoke and Puleng Letuma",authors:[{id:"153810",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Adegoke",fullName:"Gabriel Adegoke",slug:"gabriel-adegoke"}]},{id:"44092",title:"Sustainability and Effectiveness of Artisanal Approach to Control Mycotoxins Associated with Sorghum Grains and SorghumBasedFoodinSahelianZoneofCameroon",slug:"sustainability-and-effectiveness-of-artisanal-approach-to-control-mycotoxins-associated-with-sorghum",signatures:"Roger Djoulde Darman",authors:[{id:"151333",title:"Dr.",name:"Djoulde Darman",middleName:null,surname:"Roger",fullName:"Djoulde Darman Roger",slug:"djoulde-darman-roger"}]},{id:"44101",title:"Nigerian Indigenous Fermented Foods: Processes and Prospects",slug:"nigerian-indigenous-fermented-foods-processes-and-prospects",signatures:"Egwim Evans, Amanabo Musa, Yahaya Abubakar and Bello Mainuna",authors:[{id:"156271",title:"Dr.",name:"Evans",middleName:null,surname:"Egwim",fullName:"Evans Egwim",slug:"evans-egwim"}]},{id:"44084",title:"Control of Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins with Phytochemicals: Potentials and Challenges",slug:"control-of-toxigenic-fungi-and-mycotoxins-with-phytochemicals-potentials-and-challenges",signatures:"Toba Samuel Anjorin, Ezekiel Adebayo Salako and Hussaini Anthony Makun",authors:[{id:"59728",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussaini",middleName:"Anthony",surname:"Makun",fullName:"Hussaini Makun",slug:"hussaini-makun"},{id:"66256",title:"Dr.",name:"Toba",middleName:"Samuel",surname:"Anjorin",fullName:"Toba Anjorin",slug:"toba-anjorin"},{id:"167039",title:"Prof.",name:"Ezekiel",middleName:null,surname:"Salako",fullName:"Ezekiel Salako",slug:"ezekiel-salako"}]},{id:"44100",title:"Antioxidant Properties of Selected African Vegetables, Fruits and Mushrooms: A Review",slug:"antioxidant-properties-of-selected-african-vegetables-fruits-and-mushrooms-a-review",signatures:"R.U. Hamzah, A.A. Jigam, H.A. Makun and E.C. Egwim",authors:[{id:"59728",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussaini",middleName:"Anthony",surname:"Makun",fullName:"Hussaini Makun",slug:"hussaini-makun"},{id:"156271",title:"Dr.",name:"Evans",middleName:null,surname:"Egwim",fullName:"Evans Egwim",slug:"evans-egwim"},{id:"159472",title:"Mrs.",name:"Rabiat",middleName:"Unekwu",surname:"Hamzah",fullName:"Rabiat Hamzah",slug:"rabiat-hamzah"},{id:"159935",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali A.",middleName:null,surname:"Jigam",fullName:"Ali A. Jigam",slug:"ali-a.-jigam"}]},{id:"44083",title:"Regulation and Enforcement of Legislation on Food Safety in Nigeria",slug:"regulation-and-enforcement-of-legislation-on-food-safety-in-nigeria",signatures:"Jane Omojokun",authors:[{id:"152076",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Omojokun",fullName:"Jane Omojokun",slug:"jane-omojokun"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74229",title:"Calculation of the Electronic Properties and Reactivity of Nanoribbons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94541",slug:"calculation-of-the-electronic-properties-and-reactivity-of-nanoribbons",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Carbon nanoribbons (CNRs) are strips of graphene whose edges symmetry, width and cut orientation give them specific electronic properties. These carbon nanostructures have attracted the attention in both experimental and theoretical fields because of their peculiar properties, which have been studied widely in the last decade as a function of topology, width, as well as doping. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] Depending the chain-type along the periodic direction, carbon nanoribbons are commonly classified either armchair carbon nanoribbons (ACNR) when these grow through dimer chains, or zigzag carbon nanoribbons (ZCNR) if those have zigzag type chains along the periodic direction. Figure 1 shows a pristine ACNR and ZCNR respectively, their distances between their C – C edged lengths are 13.44 and 24.19 Å respectively, although there could be named referring their length and width (MxN), in such case, both CNRs shown in Figure 1 are 12x2 size.
\n
Figure 1.
Optimized structure of bare (a) ACNR and (b) ZCNR of size 12x2.
\n
Through different experimental techniques, it is possible to obtain carbon nanoribbons. [6, 7, 8] However, these techniques have not succeeded in controlling the edges shape of carbon nanoribbons. For example, Cai et al. [9] have proposed a chemical technique which is able to synthesize narrow nanoribbons having symmetric edges, so that, it is possible to obtain experimentally carbon nanoribbons with perfect edges and specific topology. To date, succeeding methods to obtain CNRs come from two different strategies, namely, top-down, which refers to break down large performed carbon-base structures, i. e., CNTs and multiwall CNTs (MWCNTs) and bottom-up, i. e., using several chemical reactions to tailor building-blocks into a complex structure. Table 1 shows a comparative chart representing synthetic strategies to obtain CNRs, employed characterization techniques, advantages and disadvantages.
Surface assisted polymerization followed by dehydrogenation in an ultra-high vacuum environment
\n
Defined edge type and narrow widths, potential techniques for scale-up
\n
Depends on the precursor’s nature, which defines the ribbon’s dimension
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparative chart of synthetic methods to obtain nanoribbons and their advantages or disadvantages.
\n
Because of their finite dimension, at nanoscale, CNRs have peculiar properties associated to their electronic states close the edges, playing an important role on the reactivity. [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] Several theoretical models, e. g., tight binding, all electron techniques, density functional theory (DFT), etc., have been applied to explore the electronic properties, magnetic states or band structure of carbon nanoribbons. [1, 5, 23] Some of them, have focused on the zigzag topology because they intrinsically have dangling bonds at the edges. This behavior provides active sites for chemical reactions. Moreover, ZCNRs have peculiar properties, e.g., theoretical calculations have shown that ZCNRs have localized electrons largely on the edge C atoms close to the Fermi level. [4, 22] This large contribution of electronic states forms two-fold degenerate flat band at Fermi level, such that, the ground state has spin coupling of each edge ferromagnetic whereas between edges antiferromagnetic. Despite zigzag edges of synthesized carbon nanoribbons have been observed, [8] there is not direct experimental evidence about the magnetic states of ZCNRs. It was theoretically suggested that magnetism of ZCNR could be destroyed substituting defects or vacancies directly on carbon edges. [24]
\n
On the other hand, all hydrogen-passivated ACNRs are semiconducting [22]. However, ACNRs are expected to reach the graphene limit of zero band gap for sufficiently large widths. [25]
\n
Concerning these fascinating properties, CNRs may fit for promising technological applications, mainly if the presence of donor or acceptor impurities bring specific reactive properties. [26, 27] So that, this chapter is proposed as a guidance to help the readers to apply conceptual density functional theory to calculate helpful intrinsic properties, e. g., energetic, electronic and reactivity of one-dimension nanomaterial’s, such as, carbon nanoribbons in order to predict or tune their properties; particularly when they are substitutional doped.
\n
\n
\n
2. Structural and energetic properties
\n
To give insights about the structural stability of nanostructures, firstly, it is suggested to evaluate if the proposal unit cell may array forming a stable crystalline state. Usually, a structural analysis is carried out computing the cohesive energy per atoms o per unit cell. The cohesive energy (EC) is the energy required to disassemble a molecular system into its constituent parts. From a physical point of view, a bound (stable) system has a positive value of EC, which represents the energy gained during the formation of the bound state. To calculate the EC of ACNRs, it is necessary to obtain the optimized energy of the unit cell being aware of the well converged energy with respect to the k-points and the cutoff energy for the planewave basis set, evaluating the impact of the exchange-correlation functional used and its ability to accurately describe both the atom and bulk phase.
\n
Although EC is a reference to know the stability of bulk materials, it differs from a nanoparticle. [28, 29, 30] At nanoscale, size effects on the cohesive energy of nanoparticles has been demonstrated, which decreases with decreasing the particle size. [31] However, slight differences of EC are found when nuclei radii of constituent are similar, which do difficult to analyze or find a trend, e. g., the effect of the relative position of dopants along the NRs. For example, Table 2 shows the calculated values of EC of armchair carbon nanoribbons (ACNR) doped with boron atoms in randomly (ACNR-R) and forming one B nanoisland (ACNR-I) arrangements compared with those pristine ACNRS of size 16x2, 20x2, 16x2 and 20x4 respectively. [32] The arrangement of the nanoisland (ACNR-I) explained in this section is shown in part (a) of Figure 1 numbering from 1 to 6 the C atoms are substituted for impurities. Note that, B doping slightly reduces the cohesive energy of ACNRs compared with the pristine ones with similar EC values mainly found in the largest B-ACNRs. However, at lower doping concentrations, i. e. in the case of the largest ACNR (20x4) very close values of EC are obtained which makes difficult to observe a trend.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
MxN
\n
Pristine
\n
ACNR -R
\n
ACNR-I
\n
\n\n\n
\n
16x2
\n
7.224 (0.003)
\n
6.992 (−0.272)
\n
7.003 (−0.291)
\n
\n
\n
20x2
\n
7.338 (0.002)
\n
7.143 (−0.224)
\n
7.158 (−0.239)
\n
\n
\n
16x4
\n
7.225 (0.003)
\n
7.112 (−0.142)
\n
7.116 (−0.147)
\n
\n
\n
20x4
\n
7.338 (0.002)
\n
7.249 (−0.119)
\n
7.250 (−0.130)
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Cohesive per atom (Gibbs free) energy in eV of pristine and B-doped ACNRs of randomly (ANCR-R) and forming a B-nanoisland (ACNR-I) [32].
\n
Because of these CNRs has 3 different chemical species, EC does not provide a suitable way to evaluate the relative stability. Table 2 also shows in brackets the calculated values of the Gibbs free formation energy to take into account the chemical composition of ACNRs. The relative thermodynamic stability that is considered to evaluate the relative stability of multicomponent systems. This approach has been used in binary and tertiary phase thermodynamics and nanostructures other than NRs. [25, 33, 34] it can be calculated by using the following expression:
where \n\nE\n\nx\n\n\n is the binding energy per atom of the B-ACNR for the example shown in Table 1, \n\n\nx\ni\n\n\n corresponds to the molar fraction of the conformant components (H, N, B, C) which satisfies \n\n\n∑\n\n\nx\ni\n\n=\n1\n\n, where \n\n\nx\ni\n\n=\n\n\nn\ni\n\n\nn\nT\n\n\n\n, being \n\n\nn\ni\n\n\nthe number of atoms of specie i in the unit cell and \n\n\nn\nT\n\n\nthe total number of atoms conforming the unit cell. The chemical potential (\n\n\nμ\ni\n\n\n) can be approximate as the binding energy per atom of the singlet ground state of the H2, the triplet ground state of the B2 molecule and the cohesive energy per atom of the graphene sheet respectively. Note that positive values of \n\nδ\nG\n\n represent a metastable structure with respect to the conforming constituents, whereas negative values of \n\nδ\nG\n\n refer to stable structures in accordance with their constituents. As we can observe in Table 2, \n\nδ\nG\n\n suggests that the arrangement of B-nanoisland leads to stabilize energetically the pristine carbon nanoribbons more than the randomly cases.
\n
\n
\n
3. Electronic properties of nanoribbons
\n
The electronic properties of nanoribbons can be inferred from the band structure and total and local density of states (DOS and LDOS) respectively. For the case of NRs, these calculations are relatively simple because they are computed sampling the Brillouin zone only in one direction, i. e., the grown direction from 0 to gamma point. We recommend to use a denser grid than the case of the total energy calculations, including a Gaussian smearing (of width 0.01 eV) to improve the convergence of the integrals of the energy levels for the band structure calculations, for DOS calculations, to use the tetrahedron method with Blöchl corrections. [35, 36]
\n
Pristine CNRs with hydrogen passivated armchair edges passivated are direct bandgap semiconducting, which decreases as their width increases. The edges of ACNRs play an important role on their electronic properties and reactivity because of quantum confinement gaps, which can be characterized by \n\n\nΔ\n\nN\na\n\n\n~\n\nw\na\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n. [19, 23, 37]
\n
In order to evaluate the electronic nature of nanoribbons, firstly, spin-polarized and non-spin polarized solutions of the Kohn-Sham equations must be taken into account to evaluate possible magnetic configurations, as found in zigzag carbon nanoribbons, [38] that implies the magnetic state is the most stable. For armchair ribbons, the non-magnetic state is always the most stable [22] even for ACNRs doped with boron atoms, [32] so that, for simplicity, we consider the armchair topology as a case of study.
\n
The electronic behavior of ACNRs can be tuned for the influence of substitutional dopants. To illustrate this fact, we think about a unit cell containing one pristine CNR with even number of electrons of valence. If we replace only one carbon atom (with 4 valence electrons) for B (3 valence electrons) or N (5 valence electrons) such change gives one unit cell with odd number of valence electrons, in such cases is necessary to search for spin polarized solutions of the Kohn Sham equation, i. e, to evaluate if there are significant differences with respect to the non-spin polarized solution.
\n
\nFigure 2 presents the band structure, total density of states and local density of states of dopants (shown in line red) of the 12x2 ACNR pristine, B-doped and N-doped substituting two dopants on positions 3 and 4 using the numbering shown in Figure 1. Note that, the pristine ACNR is a semiconducting in agreement with the literature [22] and the positive doping caused for the B moves the Fermi level (EF) to lower energies meanwhile the negative doping related with the N moves the EF to higher energies with respect to the pristine one. In both cases, the closest energy bands to EF are partially unoccupied and occupied respectively giving rise to metallic behavior in both cases.
\n
Figure 2.
Band structure and DOS of (a) pristine, (b) B-doped and (c) N-doped ACNRs of size 12x2.
\n
\n
\n
4. Reactivity of nanoribbons
\n
In order to explore the reactivity of 1D nanomaterial’s, such as nanoribbons, it is mandatory to use appropriate reactivity descriptor. However, there is not a well stablish criteria to accomplish this task without prior knowing of an adsorption mechanism or experimental evidence, particularly for doped nanoribbons.
\n
This is why, it is suggested the employment of two reactivity descriptors that are able to cover covalent and non-covalent interactions. The first one is the electrostatic potential, defined as:
Where \n\n\nZ\nA\n\n\n and \n\n\nR\nA\n\n\n are the atomic number of nucleus A and its position respectively, \n\n\n\n\nR\nA\n\n−\nr\n\n\n\n is its distance from the point \n\nr\n\n and \n\nρ\n\n\nr\n′\n\n\n\n is the electron density in each volume element. This descriptor provides the response of electron density when a positive unit charge is approaching, which is commonly plotted in a color scheme. Because of the electrostatic potential \n\nV\n\nr\n\n\n, is a local property, it has one value for each \n\nr\n\n point in the space surrounding a molecule or unit cell, so that, depending the nature of the ions (for instance positive or negative nature), the electrostatic potential will depend on the radial distance \n\nr\n\n from the nucleus. Commonly is followed that the contour of the electrostatic potential is plotted on the isovalue of the molecular electron density, for example, see the Bader’s suggestion. [39] Be aware that, the chosen outer electron density contour depends on the Van der Waals radii of involving ions, which should reflect the molecular properties we want to observe, e. g., lone pairs, strained bonds, conjugated π systems, etc.
\n
To illustrate, Figure 3 shows the electrostatic potential of pristine, B-doped and N-doped carbon nanoribbons of size 12x2 plotted on the electron density surface of value 0.001 au, computed by using the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) in the form proposed by Perdew et al. for exchange-correlation functional. Figure 3 was built in the software VESTA [40] plotting the charge file and then, adding the cube file containing the local potential. The color scheme used in Figure 3 represents in blue, regions where a positive charge may repel each other, unlike in red, it represents regions where a positive charge, ion or chemical group can interact.
\n
Figure 3.
Molecular electrostatic potential of the nanoribbons (a) pristine (b) B-doped and (c) N-doped of size 12x2.
\n
We can observe from Figure 3a that, hydrogens are weak positive meanwhile the delocalized charge is distributed along the carbon atoms, particularly found in the edged carbons, which is in agreement with the DOS of pristine ACNRs. The lacking of π electrons of the boron atoms is particularly observed in Figure 3b, which influences over their neighbor carbon atoms finding localized charge in such region. On the other hand, the N doping influences over the edges with more negative electrostatic potential than the pristine carbon nanoribbon.
\n
The second reactivity descriptor is the Fukui or frontier functions (Ffs), helpful chemical reactivity descriptors for process controlled by electron transfer. Ffs were introduced for the first time by Parr and Yang, [41], which is convinced from the area of research so-called conceptual Density Functional Theory given by Geerlings in a comprehensive way. [42] Fukui functions play an important role linking the Molecular Orbital Theory with the HSAB principle, [43] they are defined as the change of the electronic density with respect to number of electrons (N), considering the nuclei position fixed, i.e. constant external potential v(\n\nr\n\n):
Where \n\n\nρ\n\nv\n,\nN\n+\n1\n\n\n\nr\n\n\n, \n\n\nρ\n\nv\n,\nN\n\n\n\nr\n\n\n, and \n\n\nρ\n\nv\n,\nN\n−\n1\n\n\n\nr\n\n\n, are the electronic densities of the system with N + 1, N, and N–1 electrons, respectively, all with the ground state geometry of the N electron system. Expressions 4–6 concern the Fukui function for: nucleophilic attack, the chemical change where a molecule gains an electron; electrophilic attack, when a molecule loses charge; and for free radical attacks. [44]
\n
Although, the finite difference approximation to the Fukui functions works for a specific set of configurations whilst for others is worthless to implement (i.e., full configuration interaction), [45] in most cases they are considered a reliable descriptor to indicate how the electron (incoming or outcoming) is redistributed in regions of the molecules. [46] Chemical reactivity is based on the assumption that, when molecules A and B interact in order to form a product AB, occurs a molecular densities-perturbation. [47] As the electronic density contains all sort of information, the chemical reactivity has to be reflected within its sensitivity to infinitesimal electron changes at constant external potential \n\nv\n\nr\n\n\n. Calculation of the frontier orbitals (HOMO or LUMO) are unambiguously defined. Within the frozen orbital approximation, [48] Ffs can be written in terms of the Kohn-Sham orbitals as follows:
In molecules, the relaxation term is usually very small for the discrete nature of Kohn Sham orbitals. So that, if Eqs. 7 and 8 neglect the second-order variations in the electron density, Ffs may approximate to the electron densities of its frontier orbitals.
\n
On the other hand, referring to periodic systems, it is difficult to identify one frontier state because of the continuous character of the Blöch states, which makes difficult to compute the Fukui functions in DFT of the solid state. Although there is scarcely literature on this topic, a very useful reference for the numerical calculation of the condensed Ffs in periodic boundary conditions within the DFT applied to oxide bulk and surfaces is found here. [49]
\n
One qualitative way to obtain Ffs for delocalized periodic systems, such as, the carbon nanoribbons is to extract its electron density and evaluate it by using the Eq. (7) and (8) respectively. From the electronic structure of these nanomaterials we can observe that only one occupied electronic band contributes below and above the Fermi level.
\n
\nFigure 3 depicts the Ffs evaluated for electrophilic attacks respectively for B-doped and N-doped armchair carbon nanoribbons of size 12x2 with doping made on positions 3 and 4 using the numbering shown in Figure 1.
\n
We observe from Figure 4 that the B atoms contributes to form regions where an electrophilic attack can occur on the doped nanoribbons, i. e. larges values of \n\n\nf\n−\n\n\n mean regions where the ACNR will lose charge to stabilize it in a chemical change.
\n
Figure 4.
Fukui functions for nucleophilic attack of (a) B-doped and (b) N-doped ACNRs of size 12x2.
\n
The electrostatic potential and the Fukui functions provide information on the local selectivity for donor-acceptor interactions. In here, the electrostatic potential describes the long-range non-covalent interactions. [50] The evaluation of the incoming charge distribution on nanoribbons states that “The Fukui function is strong while regions of a molecule are chemically softer than the regions where the Fukui function is weak. By invoking the hard and soft acid and bases (HSAB) principle [51] in a local sense, it is possible to establish the behavior of the different sites as function of hard or soft reagents (adsorbates)”. [32, 52, 53, 54] Figure 4 shows the Fukui functions for electrophilic attack, calculated by using Eq. (8), we observe the contribution of doping particularly on the neighboring carbon atoms. Indeed, from parts (b) and (c) of Figure 2 is observed the electronic states of dopants contributing near the Fermi level.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
In this chapter is presented how the energetic, electronic and reactivity of can be calculated for 1D nanomaterial’s, such as, carbon nanoribbons. Although the carbon nanoribbons are used as case of study, this methodology can be applied for other kind of chemical compositions, in our experience we have explore the reactivity and stability of doped boron nitride at nanoscale. It is worthy to mention that, the evaluation of Fukui functions in periodic boundary conditions is limited in the usual computational approaches, so that, we suggest to support and compare such analysis with others e. g., charge analysis, global reactivity descriptors depending the nature of the involving chemical species.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
PNS thanks to CONACYT for grant number 252239 and Cátedras CONACYT for Research Fellow.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"DFT, band structure, DOS, MEP",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74229.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74229.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74229",totalDownloads:74,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 10th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 19th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 3rd 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 27th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"It has been demonstrated that matter at low dimensionality exhibits novel properties, which could be used in promising applications. An effort to understand their behavior is being through the application of computational methods providing strategies to study structures, which present greater experimental challenges. It is proven that thin and narrow carbon-based nanostructures, such as, nanoribbons show promising tunable electronic properties, particularly when they are substitutionally functionalized. This chapter is proposed as a guidance to help the readers to apply conceptual density functional theory to calculate helpful intrinsic properties, e. g., energetic, electronic and reactivity of one-dimension nanomaterial’s, such as, carbon nanoribbons. As a case of study, it is discussed the effect of boron atoms on the properties of pristine carbon nanoribbons concerning the main aspect and considerations must take into account in their computational calculations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74229",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74229",signatures:"Pedro Navarro-Santos, Rafael Herrera-Bucio, Judit Aviña-Verduzco and Jose Luis Rivera",book:{id:"10469",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nanofibers",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Structural and energetic properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Electronic properties of nanoribbons",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Reactivity of nanoribbons",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nNakada K, Fujita M, Dresselhaus G, Dresselhaus MS. Edge state in graphene ribbons: Nanometer size effect and edge shape dependence. Phys Rev B. 1996;54(24):17954-17961\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nMartins TB, Miwa RH, da Silva AJR, Fazzio A. Electronic and Transport Properties of Boron-Doped Graphene Nanoribbons. Phys Rev Lett. 2007;98(19):196803.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nJiang D-e, Sumpter BG, Dai S. Unique chemical reactivity of a graphene nanoribbon’s zigzag edge. J Chem Phys. 2007;126(13):-.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nYu SS, Zheng WT, Wen QB, Jiang Q. First principle calculations of the electronic properties of nitrogen-doped carbon nanoribbons with zigzag edges. Carbon. 2008;46(3):537-43.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nDutta S, Manna AK, Pati SK. Intrinsic Half-Metallicity in Modified Graphene Nanoribbons. Phys Rev Lett. 2009;102(9):096601.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nBerger C, Song Z, Li X, Wu X, Brown N, Naud C, et al. Electronic Confinement and Coherence in Patterned Epitaxial Graphene. Science. 2006;312(5777):1191-6.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nKosynkin DV, Higginbotham AL, Sinitskii A, Lomeda JR, Dimiev A, Price BK, et al. Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature. 2009;458(7240):872-6.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nTapasztó L, Dobrik G, Lambin P, Biró LP. Tailoring the atomic structure of graphene nanoribbons by scanning tunnelling microscope lithography. Nature Nanotechnology. 2008;3(7):397-401.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nCai J, Ruffieux P, Jaafar R, Bieri M, Braun T, Blankenburg S, et al. Atomically precise bottom-up fabrication of graphene nanoribbons. Nature. 2010;466(7305):470-3.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nWang X, Dai H. Etching and narrowing of graphene from the edges. Nature Chemistry. 2010;2(8):661-5.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nCano-Márquez AG, Rodríguez-Macías FJ, Campos-Delgado J, Espinosa-González CG, Tristán-López F, Ramírez-González D, et al. Ex-MWNTs: Graphene Sheets and Ribbons Produced by Lithium Intercalation and Exfoliation of Carbon Nanotubes. Nano Lett. 2009;9(4):1527-33.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nShinde DB, Majumder M, Pillai VK. Counter-ion Dependent, Longitudinal Unzipping of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes to Highly Conductive and Transparent Graphene Nanoribbons. Scientific Reports. 2014;4(1):4363.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nStankovich S, Dikin DA, Dommett GHB, Kohlhaas KM, Zimney EJ, Stach EA, et al. Graphene-based composite materials. Nature. 2006;442(7100):282-6.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nVo TH, Shekhirev M, Kunkel DA, Orange F, Guinel MJF, Enders A, et al. Bottom-up solution synthesis of narrow nitrogen-doped graphene nanoribbons. Chem Commun. 2014;50(32):4172-4.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nSakaguchi H, Kawagoe Y, Hirano Y, Iruka T, Yano M, Nakae T. Width-Controlled Sub-Nanometer Graphene Nanoribbon Films Synthesized by Radical-Polymerized Chemical Vapor Deposition. 2014;26(24):4134-8.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nYang X, Dou X, Rouhanipour A, Zhi L, Räder HJ, Müllen K. Two-Dimensional Graphene Nanoribbons. J Am Chem Soc. 2008;130(13):4216-7.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nCervantes-Sodi F, Csányi G, Piscanec S, Ferrari AC. Edge-functionalized and substitutionally doped graphene nanoribbons: Electronic and spin properties. Phys Rev B. 2008;77(16):165427.\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nEzawa M. Peculiar width dependence of the electronic properties of carbon nanoribbons. Phys Rev B. 2006;73(4):045432.\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nFujita M, Wakabayashi K, Nakada K, Kusakabe K. Peculiar Localized State at Zigzag Graphite Edge. J Phys Soc Jpn. 1996;65(7):1920-3.\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nLee Y-L, Lee Y-W. Ground state of graphite ribbons with zigzag edges. Phys Rev B. 2002;66(24):245402.\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nMiyamoto Y, Nakada K, Fujita M. First-principles study of edge states of H-terminated graphitic ribbons. Phys Rev B. 1999;60(23):16211-.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSon Y-W, Cohen ML, Louie SG. Energy Gaps in Graphene Nanoribbons. Phys Rev Lett. 2006;97(21):216803.\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nWakabayashi K, Fujita M, Ajiki H, Sigrist M. Electronic and magnetic properties of nanographite ribbons. Phys Rev B. 1999;59(12):8271-82.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nHuang B, Liu F, Wu J, Gu B-L, Duan W. Suppression of spin polarization in graphene nanoribbons by edge defects and impurities. Phys Rev B. 2008;77(15):153411.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nBarone V, Hod O, Scuseria GE. Electronic Structure and Stability of Semiconducting Graphene Nanoribbons. Nano Lett. 2006;6(12):2748-54.\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nNovoselov KS, Geim AK, Morozov SV, Jiang D, Zhang Y, Dubonos SV, et al. Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films. Science. 2004;306(5696):666-9.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nZhang Y, Tan Y-W, Stormer HL, Kim P. Experimental observation of the quantum Hall effect and Berry\'s phase in graphene. Nature. 2005;438(7065):201-4.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nJiang Q, Aya N, Shi FG. Nanotube size-dependent melting of single crystals in carbon nanotubes. Appl Phys A. 1997;64(6):627-9.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nDavid TB, Lereah Y, Deutscher G, Kofman R, Cheyssac P. Solid-liquid transition in ultra-fine lead particles. Philos Mag A. 1995;71(5):1135-43.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nLamber R, Wetjen S, Jaeger NI. Size dependence of the lattice parameter of small palladium particles. Phys Rev B. 1995;51(16):10968-71.\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nQi WH, Wang MP. Size effect on the cohesive energy of nanoparticle. J Mater Sci Lett. 2002;21(22):1743-5.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nNavarro-Santos P, Ricardo-Chávez JL, Reyes-Reyes M, Rivera JL, López-Sandoval R. Tuning the electronic properties of armchair carbon nanoribbons by a selective boron doping. J Phys: Condens Matter. 2010;22(50):505302.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nDumitrică T, Hua M, Yakobson BI. Endohedral silicon nanotubes as thinnest silicide wires. Phys Rev B. 2004;70(24):241303.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nKan E-j, Li Z, Yang J, Hou JG. Half-Metallicity in Edge-Modified Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons. J Am Chem Soc. 2008;130(13):4224-5.\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nKresse G, Joubert D. From ultrasoft pseudopotentials to the projector augmented-wave method. Phys Rev B. 1999;59(3):1758-75.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBlöchl PE. Projector augmented-wave method. Phys Rev B. 1994;50(24):17953-79.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nAbanin DA, Lee PA, Levitov LS. Spin-Filtered Edge States and Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene. Phys Rev Lett. 2006;96(17):176803.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nMagda GZ, Jin X, Hagymási I, Vancsó P, Osváth Z, Nemes-Incze P, et al. Room-temperature magnetic order on zigzag edges of narrow graphene nanoribbons. Nature. 2014;514(7524):608-11.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nBader RFW, Carroll MT, Cheeseman JR, Chang C. Properties of atoms in molecules: atomic volumes. J Am Chem Soc. 1987;109(26):7968-79.\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nMomma K, Izumi F. VESTA 3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal, volumetric and morphology data. J Appl Crystallogr. 2011;44(6):1272-6.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nYang W, Parr RG. Hardness, softness, and the fukui function in the electronic theory of metals and catalysis. 1985;82(20):6723-6.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nGeerlings P, De Proft F, Langenaeker W. Conceptual Density Functional Theory. Chem Rev. 2003;103(5):1793-874.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nLi Y, Evans JNS. The Fukui Function: A Key Concept Linking Frontier Molecular Orbital Theory and the Hard-Soft-Acid-Base Principle. J Am Chem Soc. 1995;117(29):7756-9.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nYang W, Mortier WJ. The use of global and local molecular parameters for the analysis of the gas-phase basicity of amines. J Am Chem Soc. 1986;108(19):5708-11.\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nAyers PW, De Proft F, Borgoo A, Geerlings P. Computing Fukui functions without differentiating with respect to electron number. I. Fundamentals. J Chem Phys. 2007;126(22):224107.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nChermette H, Boulet P, Stefan P. Reviews of Modern Quantum Chemistry: A Celebration of the Contributions of Robert G. Parr Parr. Singapore: World Scientific; 2002.\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nL. GJ. Structure and Bonding. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1993. 268 p.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nAyers PW, Yang W, Bartolotti LJ. Chemical Reactivity Theory: A Density Functional View: CRC Press; 2009. 610 p.\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nCerón ML, Gomez T, Calatayud M, Cárdenas C. Computing the Fukui Function in Solid-State Chemistry: Application to Alkaline Earth Oxides Bulk and Surfaces. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 2020;124(14):2826-33.\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nPolitzer P, Murray JS, Peralta-Inga Z. Molecular surface electrostatic potentials in relation to noncovalent interactions in biological systems. Int J Quantum Chem. 2001;85(6):676-84.\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nPearson RG. Hard and Soft Acids and Bases. J Am Chem Soc. 1963;85(22):3533-9.\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nMorales-Palacios FG, Navarro-Santos P, Beiza-Granados L, Rivera JL, García-Gutiérrez HA, Herrera-Bucio R. Conjugate addition between syringol and a captodative olefin catalyzed by BF3. 2019;32(12):e4011.\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nRivera JL, Navarro-Santos P, Guerra-Gonzalez R, Lima E. Interaction of Refractory Dibenzothiophenes and Polymerizable Structures. International Journal of Polymer Science. 2014;2014:11.\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nRivera JL, Navarro-Santos P, Hernandez-Gonzalez L, Guerra-Gonzalez R. Reactivity of Alkyldibenzothiophenes Using Theoretical Descriptors. J Chem. 2014;2014:8\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Pedro Navarro-Santos",address:"pnavarrosa@conacyt.mx",affiliation:'
CONACYT-Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Edif. B-1, Francisco J. Múgica, s/n, Mexico
Instituto de Investigaciones Quimico-Biologicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Edif. B-1, Francisco J. Múgica, s/n, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jose Luis Rivera",address:null,affiliation:'
Facultad de Ciencias Fisico-Matematicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Francisco J. Múgica, s/n, Mexico
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Long-term archiving
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
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\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
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