\r\n\t \r\n\tThe aims of this book are to present the updates and advances in the field of resuscitation including AHA guidelines, latest evidence for the airway protection equipment, the role of AED in cardiac arrest, latest advances and the evidence including ongoing updated research including return of spontaneous circulation and post resuscitation care and support including neurological and hemodynamic stability. \r\n\t \r\n\tThe content of this book will be focused on latest research in the field which will create a concise updated information for medical, nursing and paramedical personnel. Furthermore, the book will also touch upon controversial topics in resuscitation and will try to bring out latest evidence intending to solve the controversies in the field of resuscitation. This book will be an excellent extract of all available updates and ongoing research for a complete knowledge of resuscitation.
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1. Introduction
Hydrodynamic journal bearings are defined as the mechanical components that support the external loads smoothly due to geometry and relative motion of mating surfaces in the presence of a thick film of lubricant. Hydrodynamic journal bearings are extensively used in high speed rotating machines because of their low friction, high load capacity, and good damping characteristics. Such bearings have many different designs to compensate for differing load requirements, machine speeds, cost, and dynamic properties. One unique disadvantage which consumes much time towards the research and experimentation is an instability which manifests itself as oil whip which is a vibration phenomenon. Oil whip is disastrous because the rotor cannot form a stable wedge and consequently this leads to metal to metal contact between the rotor and the bearing surface. Once surface contact exists the rotors begins to precess, in a reverse direction from the actual rotor rotation direction, using the entire bearing clearance. This condition leads to high friction levels which will overheat the bearing metal thus causing rapid destruction of the bearing, rotor journal and machine seals. Fuller [1956] has suggested that the fluid film bearings are probably the most important mechanical components in the recent technological development and are comparable in their significance to the effect of electricity. The development of fluid film lubrication mechanisms has been observed by Petrov[1883] in Russia and Tower [1883] in England. In 1886, Reynolds presented his classical analysis of bearing hydrodynamics, which forms the basis of present days bearing study. The overview of both the circular and non-circular hydrodynamic journal bearings and their design methodologies are discussed as follows:
1.1. Circular journal bearing
The basic configuration of the circular journal bearing consists of a journal which rotates relative to the bearing which is also known as bush (Fig. 1). Efficient operation of such bearing requires the presence of a lubricant in the clearance space between the journal and the bush. In hydrodynamic lubrication it is assumed that the fluid does not slip at the interface with the bearing and journal surface i.e. the fluid in contact with the journal surface moves at the same speed as the journal surface. Over the thickness of the fluid there is a velocity gradient depending on the relative movement of the bearing surfaces. If the bearing surfaces are parallel or concentric, the motion of the lubricant will not result in pressure generation which could support bearing load.
Figure 1.
Schematic of circular journal bearing
However, if the surfaces are at a slight angle, the resulting lubrication fluid velocity gradients will be such that generation of pressure results from the wedging action of the bearing surfaces. Hydrodynamic lubrication depends upon this effect. The operation of hydrodynamic lubrication in journal bearings has been illustrated in Fig. 2. Before the rotation commences i.e. at rest the shaft rests on the bearing surface. When the journal starts to rotate, it will climb the bearing surface gradually as the speed is further increased; it will then force the lubricant into the wedge-shaped region. When more and more lubricant is forced into a wedge-shaped clearance space, the shaft moves up the bore until an equilibrium condition is reached and now, the shaft is supported on a wedge of lubricant. The moving surfaces are then held apart by the pressure generated within the fluid film. Journal bearings are designed such that at normal operating conditions the continuously generated fluid pressure supports the load with no contact between the bearing surfaces. This operating condition is known as thick film or fluid film lubrication and results in a very low operating friction.On the other hand if the lubricant film is insufficient between the relatively moving parts, it may lead to surface contact and the phenomenon is normally known as boundary lubrication. This occurs at rotation start-up, a slow speed operation or if the load is too heavy. This regime results in bearing wear and a relatively high friction value. If a bearing is to be operated under boundary lubricating conditions, special lubricants must be used. Amongst hydrodynamic bearings, circular journal bearing is the most familiar and widely used bearing. Simple form of this bearing offers many advantages in its manufacturing as well as in its performance. However, the circular journal bearings operating at high speed encounter instability problems of whirl and whip. Instability may damage not only the bearings but also the complete machine.
Figure 2.
Schematic of operation of hydrodynamic lubrication in journal bearing [W1]
Moreover, these bearings usually experience a considerable variation in temperature due to viscous heat dissipation. This significantly affects the bearing performance as lubricant viscosity is a strong function of temperature. Furthermore, excessive rise in temperature can cause oxidation of the lubricant and, consequently, lead to failure of the bearing. Pressure also influences the viscosity of the lubricant to certain extent. Usually viscosity increases exponentially as the pressure increases which in turn increases the load capacity of the journal bearing. Researchers have studied the behaviour of circular journal bearing by adopting various numerical approaches to simulate the performance in accordance with the real conditions.
1.2. Non-circular journal bearing
It has been reported in the literature that the temperature rise is quite high in circular journal bearings as they operate with single active oil film. This resulted in the development of bearings with non-circular profile which operate with more than one active oil film. This feature accounts for the superior stiffness, damping, and reduced temperature in the oil film as compared to the circular journal bearings. Almost all the non-circular journal bearing geometries enhance the shaft stability and under proper conditions this will also reduce power losses and increase oil flow (as compared to an inscribed circular bearing), thus reducing the oil film temperature. Amongst non-circular journal bearings, offset-halves, elliptical, lemon bore, and three-lobe configurations are the most common.
The offset-halves journal bearing has been commonly used as a lobed bearing in which two lobes are obtained by orthogonally displacing the two halves of a cylindrical bearing. Offset-halves journal bearings (Fig. 3) are frequently used in gear boxes connecting turbine and generator for the power generation industries. These also find applications where primary directions of force, constant direction of rotation are found or high bearing load capacity, long service life, high stiffness, and damping values are the main characteristics under consideration. If the equipment is operated at full power, these requirements can be met by lemon bore bearings. Lemon bore bearing is a variation on the plain bearing where the bearing clearance is reduced in one direction and this bearing has a lower load carrying capacity than the plain bearings, but is more susceptible to oil whirl at high speeds [W2]. However, equipment must often be operated at lower performance levels, particularly in the times of reduced current needs. It is precisely under these conditions that lemon bore bearings may provide unstable conditions, which may require equipment shut down to avoid damage. Offset-halves journal bearings have the durability equal to lemon bore bearings while these show stiffness and damping properties which permit light loads at high rotational speeds. It also offers the advantage of a long, minimally convergent inlet gap, resulting in high load carrying capacity. At the same time, the externally applied force and the compression resulting from the horizontal displacement of the bearing halves accurately holds the shaft in the lubricant film. This effect produces excellent hydrodynamic characteristics, such as elastic rigidity and damping by the oil film. Thus, the offset-halves journal bearings prove to be technical alternative to conventional lemon bore bearings [Chauhan and Sehgal: 2008].
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of offset-halves journal bearing
The elliptical journal bearings (Fig. 4) are commonly used in turbo-sets of small and medium ratings, steam turbines, and generators. The so-called elliptical journal bearing is actually not elliptic in cross section but is usually made up of two circular arcs whose centers are displaced along a common vertical straight line from the centre of the bearing. The bearing so produced has a large clearance in the horizontal or split direction and a smaller clearance in the vertical direction. Elliptical journal bearings are slightly more stable toward the oil whip than the cylindrical bearings. In addition to this elliptical journal bearing runs cooler than a cylindrical bearing because of the larger horizontal clearance for the same vertical clearance.
Figure 4.
Schematic diagram of elliptical journal bearing
2. Literature review
This section of the chapter provides details of research carried out on hydrodynamic bearings in general and, offset-halves and elliptical journal bearings in particular. There is enormous information available on the theoretical and experimental work related to the circular journal bearings. However, such work pertaining to non-circular journal bearings especially offset-halves and elliptical journal bearingsare limited and hence, the theoretical and experimental works pertaining to non-circular journal bearings have been summarized:
Pinkus and Lynn [1956] have presented an analysis of elliptical journal bearings based on the numerical solution of Reynolds equation for finite bearings with the assumption that there is no heat loss to the surroundings. They have supplemented the solution of differential equation by additional work on the nature of the oil flow, power loss, and eccentricity in elliptical journal bearings. Wilcock [1961] has worked towards the possibility of displacing the lobe centers of two-lobe journal bearings orthogonally with respect to the mid-radius of the lobe. The author shows that when the lobe displacement is in a direction opposite to the shaft surface motion, and the bearing is centrally loaded, shaft stiffness orthogonal to the load vector is substantially increased. At the same time, vertical stiffness essentially remains unchanged andminimum film thickness is decreased; particularly at low loads, while oil flow is increased. Author also carried out an analysis for a bearing having in cross-section two arcs (each subtending an angle of 1500), L/D=1/2, and with the arc centers each displaced from the geometric center by half the radial clearance. Singh et al. [1977] have reported that non-circular bearings are finding extensive use in high speed machinery as they enhance shaft stability, reduce power losses and increase oil flow (as compared to circular bearings), thus reducing bearing temperature. The authors had presented a solution to analyze the elliptical bearings, using a variational approach. Crosby [1980] has solved full journal bearing of finite length for thermohydrodynamic case in which the energy transmitted by conduction is included. The effect of temperature variation across the film thickness on bearing performance is investigated by the author. Singh and Gupta [1982] have considered the stability limits of elliptical journal bearings supporting flexible rotors. The Reynolds equation was solved numerically for several values of the eccentricity ratio, the L/D ratio and the dimensionless velocity of the journal centre. The authors observed that the operating load, ellipticity, L/D ratio and shaft flexibility significantly affect the limit of stable operation. The authors also reported that elliptical bearings are suitable for stiff and moderately flexible rotors. Tayal et al. [1982] have investigated the effect of non-linear behavior of additive-fortified lubricants which behave as non-Newtonian fluid on the performance characteristics of the finite width elliptical journal bearing. The finite element method with Galerkin’s technique was used to solve the Navier-Stokes equations in cylindrical co-ordinates that represent the flow field in the clearance space of a bearing using Newtonian fluids, and then the non-Newtonian effect was introduced by modifying the viscosity term for the model in the iterations. Booker and Chandra et al. [1983] have compared the performance of different bearing configurations namely offset-halves, lemon-bore, three-lobe and four-lobe bearing at the same load capacity and speed. During the comparison, the authors have considered the steady state and stability characteristics.Govindachar [1984] have suggested that Novel ‘offset’ designs offer attractive possibilities in several applications for which conventional journal bearings are only marginally satisfactory. They considered one such prototypical problem in rotating machinery (the support of a rigid rotor turning at high speed under gravity). The problem has been studied by the authors through a numerical example for both dimensional and non-dimensional parametric studies. The authors show that the stability of full journal bearing system is significantly improved by moderate offset and is fairly insensitive to small departures from optimal design values. Singh and Gupta [1984] have theoretically predicted the stability of a hybrid two-lobe bearing which is obtained by displacing the lobe centers of an elliptical bearing. It has been found that an orthogonally displaced bearing is more stable than the conventional bearings. Mehta and Singh [1986] have analytically analyzed the dynamic behaviour of a cylindrical pressure dam bearing in which centers of both halves are displaced. Authors observed that the stabilities of a cylindrical pressure dam bearing can be increased many times by displacing the centers of two halves. It has been reported by the authors that the bearing so obtained is even superior to elliptical and half elliptical pressure dam bearings in stability. Read and Flack [1987] developed a test apparatus on which an offset-halves journal bearing of 70 mm diameter journal was tested at five vertical loads and two rotational speeds. Singh et al. [1989] have studied the effects of linear elastic deformation and lubricant viscosity with pressure and temperature for an elliptical bearing and solved 3-D equations for momentum, continuity and elasticity to obtain pressure in the lubricant flow-field and deformation in the bearing liner. Basri and Gethin [1990] have carried out a theoretical analysis of the thermal behaviour of orthogonally displaced, three-lobe, and four-lobe bearing geometries. The thermal analysis illustrates the implication of the type selection with regards to the parameters of load-carrying ability, power loss, lubricant requirements, and operating temperatures. The comparisons presented by the authors, show that all profiles considered have inferior load-carrying ability and less extreme thermal effects when compared with the cylindrical geometry along with significantly larger lubricant supply requirements. Hussain et al. [1996] have predicted the temperature distribution in various non-circular journal bearings namely two-lobe, elliptical, and orthogonally displaced. The work reported by them is based on a two-dimensional treatment following McCallion’s approach in which the Reynolds and energy equations in oil film are decoupled by neglecting all pressure terms in the energy equation. Ma and Taylor [1996] experimentally investigated the thermal behaviour of a two-axial-groove circular bearing and an elliptical bearing, both 110mm in diameter. Both bearings were tested at specific loads upto 4 MPa and rotational frequencies up to 120 Hz. The authors have measured the power losses & flow rates directly, and the detailed temperature information was collected. The results presented by them show that the thermal effects are significant in both bearings. Banwait and Chandrawat [2000] have analyzed the effect of journal misalignment on the thermohydrodynamic performance characteristics of elliptical journal bearing and solved the generalized Reynolds equation for the oil-film pressure distribution. The energy and heat conduction equations are used by the authors for determining the oil-film, bush and journal temperature fields. This work has reported the important features observed in static performance characteristics of thermohydrodynamic analysis of misaligned elliptical bearing along with the isopressure curves, pressure profiles, isotherms and temperature profiles.Sehgal et al. [2000] have presented a comparative analysis of three types of hydrodynamic journal bearing configurations namely, circular, axial groove, and offset-halves. It has been reported by the authors that the offset bearing runs cooler than an equivalent circular bearing with axial grooves. A computer-aided design of hydrodynamic journal bearing is provided considering thermal effects by Singh and Majumdar [2005]. They have solved the Reynolds equation simultaneously along with the energy equation and heat conduction equations in bush and shaft to obtain the steady-state solution. A data bank is generated by the authors that consists of load, friction factor and flow rate for different L/D & eccentricity ratios. Sharma and Pandey [2007] have carried out a thermohydrodynamic lubrication analysis of infinitely wide slider bearing assuming parabolic and Legendre polynomial temperature profile across the film thickness. It was observed that the temperature approximation across the film thickness by Legendre Polynomial yields more accurate results in comparison to Parabolic Profile approximation. However, the former is algebraically more complex to tackle in comparison to the later; the authors also observed that the film temperatures computed by Parabolic Profile approximation are lower in comparison to Legendre Polynomial approximation. Further, it has been concluded by them that the computational time taken in solution of coupled governing equation with both temperature profile approximation have only marginal difference. Mishra et al. [2007] have considered the non-circularity in bearing bore as elliptical and made a comparison with the circular case to analyse the effect of irregularity. It was reported that, with increasing non-circularity, the pressure gets reduced and temperature rise obtained is less. Chauhan et al. [2010] have presented a thermohydrodynamic study for the analysis of elliptical journal bearing with three different grade oils. The authors have made a comparative study of rise in oil-temperatures, thermal pressures, and load carrying capacity for three commercial grade oils.Rahmatabadi et al. [2010] have considered the non-circular bearing configurations: two, three and four-lobe lubricated with micropolar fluids. The authors have modified the Reynolds equation based on the theory of micropolar fluids and solved the same by using finite element methods. It has been observed by the authors that micropolar lubricants can produce significant enhancement in the static performance characteristics and the effects are more pronounced at larger coupling numbers.
3. Numerical techniques for the thermal analysis of non-circular journal bearing
In earlier works, the bearing performance parameters have been computed by solving the Reynolds equation only. Over the years, many researchers have proposed number of mathematical models. A more realistic thermohydrodynamic(THD) model for bearing analysis has been developed which treats the viscosity as a function of both the temperature and pressure. Moreover, it also considers the variation of temperature across the film thickness and through the bounding solids (housing and Journal). The thermohydrodynamic model also presents coupled solutions of governing equations by incorporating appropriate boundary conditions and considering the heat conduction across the bearing surfaces. Even the importance of THD studies in hydrodynamic bearings can be justified by looking at the large volumes of research papers that are being published by researchers using various models. The theoretical investigations have been carried out into the performance of hydrodynamic journal bearing by adopting various methods, which are classified in two categories as: First category is the methods which comprise a full numerical treatment of temperature variation across the lubrication film thickness in energy equation using Finite Difference Method (FDM) or Finite Element Method (FEM). Second one is the methods which incorporate polynomial approximation to evaluate the transverse temperature variation in the lubrication film thickness. Both approaches mentioned can be used for the analysis of hydrodynamic bearings and have certain merits. The first approach is relatively accurate at the expense of computational speed and time, whereas the second is relatively fast at the expense of accuracy.
In present chapter, the thermal studies of non-circular journal bearings: offset-halves and elliptical have been presented using thermohydrodynamic approach.
3.1. Film thickness equation
The film thickness equations for offset-halves journal bearing (Fig. 1 (a)) are given as Sehgal et al. [2000]:
h=cm[(1+δ2δ)+(1−δ2δ)cosθ−εsin(ϕ−θ)](0<θ<180)E1
h=cm[(1+δ2δ)−(1−δ2δ)cosθ−εsin(ϕ−θ)](180<θ<360)E2
In these equations, hrepresents film thickness for circular journal bearing, Crepresents radial clearance,ε represents eccentricity ratio, and θ represents angle measured from the horizontal split axis in the direction of rotation. Cmdenotes minimum clearance when journal centre is coincident with geometric centre of the bearing, δdenotes offset factor (Cm/C), and ϕ denotes attitude angle.
The film thickness equations for elliptical journal bearing (Fig. 1 (b)) are given as Hussain et al. [1996]:
h=cm[1+EM+ε1cos(θ+ϕ−ϕ1)],for0<θ<180E3
h=cm[1+EM+ε2cos(θ+ϕ−ϕ2)],for(180<θ<360)E4
Different parameters used in eqns. (3) & (4) are given as:
In eqns. (3 and 4),h represents film thickness for elliptical journal bearing, EMrepresents elliptical Ratio, ε1,ε2represents eccentricity ratio from 0-180Deg. (upper lobe)and 180-360Deg. (lower lobe) respectively, ϕ1,ϕ2represents attitude angles from 0-180 Deg. (upper lobe) and 180-360 Deg. (lower lobe) respectively and Ch represents horizontal clearance for elliptical journal bearing. Film thickness represented by eqns. 1, 3 corresponds to upper lobe whereas eqns. 2, 4 represents film thickness for lower lobe of the.
3.2. Reynolds equation
All the simplifying assumptions necessary for the derivation of the Reynolds equation are listed below Stachowiak and Batchelor [1993]:
Body forces are neglected i. e. there are no extra outside fields of forces acting on the fluids.
Pressure is constant through the film.
No slip at the boundaries as the velocity of the oil layer adjacent to the boundary is the same as that of the boundary.
Flow is laminar and viscous.
Lubricant behaves as a Newtonian fluid.
Inertia and body forces are negligible compared with the pressure and viscous terms.
Fluid density is constant. Usually valid for fluids, when there is not much thermal expansion.
There is no vertical flow across the film.
For steady-state and incompressible flow, the Reynolds equation is Hussain et al. [1996]:
∂∂x(h3μ∂p∂x)+∂∂z(h3μ∂p∂z)=6U∂h∂xE7
Here, P represents film pressure, μrepresents absolute viscosity of the lubricant, and U represents velocity of journal.
This equation is set into finite differences by using central difference technique. The final form is reproduced here.
Equation (6) assumes viscosity as constant and gives isothermal pressures, whereas eqn. (7) assumes viscosity as a variable quantity and gives thermal pressures. The coefficients appearing in eqn. (6 & 7) are given in Appendix-I. The variation of viscosity with temperature and pressure has been simulated using the following viscosity relation Sharma and Pandey [2007]:
μ=μrefeαP−γ(T−T0)E15
In eqn. (8), μrefrepresents absolute viscosity of the lubricant at oil inlet temperature, γrepresents temperature-viscosity coefficient of lubricant, αrepresents Barus viscosity-pressure index, Trepresents lubricating film temperature, and Torepresents oil inlet temperature.
3.3. Energy Equation
The energy equation for steady-state and incompressible flow is given as Sharma and Pandey [2007]:
ρCP(u∂T∂x+w∂T∂z)=∂∂y(K∂T∂y)+μ[(∂u∂y)2+(∂w∂y)2]E16
Here, CPrepresents specific heat of the lubricating oil, Krepresents thermal conductivity of the lubricating oil, and u,w represents velocity components in X- and Z-directions. The term on the left hand side in eqn. (9) represents the energy transfer due to convection, and the first, second terms on right hand side of the eqn. (9) represents the energy transfer due to conduction and energy transfer due to dissipation respectively. In eqn. (9), x-axis represents the axis along the circumference of bearing, y-axis represents the axis along the oil film thickness and z-axis represents the axis across the width of bearing. The variation of temperature across the film thickness in equation (9) is approximated by parabolic temperature profile. It is pertinent to add here that the temperature computed by this approach have been reported to be on lower side in comparison to those obtained through Legendre polynomial temperature profile approximation by Sharma and Pandey [2006]. The temperature profile across the film thickness is represented by a second order polynomial as:
T=a1+a2y+a3y2E17
In order to evaluate the constants appearing in eqn. (10), the following boundary conditions are used:
At
y=0,T=TLE18
At
y=h,T=TUE19
And
Tm=1h∫0hTdyE20
After algebraic manipulations, the equation (10) takes the following form:
T=TL−(4TL+2TU−6Tm)(yh)+(3TL+3TU−6Tm)(yh)2E21
Where,TL ,TU and Tm represent temperatures of the lower bounding surface (journal), upper bounding surface (bearing), and mean temperature across the film respectively.
Final form of the energy equation is represented as:
The temperature in bush is determined by using the Laplace equation within the bearing material as given below Hori [2006]:
∂2Tb∂x2+∂2Tb∂y2+∂2Tb∂z2=0E23
In this equation, rstands for bush radius, and Tb stands for bush temperature. The equation (13) is then set into finite differences by using central difference technique. The final form is reproduced here.
Coupled numerical solutions of Reynolds, energy and heat conduction equations are obtained for offset-halves and elliptical journal bearings. The temperature of upper and lower bounding surfaces have been assumed constant throughout and set equal to oil inlet temperature for first iteration. For subsequent iterations the temperatures at oil bush interface are computed using heat conduction equations and appropriate boundary conditions. The numerical procedure adopted for obtaining the thermohydrodynamic solution is discussed below.
Reynolds Equation
A suitable initial value of attitude angle is assumed and film thickness equations (1-4) are solved. Then equation (6) has been used to find isothermal pressures. The initial viscosity values are assumed to be equal to the inlet oil viscosity.
Energy equation
The solution for the determination of temperature begins with the known pressure distributions obtained by solution of Reynolds equation. Viscosity variation in the fluid film domain corresponding to computed temperatures and pressures is calculated using equation (8). With new value of viscosity, equation (7) has been solved for thermal pressure. These values of pressure and viscosity, are used to further solve energy equation (12). Mean temperatures obtained by solving equation (12) are substituted in equation (11) to find the temperature in the oil film. Now, this temperature is used to solve the equation (13) to obtain the temperature variation in the bush. The computation is continued till converged solutions for thermal pressure loop and temperature loop have been arrived. The load carrying capacity is obtained by applying the Simpson rule to the pressure distribution. In computation, wherever reverse flow arises in domain, upwind differencing has been resorted to. Power losses have been evaluated by the determination of shear forces, and then employing the Simpson rule.
The boundary conditions used in the solution of governing equations are:
Where, Ksdenotes thermal conductivity of bearing, hcdenotes convection heat transfer coefficient of bush,l denotes length of the bearing, sdenotes bearing surface, tdenotes thickness of bearing, bdenotes width of bearing, and Ta ambient temperature.
The solution of governing equations has been achieved by satisfying the convergence criterion given below:
For pressure:
|(∑Pi,j)n−1−(∑Pi,j)n||(∑Pi,j)n|≤0.0001E32
For temperature:
|(∑Ti,j)n−1−(∑Ti,j)n||(∑Ti,j)n|≤0.0001E33
Where, n represents number of iterations.
Here, the authors have made an attempt to present some performance parameters of offset-halves and elliptical journal bearing which have been evaluated using computer program developed by them based on method discussed in the previous articles of the chapter. Input parameters of offset-halves and elliptical journal bearing, and the properties of the grade oils and material used to manufacture the bearings are given in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The study has been carried at oil inlet temperature of 33 °C (which has been used as reference inlet temperature of the oil by most of the researchers) for the eccentricity ratios equal to 0.6 and speeds ranging from 3000rpm-4000rpm.
Table 1.
Input parameters used to study the performance characteristics of offset-halves journal bearing [Chauhan: 2011]
Table 2.
Input parameters used to study the performance characteristics of elliptical journal bearing [Chauhan: 2011]
Table 3.
Properties of the bush material (Methyl Methacrylite) and grade oils under study [Chauhan et al. 2011]
Figures 5, and 6, show the variation of oil film temperature in the central plane of the bearing for eccentricity ratio, ε=0.6at oil inlet temperature of 33 °C for all the three grade oils under study at speeds 4000rpmfor offset-halves and elliptical journal bearing respectively. It has been observed that oil film temperature rise is very high in lower lobe in comparison to oil film temperature rise in upper lobe for offset-halves, and the oil film temperature rise is though high in lower lobe but it is comparable with the rise in upper lobe of the elliptical journal bearing. A high temperature rise in Oil 3 compared to the other grade oils has been observed which may be because of its high viscosity value. Similarly, figures 7 and 8, show the variation of thermal pressure in the central plane of the bearing for eccentricity ratio, ε=0.6at oil inlet temperature of 33 °C for all the three grade oils under study at speeds 4000rpmfor offset-halves and elliptical journal bearing respectively. It has been observed that thermal pressure rise is very high in lower lobe in comparison to thermal pressure rise in upper lobe for both offset-halves and elliptical journal bearing.
Figure 5.
Variation of oil film temperatures in the central plane of the offset-halves bearing for different grade oils at 4000rpm, oil inlet temperature=33 °C and eccentricity ratio=0.6
Figure 6.
Variation of oil film temperatures in the central plane of the elliptical bearing for different grade oils at 4000rpm, oil inlet temperature=33 °C and eccentricity ratio=0.6
Figure 7.
Variation of thermal pressure in the central plane of the offset-halves bearing for different grade oils at 4000rpm, oil inlet temperature=33 °C and eccentricity ratio=0.6
Figure 8.
Variation of thermal pressure in the central plane of the elliptical bearing for different grade oils at 4000rpm, oil inlet temperature=33 °C and eccentricity ratio=0.6
The comparative study of performance characteristics like oil film temperature, thermal pressure, load capacity, and power loss for the bearing configurations under study has also been presented in figures 9, 10, 11, and 12. Fig. 9 shows, that the oil film temperature rise is on much higher side for upper lobe of elliptical journal bearing when compared to the oil film temperature rise of same lobe of the offset-halves journal bearing, whereas the oil film temperature in lower lobe of offset-halves journal bearing is little higher the oil film temperature rise in lower lobe of elliptical journal bearing. Hence, the overall oil film temperature rise and thermal pressure has been observed high for elliptical journal bearing. The load capacity and power losses have been found on higher side for Oil 3 and on lower side for Oil 1. The trend remains same for both the journal bearings. The load capacity and power loss has also been observed high for elliptical journal bearing when compared with offset-halves journal bearing. It can be concluded from the above discussion that the lubricating oil with higher viscosity value results in high oil film temperature rise, high thermal pressure, high load capacity and also high power loss value, whereas the lubricating oil with low viscous value results in low oil film temperature rise, low thermal pressure, little low load capacity and power loss value.
Figure 9.
Variation of oil film temperature in the central plane with circumferential angle for Oil 1at eccentricity ratio=0.6 and speed=3000rpm for offset-halves and elliptical profile bearings (d= 0.1m, l/d=1, C=200μm, Cm=120μm, To=33 °C)
Figure 10.
Variation of thermal pressure in the central planewith circumferential angle for Oil 1at eccentricity ratio=0.6 and speed=3000rpm for offset-halves and elliptical profile bearings (d= 0.1m, l/d=1, C=200μm, Cm=120μm, To=33 °C)
Figure 11.
Variation of load capacity with speed for Oil 3 at eccentricity ratio=0.7 and speed=3000rpm for offset-halves and elliptical profile bearings (d= 0.1m, l/d=1, C=200μm, Cm=120μm, To=33 °C)
Figure 12.
Variation of power loss with speed for Oil 3 at eccentricity ratio=0.7 and speed=3000rpm for offset-halves and elliptical profile bearings (d= 0.1m, l/d=1, C=200μm, Cm=120μm, To=33 °C)
4. Conclusion
This chapter deals with the thermal studies related to offset-halves and elliptical journal bearings. For each bearing configuration, the use of grade Oil 2 gives, the minimum temperature rise, and power losses which implies that the oil with low viscosity should be preferred as compared to high viscosity oil from thermal point of view and temperature rise is low for offset-halves bearing. An attempt has been made to compare the performance of two bearing configurations namely: offset-halves and elliptical journal bearings of same geometrical size by using three common commercial grade oils under similar operating conditions. Further, load carrying capacity of elliptical journal bearing has been found high in comparison to offset-halves journal bearing for same operating conditions. Among the two bearing configurations power losses are found to be minimum in case of offset-halves journal bearing. The chapter presents different performance parameters like oil film temperature, thermal pressures, load carrying capacity, and power losses which will help the designer to design this type of non-circular journal bearings as well as analyze their performance. The presently available design data/handbooks do not provide any direct analytical methods for the design and analysis of these non-circular journal bearings. However, the present methodology to a large extent has succeeded in standardizing the equations for design and analysis of these bearings.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39701.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/39701.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39701",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39701",totalDownloads:5351,totalViews:404,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:14,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2012",dateReviewed:"July 3rd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 3rd 2012",dateFinished:"October 2nd 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/39701",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/39701",book:{id:"2010",slug:"performance-evaluation-of-bearings"},signatures:"Amit Chauhan and Rakesh Sehgal",authors:[{id:"151409",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Chauhan",fullName:"Amit Chauhan",slug:"amit-chauhan",email:"drchauhan98@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of the Punjab",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"151532",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sehgal",fullName:"Rakesh Sehgal",slug:"rakesh-sehgal",email:"rakeshsehgal.nitham@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Circular journal bearing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Non-circular journal bearing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Numerical techniques for the thermal analysis of non-circular journal bearing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Film thickness equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Reynolds equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Energy Equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4. Heat conduction equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5. Computation procedure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'BanwaitS. S.ChandrawatH. N.Effect“.ofmisalignment.onthermohydrodynamic.analysisof.ellipticaljournal.bearings”I. E. . I. J.20008193101'},{id:"B2",body:'Basri S., and Gethin DT., “A comparative study of the thermal behaviour of profile bore bearings”, Tribology International,199023265276'},{id:"B3",body:'Booker JF., And Govindachar S., “Stabilityof offset journal bearing systems”, Proc. of IMechE 1984C283/84269275\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'Chandra M., Malik M., and Sinhasan R., “Comparative study of four gas-lubricated non-circular journal bearing configurations”, Tribology International,198316103108'},{id:"B5",body:'Chauhan A., “Experimental and theoretical investigations of the thermal behaviour of some non-circular journal bearing profiles”, Ph.D Thesis, NIT Hamirpur, 2011'},{id:"B6",body:'Chauhan A., and Sehgal R., “An experimentation investigation of the variation of oil temperatures in offset-halves journal bearing profile using different oils”, Indian Journal of Tribology,200822741'},{id:"B7",body:'Chauhan A., Sehgal R., and Sharma RK., “Thermohydrodynamic analysis of elliptical journal bearing with different grade oils”, Tribology International,20104319701977'},{id:"B8",body:'ChauhanA.SehgalR.SharmaR. 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K.PandeyR. K.Effects“.ofthe.temperatureprofile.approximationsacross.thefilm.thicknessin.Thermohydrodynamicanalysis.ofLubricating.films”Ind. J.Tribol2007212737'},{id:"B23",body:'Singh A., and Gupta BK., “Stability limits of elliptical journal bearings supporting flexible rotors”, Wear1982772159170'},{id:"B24",body:'Singh A., and Gupta BK., “Stability analysis of orthogonally displaced bearings”, Wear1984978392'},{id:"B25",body:'DSSinghMajumdarB. C.Computer-added“.designof.hydrodynamicjournal.bearingsconsidering.thermaleffects”.ProcInst.MechEng.PartJ. J.EngTribol.2005219133143'},{id:"B26",body:'Singh DV., Sinhasan R., and Prabhakaran Nair K., “Elastothermohydrodynamic effects in Elliptical bearings”, Tribology International,19892214349'},{id:"B27",body:'Singh DV., Sinhasan R., and Kumar A., “A variational solution of two lobe bearings”, Mechanism and Machine Theory,197712323330'},{id:"B28",body:'StachowiakG. W.BatchelorA. W.Engineering“.tribology”Elsevier.SciencePublishers. B.V., Netherlands, 19931993123131'},{id:"B29",body:'Tayal SP., Sinhasan R., and Singh DV., “Finite element analysis of elliptical bearings lubricated by a non-Newtonian fluid”, Wear1982807181'},{id:"B30",body:'Tower B., “First report on friction experiments”, Proceedings of IMechE,18831883632659'},{id:"B31",body:'WilcockD. F.Orthogonally“.displaced-I”bearings.TransactionsA. S. L. E.19614117123'},{id:"B32",body:'www.roymech.co.uk/images3/lub_2.gif'},{id:"B33",body:'www.reliabilitydirect.com/appnotes/jb.html'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Amit Chauhan",address:null,affiliation:'
University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sector-25, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Hamirpur (HP), India
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1. Introduction
Due to anatomical location and function, esophageal motility disorders, inflammatory diseases, gastroesophageal reflux (GER), esophageal rings and webs, tumors and other esophageal conditions and diseases can cause many extraesophageal symptoms, which are increasingly recognised and diagnosed by otolaryngologists, pulmonologists, cardiologists, and, of course, gastroenterologists. Certain pathophysiological conditions that are not localized in the esophagus may be the first symptoms of esophageal disease or signs associated with the onset of esophageal disease. One of the etiological factors is the pathophysiological mechanism of the increase in intra-abdominal pressure that occurs during weight gain and in pregnancy. Another etiological factor is the pathophysiological mechanism of relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter that may occur due to coronary heart disease drug therapy rich in nitrates. A similar thing happens during antirheumatic therapy in rheumatoid arthritis and some degenerative diseases of the locomotor system. Other conditions that may be associated with gastroesophageal reflux and esophageal diseases include diabetes mellitus, which results in prolonged gastric stagnation and consequent prolonged gastric emptying, and duodenal ulcer, duodenal stenosis, or malignant gastric disease in which delayed gastric emptying is present. So far, it is a well-known fact that the appropriate speed of food passage through the gastrointestinal tract, which is conditioned by a series of autoregulatory processes, is important. An optimal rate of passage is required - small enough to complete food digestion and absorption of substances and large enough to supply the body with the necessary nutrients in a timely manner [1]. The most common atypical symptoms of esophageal disease, primarily esophagitis and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), will be listed here. For better visibility and easier understanding, the classification of atypical extraesophageal symptoms was performed according to the criterion of anatomical localization (Figure 1):
otolaryngological manifestations
thoracic manifestations
cardiac manifestations
Figure 1.
Extraesophageal manifestation of esophageal diseases.
And last but not least, the biopsychosocial dimensions of esophageal diseases and extraesophageal symptoms are being recognized, too.
2. Otolaryngologic manifestations
2.1 Chronic laryngitis and laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)
Patients with reflux laryngitis often have characteristic anamnestic data and records in the history of the disease. Common symptoms of laryngitis include chronic or intermittent recurrent cough, chronic sore throat, hoarseness, clearing of the throat, dry mouth, feeling of a ‘lump’ and tickling in the throat, nocturnal dyspnea, laryngospasm and dyspepsia. Inspection of the laryngeal mucosa may reveal erythema and edema of the mucosa covering the arytenoid cartilage, the posterior part of the larynx, and often the posterior part of the true vocal cords.
Two theories explain the pathogenesis of reflux laryngitis:
theory of direct injury of the laryngeal mucosa and surrounding tissue by acid and pepsin;
Due to direct injury to the laryngeal and pharyngeal mucosa, mucociliary transport is damaged and secretions accumulate in the throat, which causes additional irritation of the mucosa and contributes to the symptoms of postnasal drip, throat clearing and foreign body sensation in the throat. As the larynx lacks the protective external cleansing and salivary mechanisms that neutralize acid, gastric reflux remains undiluted for a long time, resulting in tissue injury. The action of pepsin leads to the depletion of the carbonic anhydrase isoenzyme III, and it catalyzes the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide resulting in the production of bicarbonate ions. The formation of bicarbonate ions directly neutralizes the acidic stomach contents and inactivates pepsin, so the ions actually protect the tissue from acid refluxate [3, 4]. On the other hand, depletion of carbonic anhydrase isoenzyme III reduces the neutralization of acidic gastric contents and allows its prolonged activity. According to the reflex theory, laryngopharyngeal reflux occurs due to esophageal reflux that stimulates vagal-mediated reflexes, resulting in a subjective need to ‘clear’ the throat and a chronic cough that leads to injury to the laryngeal mucosa. Laryngopharyngeal reflux is a clinical entity that represents the return of gastric contents to the space of the larynx and hypopharynx, which causes the contact of acid with the tissues of the upper aerodigestive tract [5]. In the physiological state, the upper and lower esophageal sphincters act together and prevent reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus and upper aerodigestive tract. Howewer, the pathophysiology of LPR is typically attributed to a defect or dysfunction of the upper esophageal sphincter. The esophagus features a number of protective mechanisms which prevent injury of the mucosa, which the laryngopharyngeal mucosa do not possess, and are more susceptible to damage from acid reflux. Laryngeal epithelium is up to 100 times more susceptible to pepsin damage than esophageal tissue [6]. Regurgitation of the contents may cause primary burning and/or sore throat, cough, need for excessive throat cleansing, and secondarily may cause symptoms such as dysphonia, productive expectoration and globus hystericus (feeling of a ‘lump’ in the throat). Signs of laryngopharyngeal reflux are visible in the form of laryngeal irritations, hyperemic mucosa of the vocal cords and arytenoids, thinned vocal cords, posterior pharyngeal wall abnormalities, erythema, edema, and discontinuity of mucosal continuity. Of these symptoms, laryngeal irritations and abnormalities of the posterior pharyngeal wall have a statistically significant prevalence in patients with reflux. It should be noted that these symptoms, in addition to esophagitis and gastroesophageal reflux disease, are also present in persons exposed to allergens and irritants and in postnasal drip syndrome. Most authors interpret laryngopharyngeal reflux as atypical gastroesophageal reflux, although some authors disagree with this interpretation given the different pathophysiology and symptomatology of these refluxes [7]. It is important to emphasize that the etiology of reflux in laryngopharyngeal and gastroesophageal reflux is not the same, just as the form and circumstances of occurrence are not quite the same. For example, laryngopharyngeal reflux occurs more often during the day in an upright position, while gastroesophageal reflux occurs in a horizontal position and at night, or during sleep. Different body composition of patients with laryngopharyngeal and gastroesophageal reflux [8] was also observed, and published studies show an association between increased body mass index (identified as obesity) and gastroesophageal reflux disease [9] and a statistically significant higher incidence of gastroesophageal reflux disease in patients with registered obesity. In contrast, increased body mass index is not statistically significant in patients suffering from laryngopharyngeal reflux [10, 11]. Reflux associated with laryngeal symptoms is verified by laryngoscopy and 24-hour pH monitoring. Patients with laryngopharyngeal reflux without alarming symptoms are treated empirically with proton pump inhibitors for one to two months. If this type of therapy is effective, according to individual needs, the therapy is extended to six months with the aim of complete healing of the laryngeal and pharyngeal mucosa.
2.2 Dysphonia
Chronic gastroesophageal reflux is an etiological factor that contributes to the manifestation of laryngeal symptoms, primarily hoarseness. In addition to hoarseness, laryngopharyngeal reflux and laryngitis may occur. Koufman et al. found that 78% of dysphonic patients have gastroesophageal reflux disease [12]. According to Vashana, acid reflux is especially common in singers. The author explains this statement in several facts: muscle activity due to a vocal technique that works against the lower esophageal sphincter; inadequate feeding and sleep dynamics; emotional components and exposure to stressors typical of this profession [13].
2.3 Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS)
More recent studies has reported significant association between gastroesophageal reflux and chronic rhinosinusitis, but the nature of the association is still unknown. Gastroesophageal reflux disease can cause several upper airway symptoms and change the physiology of nasopharyngeal mucosa, while upper airway diseases might also exacerbate GERD symptoms [14]. This associaton can be explained by three physiological mechanisms: the direct effect of acid or acidic vapor in the nasal mucosa, a dysfunction of the autonomous nervous system and the presence of Helicobacter pylori. It is known that the direct contact of the acid with the nasopharyngeal mucosa results in mucosal edema, with reduction of the mucociliary clearance and obstruction of the sinusal ostium. The acid reflux is an uncommon event in the nasopharynx and occurs in only 5% of GERD patients. Autonomic dysfunction, in this case the increase of the vagal tonus, may partly account the hyper-reactivity of the airways to acid. The Heliobacter pylori has been identified in the esophagus, palatine and tonsils, saliva and teeth, and is not known how its presence can result in some abnormalities of this tissues. Retrospective studies describe an improvement of 69 to 89% of the nasosinusal symptoms after GER treatment. Despite this knowlege, it is still not possible to state that the gastroesophageal reflux is one of the leading risk factors to chronic rhinosinuitis, but it must be researched as an unchaining factor when there is no other evident etiology. Howewer, GER symptoms are very prevalent in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis [15].
2.4 Chronic otitis media (COM)
Chronic otitis media may lead to tympanic membrane perforation as a consequence of unresolved and resistant middle ear infection, blockage of the Eustachian tube, insufficiency of ciliary clearance, or an injury to the ear persisting more than 3 months. Various microorganisms are considered as etiologic agents in COM. Other predisposing factors may also play role in persistence of the disease. Many recent studies have shown a potential association between gastroesophageal reflux and otitis media chronica [16]. Gastroesophageal reflux can be an inflammatory cofactor and can result in upper respiratory tract disorders, including COM in pediatric and adult age group. Otitis media with effusion is the most common cause of hearing loss in children. The pathogenesis is multifactorial: infections, impaired immunologic status, allergic history, anatomical problems, familial predisposition and enviromental factors have role in pathogenesis. The angle and length of the Eustachian tube are more horizontal and shorter in infants than in adults, and may allow reflux of gastric contens from the nasopharynx into the middle ear. It can cause to lay the groundwork for mucociliary clearance dysfunction and bacterial infections. Some studies found pepsin concentrations in samples from middle ear effusions of up to 1000-fold greater in children who undergone myringotomy. It was suggested that the GER may be related to glue ear in children. The therapy of COM is mainly surgical. Higher level of damage in the middle ear of patients having GERD requires appropriate treatment which may positively affect outcomes for COM surgery [17].
2.5 Oral mucosal changes
More recent studies have pointed out that extraesophageal symptoms of GERD are acidic lesions of the oral mucosa. These lesions are caused by direct acid and pepsin exposure, or acidic vapor contact in the oral cavity. GERD was reported to be associated with microscopic alterations in the palatal mucosa, such as epithelial atrophy, deepening of epithelial crests in connective tissue and a higher prevalence of fibroblasts [18]. Mucosal changes are quite common and not pathognomonic and specific of patients with gastroesophageal or esophagopharyngeal reflux, but erythema of the soft palate and uvula, epithelial atrophy, xerostomia and glositis are quite common in GERD patients. Some authors pointed out the presence of aphtoid lesions, hoarseness, chronic periodontitis, dry oral mucosa with a keratotic appearance of the gingival tissues and the presence of burning mouth. In addition, persons with GERD may complain of a sour or acidic taste, impaired taste (dysgeusia), an oral burning sensation and water brash (flooding of the mouth with saliva in response to an esophageal reflux stimulus) [19]. Adequate mucin-rich salivary secretions coat all of the internal anatomical surfaces and are essential for the protection of the oropharyngeal and esophageal mucosa and the teeth from chemical, thermal, mechanical and microbial damage. Saliva also facilitates efficient swallowing and speech. Some studies have found a significant association between gastroesophageal reflux and hyposalivation. On the other hand, proton pump inhibitors can cause hyposalivation. Hyposalivation may result in xerostomia, impaired mastication and swallowing, painful mouth, cracked lips and angular cheilitis [20].
2.6 Hypersalivation
The quantity of salivation and the quality of saliva can be an indicator of a certain disease of the oropharynx and esophagus or it can be an indicator of the complication of such conditions. Saliva is produced by the parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands and the small salivary glands. Sialoreia usually occurs in neurological diseases, such as Parkinson’s and Wilson’s disease, Angelman’s syndrome, infections, heavy metal poisoning, and can also occur in the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle or as idiopathic paroxysmal sialoreia. Increased salivation can be caused by systemic consumption of drugs with a cholinergic effect (clozapine, risperidone, nitrazepam, lithium and bethanekol), and it also occurs as a subtle manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease in the form of ‘water brash’. However, hypersalivation, although uncomfortable and disruptive, does not necessarily have to be negative since saliva plays an important role in protecting the esophageal mucosa. There are studies on the importance of ingested saliva that neutralizes the pH of gastric acid regurgitated into the esophagus [21] and on the buffering of gastric acid that enters the esophagus by reflux [22]. The acid that accumulates in the upper part of the esophagus reflexively initiates the formation of saliva [23], which is not the case when the acid accumulates in the lower part of the esophagus [24].
2.7 Dental erosion
Chronic regurgitation of gastric acids in patients with gastroesophageal reflux and related condition - laryngopharyngeal reflux may cause dental erosion which can, in combination with attrition or bruxism, lead to extensive loss of coronal tooth tissue. Dental erosion is typically a slowly-progressing and ireversibile phenomenon defined as the loss of tooth substance by chemical processes (acid exposure) not involving bacteria [25]. The literature shows a strong correlation between GERD and dental erosion, with a median prevalence of 24% in a large range of age groups. The degree of erosion due to GERD is related to the duration of the disease, frequency of reflux, the pH and type of acid, and the quality and quantity of saliva. Demineralisation and the loss of calcium and phosphate ions from the mineral surface of the teeth result in visible defects, and cause significant reduction in microhardness which makes the softened surface more prone to mechanical damage [26]. It is recognized that refluxed acid attacks the palatal surfaces of the upper incisor teeth first, later, if the condition continues, erosion of the occlusal surfaces of the posterior teeth in both arches and the labial or buccal surfaces [27].
2.8 Halitosis
Halitosis is an unpleasant odor from the oral cavity and is a condition that affects a large number of people [28]. The prevalence of halitosis is 8–46% [29]. The pathophysiological mechanism of halitosis is still not completely clear and is mainly attributed to oral pathology due to microbial activity in the interdental space, between the teeth and periodontium, and on the dorsal side of the tongue. Published data suggest that halitosis may correlate with chronic sinusitis, upper and lower respiratory tract diseases, various systemic diseases, gastroenterological diseases, and consumption of certain drugs in patients without oral pathology. It has been stated that mouth breathing, too, can be the cause of halitosis [30]. Although halitosis has previously been considered a rare consequence of gastrointestinal disorders [31], recent literal data have shown that it is common in gastrointestinal pathology and is significantly more common in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease than in healthy individuals [32]. Furthermore, the symptom is often present in patients with verified infection with Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium that is among the major pathogenic factors of inflammatory and ulcerative changes on the gastric mucosa [33, 34, 35, 36]. In addition, a high correlation has been demonstrated between halitosis and gastroesophageal reflux disease and peptic ulcer disease [37], and some authors have linked halitosis to volatile sulfur compounds [30, 38, 39] and to the chemical compounds cadaverine, some types of indoles [30]. Cadaverine (1,5-pentanediamine) is a toxic diamine formed by tissue putrefaction. Indole (benzopyrrole) is a heterocyclic compound formed by the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan in the digestive tract, however, it is also used in the production of certain drugs, fragrances and essential oils [40]. An organic compound from the indole family associated with halitosis is skatol (3-methylindole), which occurs naturally in faeces, it is also present in flowers and essential oils (orange and jasmine) in low concentrations, and is used as a fixative in many perfumes [41]. A 2006 study by Lee et al. reported that Helicobacter pylori produces hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan that contribute to halitosis [42], and the bacterium itself is one of the main factors in the manifestation of gastrointestinal diseases.
3. Thoracic manifestations
Thoracic manifestations can occur secondary to the wide range of esophageal disorders: inflammatory process, infections, trauma and perforation, congenital malformations, esophageal motility disorders and benign and malignant neoplasms. Complications associated with these diseases and disorders can involve the mediastinum, tracheobronchial tree, and lungs. Lower respiratory system and esophagus share a common embryological derivation and are anatomically related. Pulmonary complications can be associated with high morbidity and mortality. Such complications can be categorized as:
mediastinal complications (due to trauma, perforation, foreign bodies, caustic injury, or malignancy);
tracheobronchial complications (congenital or acquired tracheoesophageal fistulas);
pleural complications (esophagopleural fistulas);
lung complications (due to GERD, infectious and inflammatory process) [43].
Gastroesophageal reflux disease has been linked to a variety of respiratory diseases either as a direct cause, or as a risk factor to the inability to control or worsening of the disease. It can cause various pulmonary manifestations and nonspecific complaints: chronic cough and fewer, recurrent pneumonia, noncardiac chest pain, sputum production and dyspnoea, bronchospasm. Epidemiological studies in patients with reflux esophagitis have shown an increased risk for chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chronic cough and bronchial asthma are more common respiratory manifestations of GERD. Pathological GERD has been described in 30% to 80% of patients with asthma. Micro-aspiration of gastric contents and/or vagal irritation from gastro esophageal reflux may constitute airway irritants and thus represent a potential pathogenic mechanism for acute illness or acute exacerbations of chronic pulmonary diseases. Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is twice as high in patients with GERD as in those without GERD symptoms. GERD can produce lung disease by two mechanisms: by reflex neural mechanisms occuring during reflux events limited to the lower part of esophagus, and direct from gastric contents refluxed into the pharynx producing upper airway damage and lung disease. While gastroesophageal reflux may increase airways resistance and cause inflammation by releasing pro-inflammatory mediators, esophagopharyngeal reflux creates the potential to aspiration and its consequences which varies depending of the duration, volume and nature of the aspirate [44]. Chronic cough is considered to be a cough that is continuously present for eight weeks and longer. Among the etiological factors, the three most common causes of chronic cough can be singled out: postnasal drip syndrome, asthma and gastroesophageal reflux. In 75% of cases, patients with chronic cough do not have the typical symptoms of esophagitis or gastroesophageal reflux disease, yet the result of 25% of patients with symptoms of both types speaks in favor of the association of chronic cough and esophageal disease [45]. Namely, the determination of correlation is primarily based on the strength and direction of the correlation, and not only on the frequency and percentage of results.
4. Cardiac manifestations
Coronary heart disease and gastroesophageal reflux disease can interact and produce chest pain. Some recent studies have shown that exposure of the esophageal mucosa to acid can compromise myocardial perfusion and cause chest pain by inducing coronary spasm or cardiac dysrythmia [46, 47, 48]. On the other hand, myocardial ischemia can cause esophageal dysmotility or relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter and exacerbate GERD [49]. GERD can worsen sleep disturbances, and sleep apnea increases the risk of a cardiovascular diseases [50]. These two diseases have a number of common risk factors and comorbidities, such as diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking and alcoholism, gender and age [51, 52]. Proton pump inhibitors, as a treatment option in GERD therapy can also affect cardiovascular physiology. One of the big population-based study shows that PPI usage can reduce the cardioprotective effects of certain therapies, and it can also reduce the contractility of myocardial tissue and raise the risk of atherosclerosis by increasing the serum levels of homocysteine by impairing the absorption of vitamin B12. This study indicates that GERD is associated with an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease, and PPI therapy that lasts longer than one year might increase the risk of CHD [53].
5. Conclusion
Esophageal symptoms are common and often overlap between different esophageal disorders, making a diagnosis based solely on patient history, symptoms, and physical presentation challenging. Esophageal motility disorders often manifest with chest pain and dysphagia. Other symptoms are heartburn, regurgitation, weight loss and malnutrition. Chest pain is localized behind the sternum, and does not spread to the shoulders and arms, which distinguishes it from cardiac pain. Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) symptoms have been reported in up to 20% of the adult population, which makes GER one of the common gastrointestinal disorders with a chronic or recurrent nature. Patients often complain of heartburn and acid regurgitation. The presence of this symptoms at least once a week for the last 3 months are considered essential in diagnosis of a clinical disorder called gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) [54]. Gastroesophageal reflux is often associated with symptoms of the respiratory tract. Chronic cough of unknown origin, laryngeal complaints, throat discomfort, breathing disorders, bronchitis, pneumonia and even non allergic asthma, resistant to steroid therapy, are suspicious of being reflux related. Other symptoms are haematemesis, eructation, dysphagia, odynophagia, hiccups, changes in the oral, nasal and pharyngeal mucosa, dental erosions and cardiac problems. Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) is present in up to 60% of GERD patients. Symptoms of this multifactorial syndrome are mainly extraesophageal, and are found in the head and neck region. The most common symptoms are cough, hoarseness, dysphonia, sore throat, globus pharyngeus, chronic postnasal drip, and Eustachian tube dysfunction, Some studies have shown that LPR has been associated with vocal cord polyps, vocal cord granulomas, laryngospasm, subglottic stenosis and laryngeal carcinoma [55]. Esophagitis can be caused by reflux mechanism, infections, caustic agents, ionizing radiation, thermal injuries, eating disorders, medications, and as a part of some sistemic diseases. The most common symptoms are dysphagia and odynophagia, heartburn and acid regurgitation, haematemesis. Severe and prolonged vomiting and straining can results in tears in the mucous membrane of the esophagus. This condition is called Mallory-Weiss Syndrome. The main symptoms are hematemesis and melena, and in severe cases heavier bleeding may occur. Ribs and webs are the most common structural abnormalities of the esophagus. Most of them are asymptomatic, but can occasionally present with intermittent dysphagia to solids. They are associated with Zenker’s diverticulum and Plummer-Vinson Syndrome which is classically a triad of dysphagia, iron-deficiency anemia, and esophageal webs. Esophageal rings are almost always associated with a hiatal hernia [56]. The esophagus is the most common site of acute foreign body obstruction. The clinical presentation varies from mild to extremely severe, and the most common symptoms are hypersalivation and odynophagia [57]. Esophageal perforation is a rare and potentially life-threatening condition most commonly caused by manipulations with medical instruments, forced strining and foreign bodies. The most common symptoms are odynophagia, chest pain, vomiting and shortness of breath, and in 70% of patients with perforation of the intrathoracic esophagus there are pleuromediastinum and palpable crepitus in the soft tissue of the neck and thorax. Caustic injuries of the esophagus are potentially one of the most challenging clinical situations in gastroenterology. Caustics and corrosives cause tissue injury by a chemical reaction. The severity of injury and the clinical presentation depends on several aspects: Concentration of the substance, amount ingested, duration of tissue contact, location of damage, and pH of the agent: hoarseness, stridor, dysphagia, odynophagia, hematemesis, epigastric pain. Short-term complications include perforation and death [58, 59]. Esophageal cancer is the sixth most common cause of cancer deaths worldwide. In the initial stage it usually shows no symptoms. The most common symptoms are dysphagia, chest pain, pressure or burning, heartburn, coughing or hoarseness, weight loss, bleeding, and hiccups. As can be seen, almost all esophageal diseases shows atypical and extraesophageal symptomatology. Due to proper and accurate diagnosis and treatment, the cooperation of a multidisciplinary team is required.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Ms. Mirna Brunčić for translating this text.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest.
Notes
The figure is from the author’s own source.
\n',keywords:"chronic cough, chronic laryngitis, dysphonia, esophagitis, laryngopharyngeal reflux",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75683.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75683.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75683",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75683",totalDownloads:228,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 14th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 19th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 30th 2021",datePublished:"December 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"March 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Esophageal diseases are diagnosed by gastroenterological processing indicated due to typical gastrointestinal symptoms, but typical gastrointestinal symptoms are not the only possible manifestation of esophageal disease. There are also external symptoms such as chronic cough, laryngitis, pharyngitis, oropharyngeal dysphagia, odynophagia, laryngopharyngeal reflux, dysphonia, sinusitis, ear pain, and changes in laryngopharyngeal mucosa (erythema, edema, ventricular obliteration, cricoid hyperplasia and pseudosulcus). Extraesophageal symptoms are common in esophagitis and GERD, and studies show increasing prevalence of LPR in patients with GERD, as well as an association of reflux disease with cough and dysphonia symptoms. The aim of the chapter is to describe these extraesophageal symptoms of esophageal disease and how to recognize and treat them, in order to facilitate gastroenterologists’ diagnostic processing of patients with these symptoms, improve their treatment and assessment of the therapy effectiveness, prevent the development of stronger symptoms, and encourage multidisciplinary cooperation and exchange of knowledge, scientific and clinical work.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75683",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75683",signatures:"Ljiljana Širić, Marinela Rosso and Aleksandar Včev",book:{id:"10314",type:"book",title:"Esophagitis and Gastritis",subtitle:"Recent Updates",fullTitle:"Esophagitis and Gastritis - Recent Updates",slug:"esophagitis-and-gastritis-recent-updates",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri and Monjur Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10314.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-060-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-059-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-061-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"249257",title:"Dr.",name:"Ljiljana",middleName:null,surname:"Širić",fullName:"Ljiljana Širić",slug:"ljiljana-siric",email:"ljsiric@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"249659",title:"Dr.",name:"Marinela",middleName:null,surname:"Rosso",fullName:"Marinela Rosso",slug:"marinela-rosso",email:"rossom@net.hr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"343628",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksandar",middleName:null,surname:"Včev",fullName:"Aleksandar Včev",slug:"aleksandar-vcev",email:"aleksandar.vcev@fdmz.hr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Otolaryngologic manifestations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Chronic laryngitis and laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Dysphonia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Chronic otitis media (COM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Oral mucosal changes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Hypersalivation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7 Dental erosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8 Halitosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Thoracic manifestations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Cardiac manifestations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Notes",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Guyton AC. Kretanje hrane kroz alimentarni trakt. In: Guyton AC. Medicinska fiziologija. 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Published 2011 Oct 30. doi:10.1186/1757-7241-19-66.'},{id:"B58",body:'Katzka, D.A. Caustic injury to the esophagus. Curr Treat Options Gastro, 2001;4:59-66.'},{id:"B59",body:'De Lusong MAA, Timbol ABG, Tuazon DJS. Management of esophageal caustic injury. World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 2017;8(2):90-98.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ljiljana Širić",address:"ljsiric@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Center Osijek, Croatia
Department of General and Applied Kinesiology, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia
Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia
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Bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae are generally considered as the main pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia and Legionella species, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumonia in atypical pneumonias. In contrast the proportion of pneumonias due to viruses has been both difficult to detect and quantify with any precision. However, with the advent of powerful molecular techniques and rapidly developing technologies a greater number of viruses are being implicated as pathogens and co-pathogens in pneumonia. In the case of adults, the most commonly detected viruses are influenza virus, RSV and parainfluenza. Other viruses that have recently received considerable attention, are H5N1 influenza virus and coronaviruses. Infectious causes of pneumonia in immunocompromised patients include measles, HSV, CMV, HHV-6 and Influenza viruses. Pneumonias caused by other viruses are more rarely reported and include outbreaks of rhinovirus, adenovirus (particularly serotype 14 in military institutions), coronavirus, and metapneumovirus. A range of promising therapeutic targets have been identified and numerous innovative therapeutic treatments demonstrated to improve lung injury due to viral infections.",book:{id:"5938",slug:"contemporary-topics-of-pneumonia",title:"Contemporary Topics of Pneumonia",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics of Pneumonia"},signatures:"Al Johani Sameera and Akhter Javed",authors:[{id:"76522",title:"Dr.",name:"Javed",middleName:null,surname:"Akhter",slug:"javed-akhter",fullName:"Javed Akhter"},{id:"80162",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameera",middleName:"M.",surname:"Al Johani",slug:"sameera-al-johani",fullName:"Sameera Al Johani"}]},{id:"67117",title:"Eosinophilic Asthma",slug:"eosinophilic-asthma",totalDownloads:1224,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Eosinophilic asthma is known as a main phenotype of asthma classified on the basis of immune cells involved in inflammatory response in the respiratory airway. Eosinophilic asthma can be related to increased severity of asthma, allergic sensitization, adult onset, and increased resistance to corticosteroids. The prevalence of eosinophilic asthma is 32–40% among asthmatic patients. Different cells and cytokines are involved in its pathogenesis including eosinophil, mast cells, type 2 helper T cells, innate lymphoid cells, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. Eosinophil count in induced sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage is the yardstick for recognizing and distinguishing eosinophilic asthma from non-eosinophilic asthma, while various tests which are noninvasive such as fractional exhaled nitric oxide and periostin are arising as possible substitutes. Novel and advanced therapies new and advanced therapies and more convenient biological drugs, Leads to high requirement for particular endotype- and phenotype-related treatment plans. Identification and knowledge of the specific pathophysiology of eosinophilic asthma have great association with disease management and chances for better patient prognosis.",book:{id:"8738",slug:"asthma-biological-evidences",title:"Asthma",fullTitle:"Asthma - Biological Evidences"},signatures:"Bushra Mubarak, Huma Shakoor and Fozia Masood",authors:null},{id:"66258",title:"Historical Aspects of Hyperbaric Physiology and Medicine",slug:"historical-aspects-of-hyperbaric-physiology-and-medicine",totalDownloads:1536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The history of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) makes for fascinating reading. From pneumatic chambers and compressed air baths to empirical therapeutic applications during the nineteenth century, the impetus to scientific application of HBOT began in seeking solution for decompression sickness during various construction ventures. French physiologist Paul Bert’s research was pathbreaking and provided a scientific explanation on the etiology of the “bends.” In 1908, JS Haldane’s experiments recommended staged decompression and made diving safe. In 1921, OJ Cunningham employed HBOT to treat hypoxia secondary to lung infections successfully. It was cardiac surgeon Ite Boerema who put HBOT on a solid footing with his open-heart surgery results in various pediatric cardiac conditions and rightly deserved the title of father of modern-day hyperbaric medicine. From 1937 onwards, HBOT research snowballed into treating a wide variety of diseases. In 1999, the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society and Food and Drug Administration recognized the value of HBOT, and this led to its becoming a major tool in the armamentarium of clinicians, either as a primary or adjunctive therapy for a spectrum of diseases.",book:{id:"9126",slug:"respiratory-physiology",title:"Respiratory Physiology",fullTitle:"Respiratory Physiology"},signatures:"Chandrasekhar Krishnamurti",authors:[{id:"257885",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrasekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnamurti",slug:"chandrasekhar-krishnamurti",fullName:"Chandrasekhar Krishnamurti"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1047",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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