Small RNAs involved in plant response to abiotic stresses
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49605",title:"Small RNAs in Plant Response to Abiotic Stress",doi:"10.5772/61834",slug:"small-rnas-in-plant-response-to-abiotic-stress",body:'Environmental stresses, such as heat, drought, salinity, nutrient deficiency, and low temperature, are the major natural limiting factors for plant growth and crop productivity and thus are the major causes of crop losses worldwide. In recent years, much progress has been made in unraveling the complex and sophisticated molecular mechanisms by which plants have evolved during periods of environmental stresses, and a great deal of attention has been paid to identifying these stress-responsive proteins and their relevant gene networks. Plant-stress responses depend on the precise expression of the genes and their accurate regulation, which is attained by multiple mechanisms at different levels such as transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and posttranslational regulations. Although studies have been mostly focused on the transcriptional level of regulatory mechanisms so far, recent results lead us to the point that posttranscriptional events also play a very important role in gene expression regulation in major scenarios of a plant life, from developmental processes to stress responses. Small noncoding RNAs (sRNAs) are the important posttranscriptional regulatory factors in gene regulatory networks. They are involved in many important processes of plant development and stress responses.
sRNAs are roughly divided into different categories based on the genomic origins of their precursors: microRNAs (miRNAs), trans-acting small interfering RNAs (ta-siRNAs), and natural antisense small interfering RNAs (nat-siRNAs). These sRNAs are loaded into RNA-induced silencing complexes (RISC) and regulate the expression of their relative target genes negatively by affecting the mRNA levels, chromatin remodeling, and DNA methylation. Understanding of sRNA-guided stress regulatory networks should provide us with new tools and vision for the genetic improvement of plant stress tolerance and eventually developing more stress-resistant plants in future.
This chapter highlights the recent advances in understanding the crucial roles of sRNAs in plant responses to heat, drought, salinity, nutrient deficiency and low-temperature stresses, and proposes potential technologies and strategies used to identify abiotic stress-regulated sRNAs in addition to the recent advances and methods for validation and analysis of their target genes.
The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) in the late 1990s has been a tornado for the past decade in terms of surprising geneticists for it changed the earlier understanding of the RNA field and the complexity of posttranscriptional control and epigenetic regulation caused by small RNAs. In 1995, Guo and Kemphues used antisense RNA sequence to block the par-1 mRNA in
Posttranscriptional gene silencing (PTGS) by RNAs was first reported in plants in 1996. The lin-4 gene, which is known to be essential for the timing of larval development in
One of the main reasons that small RNAs called so much attention was that soon after their discovery, the target genes for these small RNAs were reported to be crucial in leaf or flower development, which was consistent with the previous reports [9-13]. They have been found to have an impact on almost all the biological processes in eukaryotic cells as they have a wide range of target genes, which are corresponded to some of the previously identified regulatory genes and transcription factors that proved to play key roles such as in controlling cellular metabolism, growth and differentiation, phase transition timing and leaf patterning, and defense mechanisms against biotic and abiotic stresses in case of plants. These 18–25-nucleotide (nt) RNAs are categorized into many different classes based on their size, their biogenesis pathway, and their mode of action.
sRNAs are short nucleic acid sequences that give rise to the assembly of protein–RNA complexes, which later are able to repress the expression of their identified target genes by sequence-specific base pairing. This silencing of the target sequence can occur through several ways by (1) reducing their rates of transcription, (2) reducing the stability of their mRNAs in the cell, or (3) reducing the translation of their mRNAs into protein.
Although much of the work on ncRNAs field has been focused on small RNAs of under 40 nucleotides long, there are larger ncRNAs called mRNA-like ncRNAs (or mlncRNAs)that have received much less attention and have been reported to play some roles in some of the plant functions such as phosphate starvation response and nodulation. The article by Rymarquis et al. explains about them [14].
The generation of sRNAs involves a set of evolutionary conserved proteins, such as Dicer (DCR) or Dicer-like (DCL), Argonaute (AGO), and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR), which all together form the RNA silencing machinery in plants. The DCLs have been the most studied enzyme so far, which, in
The sRNAs are categorized into different classes based on their size, their biogenesis pathway, and their mode of action to at least six groups, including microRNAs (miRNAs), heterochromatic small interfering RNAs (hc-siRNAs), trans-acting small interfering RNAs (ta-siRNAs), natural antisense small interfering RNAs (nat-siRNAs), repeat-associated small interfering RNAs (ra-siRNAs), and the piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), which are found in metazoans.
Typically, miRNAs are derived from single-stranded RNA precursors that are transcribed by RNA polymerase II from MiRNA genes called primary microRNA transcript (pri-miRNA), which are capable of forming a self-complementary fold-back structure named hairpin or stem loop in which the mature miRNA could reside on the 3’ or 5’ end (Table 1). This imperfect double-stranded structure is further recognized and processed by DCL1 in association with other protein factors [15]. This gives birth to the miRNA/miRNA* duplex which based on the thermodynamic features will have a different fate but usually the pre-miRNA strand is loaded onto an AGO1-containing, RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and the miRNA* strand lives for a short time in the cell. Mature microRNAs (miRNAs), which are the so-called hairpin-derived RNAs, are 20–24 nt long and single stranded while miRNA genes are 70–300 nt long. Mature miRNAs help the target recognition and cleavage in cooperation with AGO1 and miRISC. The first cleavage by DCL1 generates a stem-loop intermediate, called the precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA), and the second cleavage by DCL1 releases the miRNA duplex, one strand of which is known as mature miRNA and the other strand is known as miRNA* (miRNA star).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
miRNA | \n\t\t\tmicroRNA | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tRepress target gene expression through mRNA cleavage and translational repression | \n\t\t\tThe fold-back structures of long ssRNA transcripts are cleaved by Dicers | \n\t\t
siRNA | \n\t\t\tshort-interfering RNA | \n\t\t\tRepeats, transposons, and retroelements (endogenous). Transgenes and viral RNAs (exogenous) | \n\t\t\tSilence repeats and transposons through RNA-dependent DNA methylation and chromatin modification | \n\t\t\tRDR-generated dsRNAs are cleaved by Dicers | \n\t\t
ta-siRNA | \n\t\t\ttrans-acting siRNA | \n\t\t\tTAS loci | \n\t\t\tRepress target gene expression through mRNA cleavage | \n\t\t\tTAS transcripts are cleaved by miRNAs, transcribed by RDR into dsRNA, and then processed by Dicers | \n\t\t
nat-siRNA | \n\t\t\tnatural antisense transcript- derived siRNA | \n\t\t\tLoci producing pairs of sense-antisense transcripts | \n\t\t\tStressed-induced nat-siRNA to repress target gene expression through mRNA cleavage | \n\t\t\tThe dsRNA derived from overlapping transcripts is cleaved by Dicers | \n\t\t
piRNA | \n\t\t\tpiwi-interacting RNA | \n\t\t\tRepeats, transposons, and retroelements | \n\t\t\tGerm-line-specific piRNA to suppress repeats and transposons in flies and mammals | \n\t\t\tssRNA derived from transposons is cleaved by PIWI protein | \n\t\t
Small RNAs involved in plant response to abiotic stresses
Mammals use only one class of RNAse III enzyme, Dicer, to generate both miRNAs and siRNAs. In plants, there are a variety of specialized DCL endonucleases, which are classified into 10 categories. DCL1 is involved in miRNA biogenesis pathway while other DCLs participate in various aspects of sRNA-mediated generation or gene silencing pathway (Figure 1) [16].
All the information about the reported miRNAs and their sequences and annotations are stored in a database called miRBase (www.mirbase.org), which is updated on a regular basis with the new published data in the literature [17]. So far, there are 205 precursors and 384 mature miRNAs reported in the model plant
siRNAs were first identified in 1999 in plants [18], and later there were many reports about diverse sets of endogenous siRNAs in plants as well as in animals (Table 1) [6] [8][19][20-22]. Most of the plant siRNAs are around 24 nt in length that are excised from the long double-stranded RNA duplexes or transcripts generated from inverted repeat regions [23-24]. The sources of these double-stranded sequences that eventually trigger biogenesis of siRNAs could be endogenous or exogenous. Endogenous plant siRNAs can be classified into several categories, including miRNA-induced trans-acting siRNAs (tasiRNAs), natural antisense siRNAs (nat-siRNAs), cis-acting siRNAs (casiRNAs), heterochromatic siRNAs, and many other unclassified small RNAs [25]. In plants, ta-siRNAs are generated from the genomic loci named TAS genes, which are transcribed by RNA-pol II. The generation of ta-siRNAs is triggered by an miRNA, which cleaves a nonprotein-coding transcript of a tasiRNA gene [26-29]. In plants, there are eight TAS loci reported so far, which belong to four families (TAS1–4). TAS1 and TAS2 families are cleaved by miR173 with the association of AGO1. TAS3 family transcripts are cleaved by the guidance of miR390 and AGO7 and usually target the auxin response factor (ARF) transcripts. TAS4 transcript is cleaved by miR828 guided together with AGO1 and they usually target myeloblastosis (MYB) transcription factors [30]. These cleaved RNAs are then processed by the suppressor of gene silencing 3 (SGS3) and copied into double-stranded RNAs by RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6 (RDR6). DCL4 cleaves them in multiple rounds so that it finally gives rise to the 21-nt ta-siRNAs. ta-siRNAs are loaded onto AGO1 complex to degrade the target mRNAs [31].
The other class of siRNAs called nat-siRNAs are separated into two groups: cis-nat-siRNAs that are generated from two RNAs, which were transcribed from the same loci but opposite strands, and trans-nat-siRNAs, which were transcripts from different loci [32]. RDR6 and DCL2 are involved in generating 24-nt nat-siRNAs, and RDR6 and DCL1 are involved in generating 21-nt nat-siRNAs. trans-nat-siRNAs are transcripts from different loci but processed by the same proteins (RDR6 and DCL2). ta-siRNAs cleave the target mRNAs by being partially or fully complementary with them.
Heterochromatic siRNAs mostly originate from transposable elements or repeats and their mode of action is slightly different from miRNAs and ta-siRNAs, as they modulate the histone modification at their homologous regions in the genome and inhibit the gene expression at the transcriptional level.
Natural antisense transcripts (NATs) are small RNA molecules, which are endogenous and show partial or entire complementarity to other transcripts (Table 1). cis-NATs are categorized in the nat-siRNAs group and are transcribed from the same genomic loci but in the opposite strand of DNA as their sense transcripts. This class of NATs is very common in eukaryotes (l7–30% of the genes encode complementary cis-NATs in animals and plants) [33-37]. In animals, NATs are involved in alternative splicing, DNA methylation, RNA editing, and genomic imprinting [38-41]. In plants, several cis-NATs are involved in gene regulatory mechanisms [42-43]. There are already some reports about the identified cis-NATs in
ta-siRNAs are 21 nt in length and are reported to be found only in plants so far (Table 1). ta-siRNAs originate from a noncoding RNA precursor, which is initially targeted to be cleaved by an miRNA molecule. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase converts the cleaved products into double-stranded RNA molecules, which are later cleaved again into 21-nt ta-siRNAs. Hence, the formation of these RNAs is determined by the presence of both miRNA (Dicer-Like1, Argonaute1, HYPONASTIC LEAVES1, and HUA ENHANCER 1) and siRNA (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6 and DCL4) biosynthesis pathways components. ta-siRNAs can guide cleavage of target mRNAs and regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level like plant miRNAs.
Abiotic stress is known to be one of the attention-calling factors globally, which causes a considerable yield loss each year. Hence, much effort has been made in understanding the complex stress-response mechanisms, especially in the identification of stress-responsive protein-coding genes. But, in recent years, after the discovery of small noncoding RNAs, they have been found to be involved in plant stress responses and indeed very functional players in these pathways. These small RNAs regulate the gene expression in different levels and hence are entangled within all the vital pathways in the plant development, metabolism, and stress response.
As sessile organisms, plants have evolved their specific adaptation and acclimation mechanisms in order to survive during the hard spell. To do the morphological and physiological adaptations to abiotic stresses, the plant needs to manage the complicated rearrangement of gene expression networks, which are controlled at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. The concern about future food shortages makes it imperative to better understand the genetic control of stress tolerance networks and pathways and to use this knowledge to increase the total tolerance of important crop species. As the first step, we have to understand the complex responses of the plants to stress, from changes in molecular level to physiological level.
With the help of high-throughput gene expression analysis, there have been many reports about the modulated genes and different small RNAs under abiotic stresses. The difference in the expression level of these genes could indicate that it might be responsive to stress condition and, as a result, it can help the plant to survive the hard condition. Many studies have been published in this regard in various plant species, some of which having an economic importance, like rice, wheat, legumes, barley, sugarcane, potato, and tomato as well as many other species. Some of the genes are induced after facing the stress conditions in these studies while some are downregulated, which is connected with the roles these genes play during the stress condition. Also, the respective miRNAs or other sRNAs that target these mRNAs show a different expression pattern during the stress condition. sRNAs, which are accumulated by stress, might downregulate their target genes and act as a negative regulator of stress tolerance; for instance, the genes involved in cell expansion and division should be downregulated as the plant needs to save energy in order to pass through the hard environmental condition. On the other hand, reduction of sRNA level might lead to upregulation of their target genes, mRNAs, which positively regulates the stress tolerance.
The molecular basis of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses and stress regulation of small RNAs has been studied using different methods to observe the altered expression of these molecules and their related target genes; for instance, the sequence analysis of small RNA libraries before and after the stress condition, microarray data analysis, mutagenesis, and RNAi. Their reports have identified numerous genes and sRNAs that are induced by applying different stress conditions, which is the material for the next step: making transgenic plants and check if these overexpressed transgenics could exhibit an improvement in stress tolerance. But the fact is that even though some of the genes and small RNAs show altered expression under stress, they do not play any role to make the plant more tolerant to the stress. And the reason is largely because of the complex genetic interactions underlying the plant tolerance toward stress, which are still to be understood.
From transcriptomic studies, we know that the stress conditions such as heat, drought, cold, and salt evoke the expression of an overlapping set of genes, suggesting that their signaling transduction pathways share common control points. Most of the genes, which are detected to be responsive to abiotic stresses, are usually the genes that regulate plant development and reproduction (as the plant faces the urge to save more energy for producing viable seeds rather than a high biomass), also senescence-related genes (as to recycle the nutrients from the old leaves to younger leaves and reproductive parts and wasting less water and energy for them), as well as the genes that are involved in the abscisic acid (ABA) pathway, which play a crucial role in plant growth and development pathway and redox pathway.
RNA interference technology is one of the potential reverse genetics tools for understanding the functional significance of these genes and their respective regulatory sRNAs. The information about stress-induced genes and sRNAs including the sequence and annotation could be found in the genome databases like National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) or stress complementary DNA (cDNA) databases. In addition to these stress-induced genes, the regulatory elements for these genes are also altered during stress condition including small regulatory RNAs. A number of these sRNAs, which are induced in different plant species and under different stress conditions, can be found in some recent review papers [47]. A vast amount of data has been published about the expression profiling of different sRNAs in various stress conditions. Although these expression-profiling experiments can provide us with some clues about the involvement of these sRNAs in gene regulation under those specific circumstances, to find the relevance of each of these sRNAs in imparting stress tolerance in plants can only be studied by functional genomic approaches like gene overexpression or downregulation. RNA interference technology using constructs transcribing self-complementary hairpin RNA is one of the reverse genetics approaches to downregulate genes in plants.
Another powerful technique to learn about gene functions in a developmental or physiological context in plants is by mutagenesis and to isolate the corresponding mutants with altered phenotypes. Various mutagenic agents, including chemical and biological, have been widely used in this regard, each of them with its own advantages and inconveniences.
For
Drought stress is known as the most significant stress especially with regard to the climate change and global warming. It restricts plant growth and development severely, while tolerant plants are able to survive by several mechanisms such as consuming small amounts of water or keeping their stomata closed at a high rate under drought conditions.
Approximately two-thirds of the potential yield of major crops are lost every year due to the adverse growing environments [48]. A worldwide increase in arid areas, including the Mediterranean basin, has been predicted by the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) in 2001 and 2007. Water deficit also leads to salinity stress in many cases, which makes the growth situation even harder for the plants. Therefore, it is regarded as the most important abiotic stress and it is necessary to develop strategies toward sustainable use of water and improve plant-drought resistance [49]. Many genes have already been studied and reported to be involved in the drought-resistance response network in the plants. But in recent years, it has become clear that sRNAs play pivotal roles in stress responses as well in regulating the expression of resistance genes.
MiRNA-expression profiling under drought stress has now been performed in
Another group has worked on miRNA expression patterns of drought-resistant
Crops worldwide are threatened by excessive soil salinity due to the accumulation of salt delivered along with irrigation water and by coastal flooding and the high evapotranspiration rates caused by climate change. About 6% of the total arable land in the world is affected by excess salt [55] and it has been predicted to increase to about 30% of the world’s arable land by 2025 and 50% by the year 2050 [56]. Several genes and pathways in plants are affected by salt stress [57]. Hence, the promising approach to address the problem of soil salinity is to increase the understanding of response of plants to salinity-related stress. These genes are mostly involved in signal transduction, activation of ion channels, and growth-factor-regulated modification of plant architecture, and, in particular, root morphology.
Besides the genes, numerous differentially regulated miRNAs have also been identified in salt-stressed plants. For instance, miR156, miR158, miR159, miR165, miR167, miR168, miR169, miR171, miR319, miR393, miR394, miR396, and miR397 were all reported to be overexpressed in response to salt stress in
miR169 was also reported to be induced by high salinity stress [46]. The authors found a cis-acting ABA-responsive element (ABRE) in the upstream region of miR169n, which suggested that miR169n might be regulated by ABA. Another group used microarray experiments as a method to explore the miRNA profile of maize in different lines (salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive); finally, it was reported that the expression levels of miR156, miR164, miR167, and miR396 family members were downregulated considerably, while it was increased in miR162, miR168, miR395, and miR474 families after salt-shock in root tissue [58].
Some plants increase their tolerance to cold in order to deal with the low temperatures. This phenomenon is known as cold acclimation. In recent years, many cold-regulated genes have been identified in plants under cold stress. The C-repeat binding factor (CBF) cold-responsive pathway was considered as the most known cold tolerance pathway in plants [59]. There are three CBF/DREB1 family members, including CBF1, CBF2, and CBF3 (DREB1b, DREB1c, and DREB1a, respectively), encoding the DNA-binding proteins of Apetala2/ethylene responsive factor (AP2/ERF) family [60]. Also, the expression of many miRNAs in cold stress has been examined in different plants including
The average temperature of our planet is rising year by year because of the climate change. As a result, changes in the patterns of rainfall, droughts, and submergence stress are induced to the natural environments. Heat stress even alters the distribution and productivity of important crops negatively throughout the earth. A temperature rise of −5°C above the plant’s optimum temperature is considered as a heat stress. It disrupts normal functions of cellular processes, may lead to delay in plant growth and development, and it might even result in death of the plant, but, usually, high temperatures result in water deficiency, which eventually leads to increase in salt concentration. Recent studies indicate that the projected global warming in the upcoming years will negatively affect the yield of important crops; hence, the necessity of focusing on gene networks and their regulatory components becomes obvious.
A major component with regard to responding to heat stress is the induction of heat shock proteins (HSPs), which get activated by heat shock transcription factors (HSFs). There are five classes of HSPs based on their molecular weights: HSP100, HSP90, HSP70, HSP60, and small heat shock proteins (sHSPs, 15–30 kDa). On the other hand, HSFs recognize heat stress elements on the promoter of heat stress-responsive genes (HSE: 5′-GAAnnTTC-3′). Plant HSFs are categorized into three classes based on their oligomerization domains (A, B, and C) [61].
However, the more upstream regulators of HSFs remain to be identified. Guan et al. have reported that miR398 is rapidly induced by being subjected to heat stress while its target genes (CSD1, CDS2, and CCS) are downregulated. They further reported that the expression levels of HSF and HSP genes in
Based on deep sequencing experiments, Wang et al. suggest that there is a new class of small RNAs that originate from the chloroplast genome, which are responsive to heat stress [63]. They performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and found 1031 cis-NATs in
Wheat miRNAs showed differential expression in response to heat stress; by using Solexa high-throughput sequencing, Xin et al. cloned the small RNAs from wheat leaves treated by heat-stress gene [66]. Stief et al. also reported that miR156 is responsible for heat stress memory in
Biogenesis of miRNAs and ta-siRNAs
Physiological responses to stress are controlled by expression of a large number of genes, many of which are regulated by microRNAs. At the molecular level, identification of stress-responsive genes is an initial step toward understanding plant stress response as pyramiding of different genes in the same plant is an option for achieving better stress tolerance. Although finding genes and sRNAs, which show induction by stress, is an important step toward stress tolerance improvement, most of the studies in which they use transgenics only show the importance of the introduced transgene and not the overall metabolic effects that the trans-host gets exposed to. On the other hand, the new stress-tolerant transgenic lines should have no or few undesired phenotypic changes plus a minimal yield penalty. In stress-tolerant transgenics, which are introduced so far, a constitutive promoter has been used for expressing the transgene in most of the cases. These transgenes must be utilized to overcome the problem of yield penalty and growth retardation in these experiments. Admittedly, most reports published on stress-tolerant transgenic plants are based on the limited characterization of the stress condition as well as the tolerant phenotypes. Adequate assays for phenotyping of the stress-tolerance trait must be undertaken under natural stress conditions. Overall, there is a lack of uniformity in the stress induction regimes applied by various research groups, which makes the comparisons of the responses among different reports difficult and this fact must be taken into consideration.
The modern paradigm of targeted drug delivery to the organ of interest, its part, or the target cell is based on the use of biocompatible carriers, the sizes of which are in the submicron (nanometer) range. Today, functional carriers of biologically active compounds and absorbents with a high specific surface area are widely used in biomedicine in the form of bioceramic minerals, polymer therapeutic systems, framework structures for cell engineering, nanoscale hybrid means of targeted drug transport, and a number of innovative systems that simultaneously function as implants and carriers of biologically active compounds [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Among these functional materials, the greatest practical and commercial advantages, in the near future, will be obtained by hybrid micro- and nanoparticles [6, 7], as well as composite ultrathin fibers [8, 9].
Micro- and nanoparticles based on biodegradable materials offer a wide range of applications as components of innovative forms or independent systems for drug delivery in the implementation of anti-inflammatory and antitumor therapy, wound healing, and thrombolytic therapy. The use of magnetic nanoparticles as part of innovative systems can facilitate targeted drug delivery, reducing the required dosage of a drug, and provide a prolonging effect of the activity of biological macromolecules, for example, enzymes, and the ability to visualize drug delivery processes [10, 11, 12].
The employment of biodegradable and biocompatible particles and fibers creates additional advantages in the development of a new generation of implanted therapeutic systems. Therefore, nowadays, the main part of the work aimed to develop biodegradable compositions in medicine is devoted to the creation of materials for tissue engineering. Modern metal implants (titanium and its alloys, stainless steel, etc.) are characterized by rigidity and endurance and do not cause an immune response but do not have the properties of osteoinduction and osteoconductivity. Often their application turns to add an additional surgical intervention to remove the implant. This increases additional risks and the duration of the patient’s recovery process, and the therapy aimed at restoring the bone tissue and its environment. Therefore, inorganic materials analogous to bone tissue, such as apatite and complex composite biodegradable forms that provide the transport of biological molecules and synthetic drugs, are objects of fundamental and applied research.
One of the innovative ways to obtain ultrathin fibers and fibrillar nanomaterials is the method of electrospinning (ES) of polymer solutions and melts [13, 14]. The development of technology for the formation of nanofibers in an electrostatic field makes it possible to create materials of various shapes and morphology with a high specific surface area and porosity, with adequate mechanical properties, and a wide range of structural, dynamic, and diffusion characteristics. Fibrillar matrices and mats formed by the obtained nanofibers create favorable conditions for free migration and proliferation of cells in the three-dimensional space of frame structures, and, accordingly, provide a high integration affinity of the material for living tissues of the body [15]. They are actively used in the design of biosensors, nanofilters, for wound therapy, to immobilize enzymes, in the creation of prolonged and targeted drug delivery systems, and other areas of modern biology and medicine [16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
It should be noted that in contrast to a great availability published data on the nanoparticles applications, the data on biodegradable and bioresorbable nanofibes is rather rare [21, 22, 23]. About a third of publications analyze the peculiarities of the ES technology, and the rest considers their characteristics, functional behavior
Biodegradable compositions are also applied in solving the problem of wound healing, which may include a set of subtasks—stopping bleeding, preventing inflammation, proliferation, and tissue reconstruction. Chronic wounds are characterized by high protease activity, infection, inflammation, and hypoxia [24, 25, 26, 27]. A wide range of wound healing materials is currently being developed. These are unfilled materials based on siloxysiloxane, dextran, urethane, collagen, etc.; materials including stem cells or vitamin E based on hyaluronic acid; materials based on extracellular matrix proteins (fibrin, fibronectin, collagen, etc.) for tissue reconstruction and angiogenesis; and materials including antibiotics and other drugs [28]. Materials in the form of films, hydrogels, foams, multilayer compositions, etc., have already received clinical use. Chitosan, known for its hemostatic and antibacterial activity, is used in some currently developed composite forms for accelerated wound healing and drug delivery for matrix formation and tissue reconstruction. In [29], chemically stable composite materials for wound coverage were based on two polysaccharides—cellulose and chitosan combining mechanical strength (cellulose) and the ability to stop bleeding, cleanse and heal wounds, deliver drugs, and overall bactericidal properties (chitosan).
It is known that the regeneration of cartilage tissue is directly related to the number of chondrocytes per unit of its mass, and the introduction of a suspension of chondrocytes into the damaged areas is currently considered a promising therapeutic approach. Foreign chondrocytes, being introduced into the joint cavity, do not cause a rejection reaction, because they have limited immunogenic activity. Much attention is now being paid to the development of composite hydrogels for injections—research is being carried out using photopolymerization, chemical crosslinking of molecules in the composition of the composite with carbodiimide, glutaraldehyde, genipin, and adipic dihydrazide. In the first case, the use of a photosensitizer and radiation is required, which limits the applicability of the approach, and in the case of crosslinkers, the main problem is their toxicity toward cells. In [30], a new representative of composite hydrogels was obtained based on chitosan and oxidized hyaluronic acid. The formation of the gel proceeded through the formation of a Schiff base between the amino and aldehyde groups of polysaccharide derivatives, N-succinyl-chitosan (S-CS) and hyaluronic acid aldehyde, and did not involve the use of a chemical crosslinking agent. The potential of using such composite hydrogels as scaffold structures for injections has been shown using the example of cartilage tissue cells in joints. In this study, the high content of chitosan led to a decrease in the rate of degradation of the composite.
Let us consider several examples of the use of composite particles based on biodegradable polymers. In [31], hydrogels based on chitosan and gelatin are used for long-term administration of the antiglaucoma drug timolol maleate and can reduce the side effects of its use. Hydrogels based on sulfonated chitosan and heparin-like chitosan (containing carboxymethyl and sulfate groups) increase blood clotting time [32], prevent protein and platelet adsorption on the membrane intended for blood purification [33], and prevent complement activation [34]. Hydrogels consisting of chitosan, heparin, and poly (γ-glutamic acid) with different ratios of components and loaded with superoxide dismutase were used to create a wound dressing with antioxidant properties [35], which had the potential to treat chronic trauma in diabetes and proved to be a promising wound healing agent. Heparin-loaded hydrogel based on photosensitive hydroxyethylchitosan promoted a long-term effect of lowering intraocular pressure after surgery to eliminate glaucoma [36]. While the possibilities of transporting the anticoagulant heparin as a constituent element of particles are being actively studied, a much smaller number of works are devoted to the transport of proteins associated with the functioning of fibrinolytic and anticoagulant systems—tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), streptokinase, and urokinase. The formation of complexes between enzymes and biodegradable polymers proved to be an effective way to overcome the short biological half-life of enzymes in the bloodstream, and the inclusion of magnetic nuclei in the particles revealed the potential of using biodegradable materials for targeted drug transport and diagnostics. Magnetic nuclei delivered on their envelope (for example, the composition of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and chitosan [37]) tPA or streptokinase promote thrombolysis controlled by an external magnetic field. Hydrogels based on chitosan and alginate with incorporated magnetic particles were investigated as carriers of the anticancer drug matrine for oral administration [38, 39]. The obtained systems provide pH-sensitive release and targeted delivery under the influence of weak magnetic fields. The inclusion of magnetic particles in systems based on hyaluronic acid allows to detect the processes of tissue regeneration and biological delivery of drugs with the participation of constructed systems [40].
The areas of possible application of biodegradable forms are not limited to the aforementioned examples. New designs of cardio stents with biodegradable or inert coatings are capable of providing targeted transport of such cardiac drugs as paclitaxel, sirolimus, tacrolimus, etc. These drugs are responsible for suppressing cell proliferation; therefore, their prolonged delivery significantly reduces the number of restenosis incidents as compared to the first generation of spring metal stents. Moreover, a nano-level modified stent surface for controlled cell adhesion is desirable. In urology, a separate group of polymer implants consists of representatives of natural biodegradable polymers—poly-α-hydroxy acids (polylactides and their copolymers) and poly-β-hydroxyalkanoates (polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), and its copolymers with oxyvalerate, oxyhexanoate, etc.), and the base for neurological implants are biodegradable polymers such as polylactides or polyhydroxyalkanoates [41]. For urological applications, a prolonged release of bactericidal drugs is required, whereas for nerve tissue regeneration, a drug activates the development of a nerve impulse.
Modern works also include the creation of systems with a reverse response, an example of which is the form that releases insulin depending on the concentration of glucose in the blood [42]. The possibility of visualizing the area of development of the pathological process and monitoring the course of the treatment process is presented with the use of isotopes, fluorescent dyes, quantum dots, magnetic nanoparticles, and other markers [43]. Biodegradable innovative materials, thus, have received a wide range of possible applications in the treatment of various diseases (Figure 1) in the form of various medical forms—macroobjects, films, micro-, and nanoparticles, etc. A wide variety of required compositions and morphology of matrices of medical forms contributes to the fundamental and applied issues associated with the use of natural and synthetic materials for the delivery of low- and high-molecular-weight biologically active substances (BASs). More details on the possible chemical composition of matrices for drug transport and methods of drug inclusion in the matrix will be presented in the next section.
The main areas of pharmaceutical forms’ application for the delivery of low- and high-molecular-weight pharmaceuticals based on biodegradable macromolecules.
Let us consider the main components of biodegradable materials that make up innovative forms using the example of collagen, hyaluronic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), chitosan, and other natural and synthetic macromolecules, the structural formulas of which are shown in Figure 2, most often used for bone tissue regeneration [43].
Structural formulas of some biodegradable macromolecules used for targeted transport of low- and high-molecular pharmaceuticals.
Chitosan is a polysaccharide of D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, linked by β (1 → 4) -glycosidic bonds. Chitosan is obtained by cleavage of the acetyl group from chitin. The deacetylation reaction can also be accompanied by the rupture of the glycosidic bonds of the polymer. The degree of deacetylation of chitosan and its molecular weight predetermines its reactivity and properties, causing the structural heterogeneity of macromolecules. The solubility of chitosan depends on the pH (it is insoluble at neutral values), and its salts, for example, chitosan hydrochloride and chitosan glutamate, are soluble at any pH.
The hydrophilicity of chitosan and its positive charge facilitate its reactions with negatively charged macromolecules and polyanions, which are both components of the biodegradable composite matrix and functional molecules.
This makes it possible to use sol-gel processes for drug binding. The positive charge of chitosan also promotes adhesion to the mucous membranes of the body, which makes it possible to use it for the transport of drugs through the mucous membrane. Thus, the features of chitosan are pH-dependent solubility (at pH <5 and basic pH) and insignificant toxicity due to ▬NH2 groups (it undergoes enzymatic degradation in vivo, and its degradation products are involved in the metabolic cycle). CMC can be used together with cellulose and is similar in structure to chitosan. The sodium salt of CMC is a water-soluble polymer. Cellulose is a polysaccharide with the formula (C6H10O5)n, in which the D-glucose residues are linked by β (1 → 4)-glycosidic bonds. Cellulose undergoes dissolution under the action of ionic liquids (organic salts, liquid at room temperature). In [29], such a solvent was used to obtain a composite material for wound dressings based on two polysaccharides – cellulose and chitosan.
Fibrinogen and fibrin are the next examples of protein molecules that can be components of micro- and nanoscale scaffolds. These proteins are present in the blood and are the main participants in the process of coagulation, which determines their high ability to interact with damaged tissues and cells. To solve problems associated with tissue regeneration, proteins can be modified or introduced into more complex systems, including, for example, growth factors or other proteins, as well as stem cells [44]. Fibrin gel formation can be initiated directly at the site of injury using particles on the surface of which thrombin is fixed [45].
The main protein of silkworm silk, fibroin, and the skeleton silk of the spider web, spidroin, have crystalline parts responsible for high tensile strength and amorphous parts that provide elasticity, which makes them versatile materials for use in tissue engineering, pharmacy, and medicine, regardless of the type of construction. The breakdown products of silk fibroin and spidroin are amino acids, which act as an additional building material for tissue regeneration [46].
Hyaluronic acid is a hydrophilic, non-immunogenic, biodegradable glucosaminoglycan—a polymer consisting of D-glucuronic acid and D-N-acetylglucosamine residues, linked alternately by β-1,4- and β-1,3-glycosidic bonds, which, in combination with other osteoconductive molecules, promotes bone growth. It has a high content in extracellular matrices, is a component of articular cartilage, and is part of the skin. Amphiphilic derivatives of hyaluronic acid promote its self-assembly in a core-shell nanogel for the transport of hydrophobic pharmaceuticals, e.g. anticancer.
For the transport of low- and high-molecular-weight therapeutic substances, “depot carriers” are used based on sodium alginate and its compositions with pectin, sodium hyaluronate, etc. Salts of alginic acid (alginates), in contrast to the polysaccharide acid itself, form colloidal solutions in water and have antimicrobial and hemostatic action.
Unlike natural macromolecules, synthetic biodegradable molecules such as poly-α-hydroxy acids such as hydrophobic polylactides (PLAs) and more hydrophilic polyglycolides (PGAs), as well as poly-β-hydroxyalkanoates (PHBs and its derivatives) do not elicit a biological response and are widely distributed as components of innovative forms for drug delivery. Degradation of polymers proceeds through hydrolysis of ether groups, and the rate and products of degradation are determined by the composition, structure, and molecular weight of molecules, as well as the content of ions and enzymes in biological fluids. Polymeric materials of the class of poly-β-hydroxyalkanoates or poly-α-hydroxy acids degrade to nontoxic products—CO2 and H2O [41]. Also commonly used are aliphatic polyesters, that is, polycaprolactones (PCLs). Blends of polymers or copolymers are often the basis for materials intended for the restoration of bone and cartilage tissue. The most popular copolymer is polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), the ratio of the components of which affects the hydrophilicity and biodegradability characteristics. During copolymerization, the degree of crystallinity decreases, as a result of which hydrolytic destruction proceeds faster [47]. Other common synthetic macromolecules for bone tissue regeneration are polypropylene fumarate (PPF), polyanhydrides, and polyphosphazenes [26]. Oligo(polyethylene glycol fumarate) (OPF) based on PEG is able to biodegrade, while PEG is not [48]. Degradation of PPF and OPF is due to the fumaric acid residue in the polymers. Copolymerization of macromolecules, for example, polyanhydrides, can be carried out to increase the hydrophobicity of materials and reduce the rate of their biodegradation. The combination of natural and synthetic materials in the compositions provides a wide range of properties of the systems and the possibilities of their use. An example of a natural material used for the transport of various drugs in the composition of composite forms is gelatin [49].
In innovative materials, the simultaneous use of natural and synthetic macromolecules creates unique opportunities for the delivery of various pharmaceuticals and ensuring the required release profiles. As in the case of synthetic ones, when using natural hydrogels, chemical and physical crosslinking of macromolecules allow one to regulate the diffusion of therapeutic substances included in biodegradable forms, and the biodegradation of macromolecules is also determined by the degree of their crosslinking and the type of crosslinking agent. In this case, the pharmaceuticals themselves can be covalently and non-covalently associated with biodegradable compositions, in particular, the inclusion of pharmaceuticals in the composition of Ca3(PO4)2 particles is carried out physically or chemically [24], and the release of pharmaceuticals can be controlled by the chemistry of Ca3(PO4)2, the porosity of the material, the surface area of the hydrogel particles, their charge surface, and crystallinity. In the case of covalent immobilization of macromolecular pharmaceuticals (for example, proteins), the release mechanism includes chemical/enzymatic cleavage of the active substance. The introduction of an antibiotic in the treatment of osteomyelitis can be provided by direct mixing of the drug powder with a bone graft or soaking the bone graft in an antibiotic solution [26]. Similarly, for the prolonged delivery of streptokinase, systems obtained by mixing the protein with chitosan were used [50]. Urokinase and streptokinase showed their activity as thrombolytics both on the surface and in the bulk of particles from chitosan and tripolyphosphate, providing delivery, and the indicators in both cases were higher than in the protein solution [51]. The introduction of pharmaceuticals into composite structures from a solution after their creation is one of the approaches that damage pharmaceuticals to the least extent. Chondrocytes in [30] were introduced into the hydrogel from a solution in which they were resuspended. Another example of a technique that provides a minimal effect on the drug structure is the approach using the state of a supercritical fluid, which provides a one-stage filling of porous matrices with medicinal substances. Approaches are known that include the formation of a special drug complex, for example, with cyclodextrins, for its use in a sol-gel process, during which biodegradable composite structures with pharmaceuticals incorporated into them are created [52]. Pharmaceuticals can also be adsorbed on the surface of implanted structures and coated with biodegradable polymeric materials to ensure their long-term release, which is realized, for example, in [25] during transfection. A hydrophobic drug can also be encapsulated in an oil core covered with a biodegradable shell, including, for example, chitosan [53]. Drug release can be divided by type into diffusion-controlled, controlled by chemical processes or matrix swelling, and controlled by external processes or devices.
Most of the listed approaches for the inclusion of pharmaceuticals in various matrices can also be implemented when nanoparticles are included in hydrogels. The particles are introduced into the compositions after the formation of the gel and at the stage of gel formation, with or without the use of covalent binding processes. Nanoparticles in the composition of hydrogels provide a change in their mechanical properties and swelling characteristics and are also able to impart magnetic, optical properties, electrical conductivity, and improved antimicrobial properties to systems [54]. Hybrid hydrogels may include, for example, carbon-based nanoparticles, inorganic particles, and nanoparticles of semiconductors, nanoparticles of metals and their oxides, polymers, and liposomes. For example, the introduction of magnetite nanoparticles into the hydrogel is provided due to their stabilization by oleic acid and the amphiphilic nature of the main component of the hydrogel-modified hyaluronic acid [40]. Pyrene ligands contribute to the formation of hydrogel particles with a “core/shell” structure. In this case, magnetic particles bound to thrombin were employed to form fibrin-based skeletal structures [45]. Solid colloidal nanoparticles can be the core for a polyelectrolyte shell deposited using layer-by-layer adsorption technologies [40], as well as be part of the shell itself, providing magnetically controllable particles. For example, the authors [55] modified hollow microcapsules obtained from dextran sulfate and poly-L-lysine with maghemite particles.
Thus, a large group of biological and synthetic macromolecules is used to create innovative forms for the drug delivery. Although a more detailed overview of the methods of drug encapsulation and biodegradable matrices composition cannot be presented within the required limits of this chapter, it is obvious that the chemical composition of materials combined with the features of medical forms created on their basis (which include characteristics such as size, porosity, the presence of covalent crosslinking, and stimulus sensitivity) and the method of drug encapsulation predetermine the different fate of biodegradable materials in biological media and different profiles of the release.
Among the biopolymers used in dentistry, traumatology, orthopedics, cellular engineering, surgery, along with polylactides, the most common is, probably, PHB, the main representative of the biopolymers of the polyhydroxyalkanoate family [56]. This biopolymer is a product of microorganisms’ biosynthesis. It has high biocompatibility, the ability to rapid biosorption without the formation of toxic products, and increased resistance to oxidative degradation [57, 58].
In many previous reports, the structure formation of fibrillar materials based on PHB-containing dipyridamole (DPD) [59], chitosan [60], titanium dioxide and silicon nanoparticles [61], iron (III)-chlorporphyrin complexes [62], etc. was considered. In these works, the influence of low-molecular-weight substances on the structure of the crystalline and amorphous phases of PHB fibers was shown. This section will present a review of the structure and properties of ultrathin PHB fibers obtained by ES, containing immobilized drug – dipyridamole (DPD).
The structure of intercrystalline regions in fibers containing drug is directly related to the state of the crystalline phase of the carrier polymer by the spatial organization of the pass-through chains [63]. The latter, in the case of a high degree of crystallinity, experiences deformation and conformational spatial difficulties. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish two alternative situations, the first: when the degree of crystallinity is low and the distance between the crystallites and polymer lamellae is large, so that a relatively low concentration of drug is evenly distributed between polymer crystals and should have little effect on the conformation of uncrystallized polymer molecules. An alternative situation arises when conditions are created in highly crystalline polymers (such as PGB, PLA, and polyamide-6) to realize the maximum degree of crystallinity, for example, as a result of solvent plasticization or as a result of temperature annealing. In this case, the proportion of polymer segments included in noncrystalline regions is relatively small, the mechanical and diffusion behavior of the polymer is determined by the state of the elongated flow chains, and the concentration of the introduced drug, related to the volume of the intercrystalline phase, may exceed its thermodynamic solubility. Then the excess of the low-molecular-weight component is displaced from the polymer volume with the formation of an independent drug phase on the fiber surface, and the drug molecules remaining in the volume are potentially capable of influencing the conformation and dynamics of polymer molecules in the intercrystalline regions of the polymer.
The structure and molecular dynamics of these regions in biopolymer fibers can be effectively investigated by the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) method using the microprobe technique of stable nitroxyl radicals developed at the IHF RAS (Moscow, Russian Federation) [64]. The satisfactory agreement between the calculated and experimental results demonstrated earlier indicates, first of all, the effectiveness of the selected two-phase model of the intercrystalline space of the PHB fiber, which consists of more and less dense regions with corresponding different rotational mobilities of a stable radical in these regions.
An increase in the concentration of dense regions in the presence of a drug was observed for the composite system PHB-DPD. The corresponding calculations revealeded that the volume fraction of more dense regions in the intercrystalline space of PHB fibers is much higher than the content of less dense regions. Moreover, when pharmaceuticals are added to the fiber, it continues to grow insignificantly following the sequence 0.90 (0) < 0.93 (1) < 0.94 (3) < 0.95 (5), where the numbers in parentheses indicate the percentage of DPD mass concentration. This result seems quite natural if we take into account that the specific enthalpy of melting of PHB changes in the same sequence, reflecting, as in the previous case, the degree of its crystallinity.
As the concentration of the dense fraction in the intercrystalline regions of PHB increases, a corresponding decrease in the rotation rate of the radical is observed, and, therefore, the segmental mobility of macromolecules slows down. For the slow component of the rotational mobility, similar changes in the values of the correlation time in the fiber are observed, namely, the value of this dynamic parameter increases with an increase in the DPD content in the sequence 6.6 × 10−9 s (0) > 7.1 × 10−9 s (1) > 8.8 × 10−9 s (3) > 9.0 × 10−9 s (5%), which indicates a slowdown in the molecular mobility of the radical and, accordingly, a decrease in the molecular mobility of PHB chains in intercrystalline areas. The correlation time for the fast component in all samples, except PHB with 5% DPD (7 × 10−10 s), was 2.4 × 10−10 s, i.e. more than an order of magnitude lower than the previous values. Consequently, a change in the crystalline phase of the polymer affects the dynamics of chains in denser regions of the intercrystalline space and practically does not affect the fast component of their mobility in less-dense intercrystalline regions. These results can be explained within the framework of the model of the heterogeneous (binary) structure of intercrystalline regions of polymers with a high degree of crystallinity [65, 66]. The perfection of the crystal structure of nanofibers depends on the conditions of electrospinning, namely, on the rate of solvent desorption from the formed fiber and the temperature regime of its cooling [63]. Indeed, fragments of the polymer chain with a predominance of the straightened conformation are mainly involved in the formation of paracrystalline regions and the recrystallization of the polymer. Therefore, probe molecules with a correlation time τ in paracrystalline regions are sensitive to changes in the degree of crystallinity of PHB. On the contrary, the molecules of the same probe, located at a considerable distance from the crystals in regions with fast segmental mobility and approaching in their dynamic characteristics to the amorphous phase of the polymer, are practically unaffected by the crystalline phase of the fiber and, within some limits, retain their constant value.
During ES, as a result of difficult cooling and curing conditions of ultrathin fibers, their polymer structure can be far enough from the state of thermodynamic equilibrium. The imperfection of the crystalline phase and morphology is manifested in the insufficient orientation of the segments in the fiber, as well as in an atypically low degree of crystallinity [63]. Thermal annealing several tens of degrees below the melting point of PHB (annealing temperature 140°C) allows to sharply intensify segmental mobility and transfer the system to a more thermodynamically equilibrium state. Indeed, the time of thermal annealing at 2 h for PHB combinations with pharmaceuticals in the absence or low drug content for a number of samples significantly affects the rotation dynamics of the TEMPO radical. Whereas for highly crystalline fibers (with 3 and 5% DPD), this process has little effect on the rotational mobility of the probe, reflecting the segmental mobility of the chains (Figure 3).
Dependences of the effective correlation time (τ) on the annealing time at 140°C: 1—PHB, 2—PHB with 1%, 3—PHB with 3%, 4—with 5% DPD.
One of the possible mechanisms of PHB recrystallization upon thermal annealing of the fiber is that a part of the chain segments with a high degree of orientation β, which was acquired during the electrospinning process, reaches values greater than the critical value h/L ∼ √2/l, where h is the distance between chain ends, L is the persistent chain length, and l is the length of a single segment [67]. As a result, the sorption capacity of the fiber due to an increase in the degree of crystallinity decreases. Indeed, measurements of the concentration of a stable radical in the fibers also show a sharp decrease in this value after annealing for 2 h. For example, in the initial PHB fibers, the concentration of the radical after absorption from vapors was 8 × 1015 spin/g, while this value after annealing for 2 h decreased to 1.4 × 1015 spin/g. A similar picture was observed for other biopolymer fibers containing a porphyrin complex.
The correspondence is observed between the content of the crystalline phase of PHB (structural characteristic) and the value of the correlation time (dynamic characteristic), so that molecular mobility decreases as the total volume of intercrystalline regions decreases due to an increase in crystallinity of PHB and, consequently, the involvement of an increasing number of mobile polymer segments in dense polymer regions with low mobility and high values of τ. Obtained results allow to conclude that, in the presence of a drug, from a PHB solution by ES, ultrathin fibers of various geometries with structures of various degrees of equilibrium and perfection are formed, which is true both for the crystalline phase and for intercrystalline regions, where redistribution between the amorphous and paracrystalline states of PHB is possible. The nonequilibrium of intercrystalline regions for PHB with the absence or low content of biologically active substances (DPD) is confirmed by a change in the rotational mobility of a stable radical and an increase in crystallinity. All results, including the effect of drug concentration on the fiber shape and its dynamic characteristics, are in good agreement with the thermophysical parameters of the system and should be directly applied if describing the directed and prolonged transport of bioactive compounds.
A natural continuation of these studies is the transition from the structural characteristics of ultrathin fibers to the study of the diffusion kinetics of a drug in their bulk. In the next section, the results of the dependence of diffusion transport as the main process responsible for controlled drug release on the geometric dimensions of the fiber, its crystallinity and the porosity of fibrillar films will be presented. The obtained results will be used to consider diffusion kinetics, which, in combination with the analysis of segmental dynamics, represent two fundamental processes that determine the rate and mechanism of controlled drug release from fibrillar therapeutic systems.
The process of controlled targeted delivery of biologically active substances, for example, anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic pharmaceuticals or growth hormone [68, 69, 70], cannot be adequately described without considering their diffusion. In this regard, despite the impressive technological advances in the creation of ultrathin polymer fibers for various applications, the solution of diffusion and enzymatic-hydrolytic problems in the systems monofilament—biologically active substance (BAS) and fibrillar matrix—BAS is found in an extremely limited number of works (e.g. [71, 72, 73]) and requires in-depth analysis both experimental and theoretical levels. Consideration of the earlier-mentioned diffusion-kinetic problem was carried out using the example of ultrathin fibers with an encapsulated drug. Combining the results of transport in fibers and fibrillar membranes with the structural and dynamic characteristics of a biopolymer carrier, a consistent controlled release model is proposed that satisfactorily describes the combination of BAS diffusion and hydrolysis kinetics in an innovative therapeutic system based on a typical biodegradable polyester (PHB).
In Figure 4, typical kinetics of the release of dipyridamole (DPD) from fibers of different geometry consisting of ellipse-like and cylindrical structures and with different drug concentrations is plotted. As in the case of the “monolithic PHB film—drug” system [74], for the fibrillar matrix formed by ultrathin PHB fibers, the kinetic release profiles have two characteristic kinetic regions of linear and nonlinear form. The bimodal nature of controlled release is especially pronounced for fibers with a higher DPD content in the fiber (3 and 5 wt%). Under our proposed model, the initial nonlinear section mainly reflects a diffusion process with a characteristic drug diffusion coefficient, while the linear region corresponds to a kinetic process reflecting fiber degradation with partial loss of its mass. Briefly, the essence of this process is determined by the onset of hydrolysis of the ester functional groups of PHB. In the process of hydrolytic destruction, the drug encapsulated in the fiber passes into the surrounding aqueous solution not only as a result of diffusion but also as a result of partial fiber disintegration by the mechanism of surface destruction or erosion [75].
Typical kinetic profiles of controlled release of DPD from PHB fibers. The concentration of DPD is 1 (1), 3 (2), and 5 wt% (3). scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photomicrographs illustrate the shape of the fibers; magnification 1000×.
In kinetic measurements, the fiber sample was immersed in a 60% aqueous solution of ethanol and the optical density of DPD samples was determined with a periodic sampling. The interval of sampling depended on the fiber composition and, accordingly, on the rate of drug release; it was from 1 to 30 min. The experiments lasted from several hours to several days. Termination of an increase in the optical density of DPD exhibiting two characteristic peaks at λ = 410 nm and a more intense peak at λ = 292 nm with an extinction coefficient of 31,260 L/(mol × cm) indicated that the drug release was completed.
With this formulation of the problem, the kinetic profile of drug release is described by the following system of equations. During the time interval Δt, the cumulative mass of the drug released from the fibrillar film by the time t (ΔMd(t)) is the sum of two terms: the amount of drug that entered the solution volume by the diffusion mechanism (ΔMD) and the amount of the drug that passed into solution as a result of partial loss of fiber mass ΔMf, which contained ΔMk grams of drug immobilized by polymer molecules and incapable of diffusion in a polymer medium. The above reflects a simple balance of the change in the mass of the active component in the fiber, which reflects the Eq. (1);
With a constant volume of the surrounding solution V and intensive stirring, external diffusion restrictions can be neglected. In this case, for a fibrillary film, by analogy with a monolithic nonporous film [75], one can write a differential equation showing the simultaneous contribution of drug diffusion and PHB hydrolysis by the zero-pillage mechanism:
where Сd and Gd are the total concentration of the drug that entered the external volume V by the time t and the concentration of the mobile drug fraction capable of diffusing in the polymer sample with the corresponding effective diffusion coefficient Deff, independent of the coordinate and time, and kh is the fiber mass loss constant, mainly due to the hydrolysis of the ester groups of PHB.
In a fibrillar film formed by a random interlacing of ultrathin fibers, Deff is determined by two coupled processes: the diffusion mobility of drug molecules in the fiber volume (Df) and its diffusion transport in the interfibrillar space filled with a solvent (Dw). Consequently, the total transfer can be approximated by the model of a pseudo-two-layer medium. Following the models of Crank [76] and Mackey-Mears [77], the relationship between the effective diffusion coefficient (Deff), individual diffusion constants (Df, Dw) and the geometric characteristics of the system (LM, Rf and Lw) has the form:
here Rf and Lw are the average characteristic dimensions of the length of the diffusion path of the drug in the fiber and interfiber space, respectively, and LM is the thickness of the fibrillar film.
Taking into account the symmetry of the film during double-sided desorption, its size and fiber diameter are divided by 2. For a cylindrical fiber, the length of the diffusion path is determined by its radius, while for Lw, we used a correction for the increase in the diffusion path due to the bending of the drug molecule around randomly arranged cylindrical fibers. The correction for impenetrable obstacles was first introduced in the classical work of Mackey and Mears [77] and was recently used to describe transport in a magnetic composite based on chitosan and PHB [78]:
where φf is the volume fraction of polymer fibers in the fibrillar film, the values of which, as well as the average radii, are given earlier in Table 1.
[Zn-ТFP] % | τ 1010 s | τ 1010 s, annealed at140 0С | α1/α2,*% | ∆НM, J/g | αс, % | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dense area | Amorphous area | Dense area | Amorphous area | ||||
0 | 80.7 | 5.7 | 73 | 6 | 3.1 | 86 | 61 |
1 | 107 | 6 | 57 | 7.5 | 6.2 | 93 | 65 |
3 | 117 | 6.1 | 59 | 7.9 | 11 | 94 | 66 |
5 | 125 | 6.9 | 58 | 8.1 | 19 | 96 | 68 |
Effective correlation time (τ) and volume ratio of paracrystalline (dense) (α1) and amorphous (α2) regions in an ultrathin PHB fiber containing Zn-ТFP.
Subscripts 1 and 2 refer, respectively, to more dense (paracrystalline) and less dense (amorphous) regions of the intercrystalline space. ∆НM—specific heat of fusion and αс—degree of crystallinity of PHB.
Taking into account the introduced correlation of the diffusion path length in the aqueous phase, and also taking into account the correction for the degree of crystallinity of the polymer Fc = (1–αc), proposed in monograph [79], Eq. (4) takes a more detailed form:
allowing you to go to the comparison of the contribution of two processes that determine the total transfer process, namely, drug diffusion in the fiber and diffusion in the aqueous interfibrillar space of the PHB film. A preliminary estimate of the values of the diffusion coefficients of the drug in PHB (Df) showed that they are several orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding coefficient in the aqueous interfibrillar space, the last term on the right-hand side of Eq. (5) becomes much less than the first, which leads to a simplification of the sought expression for the diffusion coefficient of the drug in the hospital:
where the geometric (φf, LM) and structural (Fc = 1 – αс) characteristics were determined using the SEM and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) data, respectively.
Simplification of Eq. (5) to expression (6) is possible only if the limiting stage of drug desorption from a fibrillar film of thickness LM is its diffusion in the polymer medium of the fiber. This is not universal, since with an increase in the volume of the interfibrillar space of the system, i.e. with a decrease in the proportion of fiber and its less dense packing, as well as with an increase in the concentration of hydrophilic groups in the polymer, i.e. with an increase in their affinity for a polar solvent (for example, for water) and a corresponding increase in Df, it is possible to take into account both terms, the values of which can be quite comparable.
The diffusion equation for an infinite cylinder which satisfactorily approximates the shape of the fiber and provided that the drug at the initial moment is uniformly distributed over the volume of the polymer was presented by Crank in his classic work [76]:
where r is the radial coordinate of diffusion, and the symbol Gd, as in Eq. (2), denotes the concentration of the mobile fraction of the drug in a cylindrical fiber with a corresponding constant diffusion coefficient Df and Rf as before denotes the average radius of the fiber. The initial and boundary conditions corresponding to drug desorption from a cylindrical fiber are as follows: Gd = G0d at t = 0 (at the initial moment of time) and under the condition 0 < x < Rf:
Gd = 0 at r = R (at the fiber-solution interface) and under the condition t > 0.
The second boundary condition is written from considerations of symmetry and indicates the absence of flux at the center of a single fiber ∂Gd/ ∂r = 0 at r = 0.
It was shown in [80] that the solution of Eq. (7) has the form of a power function and makes it possible to obtain the dependence of the cumulative amount of pharmaceuticals coming from the fiber into the environment by the diffusion mechanism ΔMD(t) on its contact time with this medium t:
where ΔMD∞ is the limiting value of ΔMD under the condition t → ∞.
Note that Eqs. (7) and (8), describing the diffusion of drug through the side walls of an infinite cylinder, are valid provided that the length of the fiber exceeds its radius by at least five times [81], and this requirement is strictly fulfilled for fibers of practically infinite length, obtained by the technology of electrospinning. In addition, the last equation is valid provided that the inequality ΔMD/ΔMD∞ < 0.4. The combination of Eqs. (2) and (8) gives the final expression for the release of the drug from the cylindrical fibers, both taking into account the weight loss during hydrolysis and due to the diffusion of the drug:
where kc = kh - [Df/Rf2]. The positive sign in the equation shows that under the given conditions for PHB, the inequality kh > [Df/Rf2] is fulfilled.
The experimental curves shown in Figure 4 correspond to Eq. (9), which allows the calculation of the fiber diffusion coefficients Df. For calculations, these drug release curves were presented in diffusion coordinates ΔMD/ΔMD∞ ∼ t1/2, as shown in Figure 5. Comparison of the experimental results presented in Figure 3 with the corresponding symbols, and calculations according to Eqs. (7) and (9), shown by solid lines, indicates their good agreement and demonstrates the possibility of using this model to assess the diffusion characteristics of ultrathin cylindrical fibers. Table 2 exhibits the concentration of mobile СD∞ and immobilized Сh∞ drug fractions.
Kinetic curves of DPD release from PHB fibers, presented in diffusion coordinates. The concentrations of DPD are 1 (1), 3 (2), and 5 wt.% (3); LM is the total thickness of the fibrillar film.
DPD, wt % | Rf × 104, cm2 | Df × 1012, cm2/s | СD∞ × 102, g/g | Сh∞ × 102, g/g | kc × 105, s−1 | kh × 105, s−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 3.35 (53%) | 1.65 (34%) | 4.4 | 1.4 |
3 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 1.8 (56%) | 0.89 (32%) | 6.1 | 1.1 |
1 | 9.8* | 6.9* | 0.78 (78%) | 0.22 (22%) | 9.4 | 8.5* |
Sorption, kinetic, and diffusion characteristics of the PHB-DPD fiber system. Concentration of mobile СD∞ and fixed Сh∞ fractions of DPD in fiber; СExt—concentration of DPD in the interfiber space. The percentages of each fraction are indicated in parentheses.
The conditional calculations of the corresponding characteristics, calculated approximating the ellipsoids of revolution with cylinders of larger diameter.
The effect of a sharp drug release at the initial portion of the kinetic curves is called the “burst effect” [82]. In our case, it is mainly associated with the residual drug concentration displaced from the fiber volume during the electrospinning process. The appearance of this fraction does not exceed 10% and is observed only for ultrafine fibers with a high drug loading (> 3%). When the sample is immersed in an aqueous medium, it is removed from the film due to rapid diffusion mobility in the hydrated interfibrillar space. It should also be noted that the concentration of mobile drug molecules decreases with an increase in crystallinity and therefore reaches a maximum value for fibers containing 1% DPD, having the lowest crystallinity of 38%. The last line of Table 2 shows the constants of the drug yield due to the loss of fiber mass during hydrolysis (kh). It can also be noted here that the rate of hydrolysis decreases with an increase in the crystallinity of the fiber and the lower, the higher the concentration of the drug in the fiber.
The totality of the results known in the literature and presented in this chapter allows us to draw two conclusions. First, the intercrystalline regions of ultrathin PHB fibers have a close packing of chains, which is significantly higher than the density in the amorphous region of the film, which is confirmed by EPR measuring. Second, under the same conditions, the values of drug diffusion coefficients in ultrathin and highly crystalline PHB fibers, as well as in its spherical microparticles containing DPD [83], are several orders of magnitude lower than similar characteristics measured for PHB films.
Over the past 15 years, there has been not only significant progress at the level of theory and modeling of the processes of directed transport of biologically active compounds, but at the same time a large number of polymer and hybrid materials were created for modern therapy, providing an innovative component for drug delivery. Today, the main trend is the accumulation of experimental data showing how nanotechnological processes, including electrospinning, affect the characteristics of the developed means of targeted drug delivery.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\\n\\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \\n\\t\\t\\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\n\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:13388},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:11658},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:4168},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:22334},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:2019},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:33638}],offset:12,limit:12,total:135272},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"16,19,25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11709",title:"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cc0e61f864a2a8a9595f4975ce301f70",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Shilpa Mehta and Dr. Resmy Palliyil Gopi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"342545",title:"Dr.",name:"Shilpa",surname:"Mehta",slug:"shilpa-mehta",fullName:"Shilpa Mehta"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11889",title:"Sexual Disorders and Dysfunctions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11867",title:"Echocardiography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11876",title:"Esophageal Surgery - Current Principles and Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9592bd7a6a3809cdc6a66f6100233aaa",slug:null,bookSignature:"M.D. Andrea Sanna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11876.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"327116",title:"M.D.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Sanna",slug:"andrea-sanna",fullName:"Andrea Sanna"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11706",title:"Forensic and Legal Medicine - State of the Art, Practical Applications and New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b0514220e40dc2f90b1dcd0445248b72",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Roberto Scendoni and Dr. Francesco De Micco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11706.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"333983",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Scendoni",slug:"roberto-scendoni",fullName:"Roberto Scendoni"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11849",title:"Allergic Disease - New Developments in Diagnosis and Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8143d42f6db2a6e7e23c330f0d54a277",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Öner Özdemir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11849.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"62921",title:"Dr.",name:"Öner",surname:"Özdemir",slug:"oner-ozdemir",fullName:"Öner Özdemir"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11584",title:"Recent Advances in Distinctive Migraine Syndromes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44a6090845f971a215ddf013f1dc2027",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Theodoros Mavridis, Dr. Georgios Vavougios and Associate Prof. Dimos-Dimitrios Mitsikostas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11584.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320230",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",surname:"Mavridis",slug:"theodoros-mavridis",fullName:"Theodoros Mavridis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11733",title:"Injury and Sports Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e2fdeca45129f6d5ba446f502c5a6373",slug:null,bookSignature:"M.D. Thomas Robert Wojda and Dr. Stanislaw P. Stawicki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11733.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"415286",title:"M.D.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Robert Wojda",slug:"thomas-robert-wojda",fullName:"Thomas Robert Wojda"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11872",title:"Peripheral Arterial Disease - The Challenges of Revascularization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"80be3d16e4c8f89f3501ed408729f695",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ana Terezinha Guillaumon, Dr. Daniel Emilio Dalledone Siqueira and Dr. Martin Geiger",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11872.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"251226",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Terezinha",surname:"Guillaumon",slug:"ana-terezinha-guillaumon",fullName:"Ana Terezinha Guillaumon"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11698",title:"Pigmentation Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2ac6c9f424eec37ed85232c2c97ef6f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11698.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11701",title:"Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ba8e8f4710bed414568846f8162a4942",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ahmet Mesrur Halefoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11701.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51736",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmet Mesrur",surname:"Halefoğlu",slug:"ahmet-mesrur-halefoglu",fullName:"Ahmet Mesrur Halefoğlu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:28},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:45},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:74},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:82},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain",subtitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aab634c9c1f9a692c1e9881d18e9c9b7",slug:"supply-chain-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives-in-the-industry-4-0-era",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai, Ágota Bányai and Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg",editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4805},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7107,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1955,editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1452,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2289,editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain",subtitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aab634c9c1f9a692c1e9881d18e9c9b7",slug:"supply-chain-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives-in-the-industry-4-0-era",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai, Ágota Bányai and Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:888,editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1566,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2054,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:780,editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",numberOfDownloads:318480,editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",publishedDate:"September 26th 2012",numberOfDownloads:271760,editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11328",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7dd05a316001cef143e209eda51387a7",slug:"botulinum-toxin-recent-topics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Suna Sabuncuoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11328.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11085",title:"Polycystic Ovary Syndrome",subtitle:"Functional Investigation and Clinical Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3066dd3ff29e1fac072fd60b08d4d3e7",slug:"polycystic-ovary-syndrome-functional-investigation-and-clinical-application",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10833",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis and Modulators",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f29b575c46128b2da061ef7f9bd1070b",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis-and-modulators",bookSignature:"Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10833.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"158",title:"Metals and Nonmetals",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals",parent:{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"},numberOfBooks:126,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:3143,numberOfWosCitations:5841,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3349,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7518,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"158",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys",subtitle:"Design and Development of Innovative Alloys, Manufacturing Processes and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4ecc3e8fea00488cb2213b7d34b42aa",slug:"aluminium-alloys-design-and-development-of-innovative-alloys-manufacturing-processes-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giulio Timelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"44147",title:"Prof.",name:"Giulio",middleName:null,surname:"Timelli",slug:"giulio-timelli",fullName:"Giulio Timelli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"21372a0c65f42d075d4519c2f891e203",slug:"current-trends-in-magnesium-mg-research",bookSignature:"Sailaja S. Sunkari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"325832",title:"Dr.",name:"Sailaja S.",middleName:"S.",surname:"Sunkari",slug:"sailaja-s.-sunkari",fullName:"Sailaja S. Sunkari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9926",title:"Magnesium Alloys Structure and Properties",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6d1a99f4befe885857743f77e81524c",slug:"magnesium-alloys-structure-and-properties",bookSignature:"Tomasz Tański and Paweł Jarka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15700",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Tański",slug:"tomasz-arkadiusz-tanski",fullName:"Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10700",title:"Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:"Advances and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9448d83caa34d90fd58464268c869a0",slug:"titanium-dioxide-advances-and-applications",bookSignature:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10700.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6832",title:"Ruthenium",subtitle:"An Element Loved by Researchers",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a3be4dd6035f78add07d239b8eae379",slug:"ruthenium-an-element-loved-by-researchers",bookSignature:"Hitoshi Ishida",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6832.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210140",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishida",slug:"hitoshi-ishida",fullName:"Hitoshi Ishida"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10388",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:"Their Environmental Impacts and Mitigation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac4f5b254442e9f19a8c609453a83915",slug:"heavy-metals-their-environmental-impacts-and-mitigation",bookSignature:"Mazen Khaled Nazal and Hongbo Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10388.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214815",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen",middleName:null,surname:"Nazal",slug:"mazen-nazal",fullName:"Mazen Nazal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9912",title:"Advanced Aluminium Composites and Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7c20182f3241e13162b011fac7efdd6",slug:"advanced-aluminium-composites-and-alloys",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9912.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10506",title:"Liquid Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1c30d83631953e1c8905554d937bb10",slug:"liquid-metals",bookSignature:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, S. Gnanasekaran and Suresh Mayilswamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10506.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10629",title:"Advances in High-Entropy Alloys",subtitle:"Materials Research, Exotic Properties and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eef8e329dc2559a9dbe5f1522ec690e3",slug:"advances-in-high-entropy-alloys-materials-research-exotic-properties-and-applications",bookSignature:"Jiro Kitagawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210570",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kitagawa",slug:"jiro-kitagawa",fullName:"Jiro Kitagawa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9991",title:"Iron Ores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1b2c288312233e1be62cd01c7e74fec",slug:"iron-ores",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",middleName:null,surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10412",title:"Transition Metal Compounds",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties, and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd7287b801dc0ac77e01f66842dc1d99",slug:"transition-metal-compounds-synthesis-properties-and-application",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10412.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:126,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"60680",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16235,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:405,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9282,totalCrossrefCites:166,totalDimensionsCites:399,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13727,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:161,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]},{id:"44359",doi:"10.5772/56197",title:"Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Strength Two-Phase Titanium Alloys",slug:"microstructure-and-mechanical-properties-of-high-strength-two-phase-titanium-alloys",totalDownloads:10310,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:128,abstract:null,book:{id:"3494",slug:"titanium-alloys-advances-in-properties-control",title:"Titanium Alloys",fullTitle:"Titanium Alloys - Advances in Properties Control"},signatures:"J. Sieniawski, W. Ziaja, K. Kubiak and M. Motyka",authors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"},{id:"109232",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Sieniawski",slug:"jan-sieniawski",fullName:"Jan Sieniawski"}]},{id:"46882",doi:"10.5772/58534",title:"Additive Manufacturing of Al Alloys and Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs)",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-al-alloys-and-aluminium-matrix-composites-amcs-",totalDownloads:10125,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:117,abstract:null,book:{id:"3844",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",fullTitle:"Light Metal Alloys Applications"},signatures:"Diego Manfredi, Flaviana Calignano, Manickavasagam Krishnan,\nRiccardo Canali, Elisa Paola Ambrosio, Sara Biamino, Daniele Ugues,\nMatteo Pavese and Paolo Fino",authors:[{id:"16648",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Manfredi",slug:"diego-manfredi",fullName:"Diego Manfredi"},{id:"18978",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Pavese",slug:"matteo-pavese",fullName:"Matteo Pavese"},{id:"19187",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Biamino",slug:"sara-biamino",fullName:"Sara Biamino"},{id:"19188",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"elisa-ambrosio",fullName:"Elisa Ambrosio"},{id:"19189",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Fino",slug:"paolo-fino",fullName:"Paolo Fino"},{id:"170227",title:"Dr.",name:"Flaviana",middleName:null,surname:"Calignano",slug:"flaviana-calignano",fullName:"Flaviana Calignano"},{id:"170228",title:"MSc.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Canali",slug:"riccardo-canali",fullName:"Riccardo Canali"},{id:"170229",title:"MSc.",name:"Manickavasagam",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"manickavasagam-krishnan",fullName:"Manickavasagam Krishnan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2643,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16234,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:405,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6881,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"71326",title:"Stability of Metal Complexes",slug:"stability-of-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:2369,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The stability of coordination complex is an important factor that decides the stability and reactivity of a metal complex. The stability of metal complex is governed by two different aspects such as thermodynamic and kinetic stabilities. The correlation between stability and reactivity of coordination compounds has been described in this chapter. This chapter also enlists the factors influencing the stability of metal complexes such as the nature of metal ions, ligands, bonding between metal ions and ligands, etc. In addition, the methods available for the determination of stability constants are given in detail.",book:{id:"9190",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",fullTitle:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds"},signatures:"Senthilkumar Muthaiah, Anita Bhatia and Muthukumar Kannan",authors:null},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:5259,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) semiconductor nanoparticles are one kind of important and promising photocatalysts in photocatalysis because of their unique optical and electronic properties. Their properties, which are determined by the preparation method, are very crucial in photocatalysis. In this chapter, an overview was carried out on the different methods that are used or have been used to prepare titanium dioxide nanoparticles. There are various methods that can be used to synthesize TiO2 and the most commonly used methods include sol-gel process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and hydrothermal method among others. This review will focus on selected preparation methods of titanium dioxide photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6426",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"158",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82118",title:"Surface Hardening of Stainless Steel",slug:"surface-hardening-of-stainless-steel",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105036",abstract:"The addition of nitrogen to stainless steel improves mechanical and corrosion properties. Nitrogen-bearing stainless steel (HNSS) is a new corrosion-resistant alloy class exhibiting better tribological properties. High-pressure and powder metallurgy techniques were developed for the fabrication of HNSS. Solid-state routes allow nitrogen introduction through thermochemical, implantation, or plasma surface treatments. High-temperature gas nitriding (HTGN), carried out in an N2 atmosphere in the 1000°C range, allows N uptake, obtaining thick, ~0.5–1.0 wt.% N austenitic cases. HTGN is different from conventional nitriding, performed in the 500°C range, where intense CrxNy precipitation occurs, impairing the corrosion resistance. Low-temperature plasma nitriding (LTPN) introduces more N in solution, and colossal supersaturated expanded phases (~45 at.%N) are formed. N supersaturation and compressive stresses increase the hardness of the surface layer to 10–14 GPa. Ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation-hardened stainless steels can be surface-treated by LTPN, obtaining expanded ferrite and martensite. However, single LTPN stainless steel may prematurely fail when submitted to high loading, as the thin and hard expanded layers collapse due to lack of load-bearing capacity. Duplex-nitriding treatment (HTGN + LTPN) results in a thick nitrogen-rich hardened austenite substrate layer, granting mechanical support and adhesion to the expanded austenite layer.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"André Paulo Tschiptschin and Carlos Eduardo Pinedo"},{id:"81579",title:"Welding Based Additive Manufacturing: Fundamentals",slug:"welding-based-additive-manufacturing-fundamentals",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104768",abstract:"Additive Manufacturing (AM) has drawn abundant attention over the past decades in the manufacturing and fabrication industries, especially to make part models and prototypes. This chapter introduces a potential welding based AM process called Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for the fabrication of near-net shaped metal components including stainless steel components. To start with traditional AM processes, various fundamental traditional AM for the fabrication of components have been presented. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has been explained with its variants, synonyms, different welding processes to suit WAAM particularly to weld stainless steel metal; primary process selections for working with WAAM, important metals, and alloys that could be used in WAAM have been elaborated. A case study for WAAM fabrication of AISI 316 L stainless steel plate is included to introduce the fabrication of metal components using WAAM. Further, the most common defects which possibly play a vital role in WAAM components fabrication and a few of the future challenges regarding WAAM development are discussed. Fundamental information covered in this chapter could be more beneficial to beginners for the understanding of WAAM process generally including stainless steel component fabrication in a lucid tactic.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Maruthasalam Sowrirajan, Selvaraj Vijayan and Munusamy Arulraj"},{id:"80664",title:"Dependence of Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steels on the Magnetic State of Austenite",slug:"dependence-of-corrosion-resistance-of-austenitic-chromium-nickel-steels-on-the-magnetic-state-of-aus",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102388",abstract:"Corrosive behavior of austenitic chromium-nickel steels from the magnetic state (parameter χ0) of austenite, pre-formed to interact with aggressive media are research. Correlation between the rate K of pitting corrosion and the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite was experimentally established. It is experimentally established that the corrosion resistance of austenitic steels AISI304, 08Cr18Ni10, AISI 321, 08Cr18Ni10Тi (containing a low amount of δ-ferrite ∼0.005…0.5%) depends on the magnetic state of austenite: the corrosion rate of steel decreases with increases χ0 austenite. The tendency of change in the corrosion rate of austenitic alloy with a high nickel content 06Crh28NiMoCuTi (not contain δ-ferrite) has the opposite character: with increasing χ0, the corrosion rate of the alloy increases is revealed. For austenitic chromium-nickel steels, the corrosion rates of the individual (austenite (A), δ-ferrite (F), strain-induced α′-martensite (M)) and total (A + F, A + M and A + F + M) phases are determined. It is proposed to predict corrosion according to the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite and the amount δ-ferrite.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Gennadii Snizhnoi"},{id:"80199",title:"The Evaluation of the Comparative Corrosion Behaviour of Conventional and Low-Nickel Austenitic Stainless Steel: Hercules™ Alloy",slug:"the-evaluation-of-the-comparative-corrosion-behaviour-of-conventional-and-low-nickel-austenitic-stai",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102381",abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels require approximately 8% Ni to maintain austenitic microstructure at room temperature for alloys such as 304 stainless steel (304SS). Ni contributes approximately 60% of the total material cost and its price fluctuates, making the cost of austenitic stainless steel unpredictable. The use of low-nickel austenitic stainless steels as a substitute has been considered in order to remedy costs associated with Ni price fluctuations. Alloying elements such as Mn and N have been considered, however they have been found to reduce corrosion resistance. A new alloy namely Hercules™ has been developed with reduced Ni content (1.8–2% Ni). This chapter presents a comparative study of the corrosion behavior of Hercules™ and 304SS in different solutions. The alloys were evaluated using cyclic polarisation technique and immersion tests. The results demonstrated that the corrosion resistance of Hercules™ is comparable to that of 304SS. This presents the alloys as potential industrial substitutes of each other.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Duduzile Nkomo and Nomsombuluko Masia"},{id:"80346",title:"Nitrogen Supersaturation of AISI316 Base Stainless Steels at 673 K and 623 K for Hardening and Microstructure Control",slug:"nitrogen-supersaturation-of-aisi316-base-stainless-steels-at-673-k-and-623-k-for-hardening-and-micro",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102387",abstract:"The high-density plasma nitriding at 673 K and 623 K was employed to make 10% of nitrogen supersaturation on AISI316 base austenitic stainless steels. The processing parameters and nitrogen-hydrogen gas flow ratio were optimized to increase the yield of N2+ ion and NH-radical for efficient nitriding. The nitrided AISI316 specimens were prepared for multidimensional analysis to describe the fundamental features of low-temperature plasma nitriding. First, macroscopic evaluation revealed that nitrogen supersaturation induced the γ-lattice expansion and the higher nitrogen content than 4% of mass in depth. The mesoscopic analysis describes the holding temperature and initial grain-size effects on the microstructure changes. Plastic straining, grain-size refinement, and nitrogen zone-boundary diffusion processes advance with nitrogen supersaturation to drive the inner nitriding behavior. The microscopic analysis explains the microstructure refinement, the two-phase structuring, and the microstructure modification. Through this multi-dimensional analysis, the essential characteristics of the low-temperature plasma nitriding of 316 austenitic stainless steels were precisely understood to extend the engineering treatise on the bulk nitrogen stainless steels for surface modification and treatment of stainless steels by nitriding. This plasma nitriding was applied to strengthen and harden the AISI316 wire surfaces toward its application on surgery wires.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa, Tomomi Shiratori, Tomoaki Yoshino, Yohei Suzuki and Takafumi Komatsu"},{id:"79904",title:"Corrosion Resistance, Evaluation Methods, and Surface Treatments of Stainless Steels",slug:"corrosion-resistance-evaluation-methods-and-surface-treatments-of-stainless-steels",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101430",abstract:"Stainless steels are widely recognized and find applications in many engineering industries and companies due to their excellent properties including high resistance to corrosion as a result of their minimum 10.5% chromium content, exceptional strength and durability, temperature resistance, high recyclability, and easy formability. In the present book chapter, the basic concepts of stainless steel including its applications, classifications, and corrosion properties will first be discussed. Thereafter, their corrosion behaviour will then be explained. The various methods by which the corrosion resistance behaviour can be significantly improved including surface treatments such as coatings/electrodepositions, alloying, mechanical treatment, and others will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12215",title:"Cell Death and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12215.jpg",hash:"dfd456a29478fccf4ebd3294137eb1e3",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 29th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:47,paginationItems:[{id:"82938",title:"Trauma from Occlusion: Practical Management Guidelines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105960",signatures:"Prashanth Shetty, Shweta Hegde, Shubham Chelkar, Rahul Chaturvedi, Shruti Pochhi, Aakanksha Shrivastava, Dudala Lakshmi, Shreya Mukherjee, Pankaj Bajaj and Shahzada Asif Raza",slug:"trauma-from-occlusion-practical-management-guidelines",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. Ablal",slug:"atraumatic-restorative-treatment-more-than-a-minimally-invasive-approach",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82608",title:"Early Management of Dental Trauma in the Era of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105992",signatures:"Khairul Bariah Chi Adam, Haszelini Hassan, Pram Kumar Subramaniam, Izzati Nabilah Ismail, Nor Adilah Harun and Naziyah Shaban Mustafa",slug:"early-management-of-dental-trauma-in-the-era-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82767",title:"Teeth Avulsion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105846",signatures:"Manal Abdalla Eltahir, Randa Fath Elrahman Ibrahim and Hanan Alharbi",slug:"teeth-avulsion",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82735",title:"The Influence of Salivary pH on the Prevalence of Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106154",signatures:"Laura-Cristina Rusu, Alexandra Roi, Ciprian-Ioan Roi, Codruta Victoria Tigmeanu and Lavinia Cosmina Ardelean",slug:"the-influence-of-salivary-ph-on-the-prevalence-of-dental-caries",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82288",title:"Dental Emergency and Conditions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105495",signatures:"Navneet Kaur",slug:"dental-emergency-and-conditions",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"81961",title:"Antioxidants as an Adjuncts to Periodontal Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105016",signatures:"Sura Dakhil Jassim and Ali Abbas Abdulkareem",slug:"antioxidants-as-an-adjuncts-to-periodontal-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82357",title:"Caries Management Aided by Fluorescence-Based Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105567",signatures:"Atena Galuscan, Daniela Jumanca and Aurora Doris Fratila",slug:"caries-management-aided-by-fluorescence-based-devices",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"81894",title:"Diet and Nutrition and Their Relationship with Early Childhood Dental Caries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105123",signatures:"Luanna Gonçalves Ferreira, Giuliana de Campos Chaves Lamarque and Francisco Wanderley Garcia Paula-Silva",slug:"diet-and-nutrition-and-their-relationship-with-early-childhood-dental-caries",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",value:2,count:22,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Oral Health",value:1,count:25,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9883",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9883.jpg",slug:"biosensors-current-and-novel-strategies-for-biosensing",publishedDate:"May 5th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Jesús Villarreal-Gómez and Ana Leticia Iglesias",hash:"028f3e5dbf9c32590183ac4b4f0a2825",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Biosensors - Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",editors:[{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. Varkey",hash:"de9fa48c5248dbfb581825b8c74f5623",volumeInSeries:0,fullTitle:"Peptide Synthesis",editors:[{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",hash:"da2c90e8db647ead30504defce3fb5d3",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261466/images/system/261466.jpeg",institutionString:"Medical University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7437",title:"Nanomedicines",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7437.jpg",slug:"nanomedicines",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",hash:"0e1f5f6258f074c533976c4f4d248568",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Nanomedicines",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63182/images/system/63182.png",institutionString:"Forman Christian College",institution:{name:"Forman Christian College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",value:9,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",value:8,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:9}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:3}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? Empirical Evidence from an Emerging Economy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105589",signatures:"Bishnu Kumar Adhikary and Ranjan Kumar Mitra",slug:"does-board-structure-matter-in-csr-spending-of-commercial-banks-empirical-evidence-from-an-emerging-",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82395",title:"Toward a Better Understanding of Green Human Resource Management’s Impact on Green Competitive Advantage: A Conceptual Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105528",signatures:"Hosna Hossari and Kaoutar Elfahli",slug:"toward-a-better-understanding-of-green-human-resource-management-s-impact-on-green-competitive-advan",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82269",title:"CSR Reporting and Blockchain Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105512",signatures:"Pattarake Sarajoti, Pattanaporn Chatjuthamard, Suwongrat Papangkorn and Piyachart Phiromswad",slug:"csr-reporting-and-blockchain-technology",totalDownloads:30,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82270",title:"From Corporate Social Opportunity to Corporate Social Responsibility",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105445",signatures:"Brian Bolton",slug:"from-corporate-social-opportunity-to-corporate-social-responsibility",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82339",title:"Green Human Resource Management: An Exploratory Study from Moroccan ISO 14001 Certified Companies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105565",signatures:"Hosna Hossari and Kaoutar Elfahli",slug:"green-human-resource-management-an-exploratory-study-from-moroccan-iso-14001-certified-companies",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82194",title:"CSR and Female Directors: A Review and Future Research Agenda",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105112",signatures:"Pattarake Sarajoti, Pattanaporn Chatjuthamard, Suwongrat Papangkorn and Sirimon Treepongkaruna",slug:"csr-and-female-directors-a-review-and-future-research-agenda",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/62584",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"62584"},fullPath:"/profiles/62584",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()