Observations and conclusions related to nanoparticles incorporated into dental materials.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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These accumulations of oral bacteria on dental surfaces are natural forms of biofilm growth in humans. They are also known as dental plaque and in spite of several favorable conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity) these biofilms are constantly challenged by host factors. It is recognized that structural organization of a dental biofilm are influenced by the interplay of many unfavorable and also several favorable ones such as the chemical nature of the substrate and the type of the surface where the biofilm develops [3].
In dentistry, restoration failure is generally attributed to a combination of oral bacteria and inappropriate features of dental materials. Efficient dental restorative materials are important for an adequate recovery of masticatory and esthetic functions. However, these materials are prone to biofilm formation, affecting oral health. It is well accepted that under
Dental caries is the most prevalent disease found in the oral cavity of humans. It is regarded as multifactorial chronic and complex disease which is dependent of a cariogenic biofilm [4,5]. Thus, a carious lesion takes some time to develop. However, initial carious lesions are easily and rapidly formed during a three-day of high sucrose regime and poor oral hygiene conditions. So, as long as there is a cariogenic microbial biofilm attached to a dental surface there is a great chance to find a carious lesion on this tooth spot [6]. Growth of oral bacteria on dental surfaces requires adhesion strategies because there is a constant flow of host secretions (e.g. saliva) that can interfere on the ability of planktonic cells (non-attached bacteria). As a result, the formation of the oral biofilm is not homogenous and it contains multiple bacterial species [4,7,8].
Oral bacteria can adhere to hydrophobic as well as to hydrophilic surfaces and many explanatory theories are suggested including the influence of complex electrostatic mechanisms such as van der Waals energy. After biofilm establishment on restorations, surface deterioration of materials (e.g.: resin composites and glass-ionomer cements) will take place facilitating the development of a mature biofilm resulting in dental carious lesions. The microflora from these diseased teeth sites is significantly different from healthy sites on a tooth [10]. The frequent changes in environmental conditions can lead to shifts in biofilm microflora and as a result the microbial homeostasis breaks down in dental plaque (e.g. low pH), and disease occurs.
It must be pointed out that the presence of these oral microbes in the mouth is natural, and is also essential for the normal development of the physiology of the oral cavity [9]. Hence, any antimicrobial strategy has to consider the perspective of restoring some microbial equilibrium and not a complete depletion of oral bacterial from the mouth. Many antimicrobial substances, compounds or mixture of antibacterial agents (e.g. bisbiguanides, metal ions, quaternary ammonium compounds, essential oils) have been successfully formulated into home care products to control oral biofilms. Several investigations have proved their efficacy in controlling the development of oral biofilms despite important drawbacks as tooth staining, bad taste, etc. [3,4]. Moreover, at moderate or high concentrations, these antimicrobial mouthwashes and toothpastes can inhibit bacterial growth in many different modes and truly affect biofilm-forming capacity of some pathogenic traits. Hence, to be considered a successful antimicrobial agent a substance, compound or the mixture of both must be able of maintaining the oral biofilm at “normal” cariogenic bacterial levels which are compatible with the individual oral health. Simultaneously, the material must be effective without any interference on the beneficial properties of the resident oral microflora.
Mouthwashes and toothpastes are accepted methods to deliver antimicrobials into the oral mouth. However, they are completely dependent on the discipline and compliance of the patient to the oral treatment. In addition, many of these antimicrobials are prescribed for short periods to avoid any risk of disturbing the resident oral microflora [3,10]. Hence, one strategy is to incorporate antimicrobials into dental materials. The possibility that dental restorative material may release antimicrobial compounds are regarded as an interesting strategy for overcoming the development of cariogenic dental biofilms and the risk for secondary dental caries. In addition, there is a chance that under less biofilm stress dental materials could increase longevity. This strategy is of great importance since dental restorations properties may be improved if an antibiotic-dental material is used.
The aim of the present review is to shed light on the techniques and effectiveness on improving antibacterial activities of dental restorative materials. The main focus is on incorporation and subsequent slow-release of antimicrobial chemical species, molecules, compounds and low molecular weight antibacterial agents such as metal ions, iodine, antibiotics, chlorhexidine and natural products such as essential oils. The
In 1940´s microbiologists described an interesting phenomenon that occurs when fresh sea water is kept in a glass bottle, the so-called “bottle effect”. It was observed that the number of microorganisms attached a glass surface increase while at the same time there is a reduction in free-living microorganisms [11]. This is a relevant historical landmark because it represents the starting point of a paradigm shift that is still valid these days. In fact, only 30 years later, scientific community understood that the biofilm mode of life is the rule rather the exception when bacteria and fungi species are collected, studied and investigated in nature under real life conditions. Biofilms are defined as complex consortia of microorganisms that are attached to a surface that can be of biotic or abiotic nature [12].
The microbial biofilm formation involves a multi-stage process in which bacterial and fungi adhere to the surface. For more details see figure 1 which is based in several reports [13-16].
The multi-stage process of biofilm formation by oral microorganisms.
At this stage only weak forces are operating. Therefore it is also known as the initial reversible attachment stage. Subsequently, there is a production of an extracellular matrix (containing polysaccharides, proteins and DNA) that results in a stronger attachment which is also known as the irreversible attachment stage [16]. In general, after attachment, biofilm growth follows two other distinct phases or behavior: spreading and dispersal of microorganisms.
Basically, the attachment process involves equilibrium of electrostatic forces. Microbes and tooth surfaces are negatively charged. As they are immersed in a fluid (saliva) system which is rich in calcium and other counterions, these negative charged surfaces attract and mobilize cations. As a result, a double charged layer is formed (electrical double layer) and this overlap causes a repulsive electrostatic force. Simultaneously, as the bacterium approaches the tooth surface, they also experience a repulsive force (van der Waals force). Finally, the combinations of repulsive and attraction forces known as DLVO theory modulate the microorganism adherence to dental surfaces. This is valid for dental restorative materials as well, and one must consider the fact that it can be more favorable if a porous or irregular surface is facilitating bacterial adherence [3,13-16].
The first bacteria to attach to the acquired pellicle (layer of glycoproteins) on the tooth surface are called the pioneer species (
Schematic representation of the development of an oral biofilm and the potential of antimicrobials to interfere on this process when releasing some antimicrobial element or substance [
Historically, in Dentistry, the examination of mature oral biofilms started when electron microscope became available for microbiologists [19]. Later, molecular biological tools became popular and new insights about how microbes attach and develop on tooth surfaces were finally confirmed. One “striking” observation was actually a confirmation of an obvious theory that microbes stick to a surface many benefits are obtained: a) selection of sites where they stay in favorable environments, b) these surfaces may have enough substrate or can contribute to diffuse some nutrient and c) the different species often work together and this consortium provides physical support and protection [20-29].
More recently, zeta potential, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) together with fluorescence techniques received attention and became useful techniques to study bacteria adhesion to surfaces [29]. In spite of the great evolution in techniques, many limitations have to be considered when comes to the evaluation of an antimicrobial substances against biofilms development. First, there is still the gap of
After all these relevant methodological points, more questions marks can be attributed on how to evaluate antimicrobial agents against biofilms. In addition to evaluate the effects in biofilms itself, one must consider the understanding of suitable methods related to the incorporation of antimicrobials into these dental restorative materials. For instance, the concentration of the antimicrobial agent, the volume or amount of material to be included and how far these substances can interfere on mechanical and esthetic features of a restoration [21-26].
Considering the presence of a mature biofilm covering a dental restoration, it must be pointed out that a major requirement of the final formulation is to deliver sufficient concentration of the inhibitor in the surroundings. Moreover, the antimicrobial effect must be kept on a prolonged time or at least for a enough period of time that will maintain an effective dose operating. This point is quite important since oral bacteria do not live as independent entities. So, as highlighted previously, a high resistance to antibiotics is likely to occur [27-30].
Along the last decades biofilms have been studied extensively because they are present in several surfaces, such as all solid surfaces in the oral cavity, in biomateriais implanted in the human body, in catheter surfaces, in water pipes [24]. After the establishment of a biofilm on dental restorations, deterioration of the outer layer surface of these materials will take place and facilitate bacteria adhesion [25]. On the other hand, the possibility that dental restoring materials can deliver antimicrobials may reduce considerably the risk of secondary caries in spite of the limitations of some dental materials.
Oral bacteria can attach to many restorative materials like amalgam, gold, ceramics, resin composite, glass ionomer cements. In order to achieve long-term success of dental fillings there are many requirements. Some are related to the professional ability in manipulating and polishing these materials. However, some considerations rely on physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the dental material used. Surface roughness is not the focus of this review, but it may be influenced by the interplay of professionals’ ability as well as dental materials features.
The incorporation of 5, 10, 15 up to 30% of antimicrobial compounds or substances into dental materials have been proposed [24-30]. However, the higher amount of antimicrobial agents, the higher is the risk to loose important features in dental restoration as biocompatibility and resistance. Hence, how much is enough and how much is safe? In the literature, addition of 1.5% can be effective if the antimicrobial is potent enough [27].
Figure 3 presents this dilemma related to the interference of “extra” substances to be incorporated into dental materials and limitations regarding the loss of important features of the material.
Schematic representation for understanding the effects of external substances and compounds when incorporated into regular dental materials.
An interesting report showed that incorporation of 1% chlorhexidine (CHX) diacetate in GIC (glass ionomer cements) is optimal for clinical use. This is valid in terms of antimicrobial activities, CHX-release pattern, physical properties and bonding ability to tooth surfaces [28]. An additional valuable information was the conclusion that incorporation of CHX diacetate at 2% or greater values of percentage participation significantly decreased compressive strength and adversely affected bond strength to dentin.
It has been observed that some dental materials (e.g. gold and its alloys) are naturally able to kill bacteria in the adhering biofilms [29]. Glass ionomer cements (GIC) are recognized for releasing fluoride ions that can modulate biofilm formation [27,30]. The point is that this is not enough since GIC reduces its ability to release fluoride in short periods. So, it is expected that dental restoration with antimicrobial properties may have extended potential for inhibiting biofilm formation in a long-term basis.
In addition to chemical changes due to incorporation of antimicrobials into dental restorative materials, there is also the problem of chemical changes also interfere in the distribution of masticatory forces applied on a tooth. For instance, the presence of a carious lesion in molar tooth can demand fast treatment protocol for the affected area and depending on the lesion extension, it must receive a temporary filling [31-34]. In general, temporary filling materials are typically made from a combination of zinc oxide and eugenol which has good antimicrobial activity. Eugenol is also important due to its sedative properties. The zinc oxide powder is a very versatile compound that can present different properties when combined with various agents. When mixed together, the material starts off soft and in few minutes it becomes more hard and brittle. However, this mixture is not harder enough to be compared to regular dental fillings and its far from restoring tooth hardness. This material is classified as intermediate restorative material (IRM) and it is a good example that the beneficial aspects of antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties are achieved while mechanical properties of resistance become very low. Therefore, this material must be accepted as a temporary and not a definite filling material. Under the influence of masticatory forces, as previously mentioned, there will be a stress in the remaining parts of the dental element that will certainly compromise the longevity of the restoration as well as the whole tooth structure [31-34].
A comparative study analysing deformations done through Finite Element Method (FEM) and applying the software ANSYS shows the differences in compressive loads between sound and restored teeth with intermediate restorative materials (IRM), see figure 4A and 4B. It is shown that the restored tooth IRM (figure 4B) is deformed in a different way when compared to the sound tooth (4A). Figure 5 shows this simulation evaluating a map of tension for both conditions: A (sound tooth) and B (restored).
Sites of deformations in sound and IRM restored teeth.
Sites of tensions in sound and IRM restored teeth.
As expected, the analysis shows that the distribution of forces in the interior of the teeth flows in different patterns. As a result, the restored tooth experiences a higher stress in some parts. Basically, these maps show compressive forces throughout the whole sound tooth (A) whereas for restored teeth tensile stress forces are observed.
It well is established that development of a numerical model as FEM makes it possible to quantify and evaluate masticatory loads [34]. However, few studies have considered the influence of antimicrobials in dental restorations. One must bear in mind that a good balance has to be achieved between the beneficial aspects of having an “antibacterial restoration” compared do a regular one. Certainly the size and shape of the restoration are important variables but interesting results can be obtained by these simulations.
It is important to realize that the changes in the map of tensions are directly related to the changes in the physical constitution of the tooth because in this case, the dental enamel was substituted by a restorative material. This change cannot necessarily be attributed to a change of forces because the molar frequently will be constantly submitted to the same masticatory forces it was receiving before the carious lesion. As shown in figure 5, the red colour of the figure 5B indicates a significant higher tension the 5A. The structural fatigue is the main mechanism of collapse of the reminiscent dental tissue and this process can be aggravated when it is submitted to long treatment periods, particularly if IRM is used. In other words, the IRM used as temporary fillings must have a short life because they reduce the mechanical efficiency of the teeth in spite of its beneficial support to control biofilm formation.
According to Noort (2013) [35], there is a subtle distinction between safety and biocompatibility two important features of dental materials. Safety is concerned with the fact that materials when in contact with the human body should not cause any adverse effect, whereas biocompatibility is the quality of being non-destructive in the biological environment maintaining the beneficial effect to the patient. So far, few materials can be regarded as completely safe and fully biocompatible in the oral environment. Most dental materials interact with the oral environment and this interaction might be a release of components with undesirable side effects for oral tissues.
Dental materials must simulate dental structure and have to restore the anatomy and the function of affected dental surfaces due to dental caries or trauma. However, the desirable aesthetics and the concerns with biocompatibility have not been forgotten and this is valid for resin composite, glass ionomer cements and IRM (MJÖR et al., 1990). It must be highlighted that bone and dentin can be considered as natural composites, whose main constituents are collagen (polymer) and apatite (a ceramic) [35].
Metals have been used for centuries as antimicrobial agents and they continue to be useful at the present time. Silver, copper, gold, titanium and zinc are the most common examples in Dentistry [36]. Dioxide of titanium has been used as whitening agent. However, silver and copper has been receiving larger attention due to their antimicrobial properties. As a result, these metals are incorporate to several dental products to control halitosis and dental biofilms [5].
As for dental resins, GIC and IRM, these materials are probably the best examples of improvement of restorative materials that has contributed to the recovery of ideal anatomical form and function with less removal of tooth structure. The use of “fluoride-release” materials, “smart-materials” and “bio-active” materials are some desirable features that are becoming necessary in many clinical situations because minimally invasive treatment of carious lesions is much more acceptable nowadays. Probably, the first experiences to produce a useful “smart-material” were related to the concept that fluoride-releasing materials. Glass ionomer cements do not undergo great dimensional changes in a moist environment and exhibit noticeable shrinkage in a dry environment at temperatures higher than 50°C, which is similar to the behavior of dentin [37]. This is a good example of biocompatibility.
Attempts to improve GIC have been quite successful. There is one report indicating that zinc addition to GIC can decrease microorganisms growth and improve fluoride release, without significantly affecting the materials\' flexural strength and solubility [38]. In another report, conventional glass ionomer cement (GIC) liner was mixed with different antibiotics such as metronidazole, ciprofloxacin and cefaclor to produce an antibacterial GIC. After an
The resin composites have been used, frequently, as restoring material due to its great aesthetics and physiologic properties [44]. More recently, incorporation of 12-methacryloyloxydodecylpyridinium bromide, a monomer also known as MDPB showed good results for its antibacterial activity when incorporated in bonding agents [28].
However, instead of releasing an antimicrobial substance, the strategy to incorporate them to act as part of its structure is also possible. In this perspective, nanoparticles can provide good optical properties for conventional and hybrid composites [45]. However, there is still a lack of studies in the literature showing the beneficial aspects for placing such material in a dental cavity. For instance, it is still unknown how effective these materials can inhibit caries activity close to restorations when active bioparticles are incorporated into these resins [46-48]. As a general observation, it must be highlighted that there are many in vitro studies but very few clinical trials to support their use under regular clinical activity [46].
Finally, it can be stated that two main approaches can be presented when antimicrobial bio-active materials are prepared. One approach is to prepare a substance-release material (e.g. GIC). Another perspective is to incorporate the antimicrobial to be active being part of its structure without any release of active component. Basically, this latter option is of outmost importance since the release of a substance implies in loss of matter and in theoretical basis this means some loss in mechanical properties. Taking into account that GIC acts as battery charges for fluoride, it must be pointed out that “recovery” of fluoride ions does not reach original levels [47-49]. Hence, other advantages have to be operating to consider this material as a good option for dental restorations.
Another point to be considered is the fact concentrations of substances released from some dental materials such as GIC materials were not different, regardless of the amount of antimicrobial substance incorporated. Thus, as long as the antimicrobial is not interfering in the mechanical properties, an increase in the amount of antimicrobial drug will not provide additional benefits.
Nanoparticles are generally defined as particles that are smaller than 100 nanometers in diameter. So, in order to provide a good perspective, it can be emphasized that nanotechnology deals with structures as small as 10-9 m while oral bacteria reach a size of 10-6 m. Although there is a large difference in size, the improvements of many technologies in the 1980s made possible the combination of these two worlds. Many researchers’ points out that nanotechnology has been applied for dental materials as an innovative concept for the development of materials with better properties including the anti-caries effect [5,45,49].
It is recognized that many nanoparticles do have a great antimicrobial activity, particularly if it is a metallic nanoparticles. The antimicrobial activity of many types of nanoparticle is certainly a function of their size but other features are important such as high surface area, unusual crystal morphologies (edges and corners) and reactive sites.There is a great difference of a regular metal and a 10-9 m particles when incorporated into dental materials. Consequently, their properties can radically change, as hardness, area of active surface, chemical reactivity and biological activity [26].
The inverse relationship between the size of some particles and its antimicrobial activity has been demonstrated for particles of up to 10 nm were tested against
Basically, the most promising nanoparticles are: silver, zinc oxide, calcium-phosphates [5]. Nevertheless, is must be also known that an interesting systematic map demonstrated that there is currently a limited amount of information concerning the release of nanoparticles from polymer-based dental materials. After reviewing 140 full-text articles on this matter, only 3 were regarded as methodological sound. Actually, a passive release of nanoparticles from a polymer-based dental material was not observed by the investigated reports. [51]. Table 1 summarizes some important features of these materials when present within dental materials.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Silver | \n\t\t\t• It may provoke structural changes and damage bacterial membranes, resulting in cell death. • Incorporated into dental adhesives could reduce • Concentrations of 0.5-1% provided antimicrobial activity with preservation of aesthetic and mechanical properties of dental materials (resin composites). • Future research must focus on silver-biofilm interaction and silver-polimerization processes of dental materials. | \n\t\t\t[5,26,49, 52-59] | \n\t\t
Zinc oxide | \n\t\t\t• The mechanism of action may be attributed to oxidative stress by H2O2 and structural changes in cell wall. • Incorporated into dental materials ZnO may release Zn2+ which interferes in sucrose metabolism and magnesium depletion that is important for biofilm equilibrium. • Future research must focus on the determination of ideal concentrations of nanoparticles in order to have antimicrobial activity without compromising mechanical properties of the materials. | \n\t\t\t[5,26,49, 58, 60, 61] | \n\t\t
Quaternary Ammonium | \n\t\t\t• This compound was selected due to its good antimicrobial activity and because it can be copolymerized with other monomers providing a strong bonding system with the material. However, difficulties in controlling the release of such agents may be a potential drawback. • The hydrophobic nature and positive charge of these nanoparticles may enhance the antimicrobial activity. • Future research must focus on kinetics to optimize the release characteristics. | \n\t\t\t[5,26,63-65] | \n\t\t
Calcium-phosphates | \n\t\t\t• These compounds can interfere on adherence and growth of • The resin composites with these nanoparticles can increase up to four times the capacity of remineralization of the enamel in comparison with the composites with fluoride. • Hydroxyapatite nanocrystals may interact with bacterial adhesins and can reduce bacterial adherence to dental surfaces. • Future research must focus on efficacy of products that are already available in the market such as casein phosphopeptide (CPP)-amorphous and calcium phosphate (ACP) nanocomplex. | \n\t\t\t[5,26,66-71] | \n\t\t
Observations and conclusions related to nanoparticles incorporated into dental materials.
The oral environment imposes difficulties when it is designed a study for evaluating dental materials [3,9,10,25]. Since 1950´s it is know that microbial microleakage at the cavity wall/material interface is a problem to restoration survival. The persistence of microorganisms underneath fillings is also recognized as a serious problem in restorative dentistry. The antibacterial properties of restorative materials can substantially influence the success of a dental filling in the oral cavity. The frequent problem is that dental materials “natural” antibacterial properties are not enough to cope with the facility of biofilm formation. Thus, the incorporation of antimicrobials in restorative materials has to take into account the properties of each dental material. For instance, restorations of glass-ionomer cements are based on an acid-base reaction between a polyacrylic acid solution and fluoroaminosilicate glass particles. This reaction yields a structure that is more stable than composites. As a result, by adhering to tooth structure the glass-ionomer cements potentially reduces microleakage. This is an important property since it can enhance fluoride release. So, why not incorporating antibiotics as well? Hence, glass ionomer cements are strong candidates to have antimicrobials incorporated as long as it does not disturb the acid-base reaction. On the other hand, resin composites are much better materials considering aesthetic properties. Finally, coatings killing bacteria upon contact seems to be more promising than antimicrobial-releasing coatings. However, many in vitro studies cannot support the findings that are observed
The COVID-19 pandemic has shrunk the entire globe, wreaking havoc on both local and international economies, instilling distrust among states, halting international travel and hampering socio-cultural connections and human relationships. Every government is currently faced with difficult decisions about what limits to apply and when to lift them, where money will be spent and how it will be raised and what national concerns can be constrained to promote international collaboration [1].
As a result, governments around the world have made collective promises to address public health concerns and governance flaws. The majority of countries throughout the world have taken appropriate steps to counteract the COVID -19 pandemic. On the fiscal front, exceptional tax and spending measures were enacted to save lives, assist individuals and businesses, and pave the way for economic recovery. As a result of the resurgence of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a total worldwide emergency, and governments all over the world, including the Nigerian government, are working to control their citizens and economies in order to minimize the virus’s impact.
Following the discovery and confirmation of the virus’s spike in Nigeria, the federal government of Nigeria introduced and implemented a number of measures to slow the virus’s spread, including the use of face masks, social distancing, restitution of interstate travel, border closures, lockdowns and the distribution of palliatives to the most affected or vulnerable people. The federal government adopted numerous palliatives to treat the economic, health and psychological repercussions of the pandemic and the lockdown once again in an effort to mitigate the negative effects of the epidemic and the lockdown. Such as a three-month repayment moratorium for all government-funded loans, which includes the Government Enterprise and Empowerment Program (GEEP) initiatives and other schemes such as COVID-19 loans for market women, farmers loans and survival funds, among others, all of which are supervised by the central bank and the bank of industry [2]. The GEEP loans were to enable individual to access a loan of N100,000 to N500,000 with just 5% loan charges.
In addition, due to the lockdown, federal government under the ministry of humanitarian and disaster management and social development on 1st April, 2020, announced the provision of food items to vulnerable Nigerians across the 36 states of the federation, and it was officially reported that over 50 billion naira was spent to share food items to most affected people [3]. Also, the CBN gave stimulus packages to different sectors of economy affected by the pandemic. The package was 50 billion Naira credit facilities to support households as well as Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). The focus of the paper is the aspect of palliatives and economic stimulus in Nigeria.
However, corruption drains resources away from priorities like public health, social protection and other essential services [1]. It was argued that COVID-19 pandemic has led to big government and fiscal splurges globally, and where there is big government and dramatic expansion of public spending, corruption or misuse of public funds is not further away [4]. In Nigeria for example, there is absolutely no credible evidence of where this money is going; no evidence that the vast majority of poor Nigerians who were locked down at home benefited from the money.
Surprisingly, the government claimed that it had distributed N100 billion to conditional cash transfer recipients in just 1 week. But how many of the ostensibly N20,000 social palliatives were actually given out? COVID-19 was funded largely by corporate donations from businesspeople and philanthropists around the world. In Nigeria, prominent private-sector donors, under the auspices of the Coalition against COVID-19, CA-COVID, have donated N31.5 billion (see Appendix A for more details). These conflicting issues have been exacerbated by the country’s subsequent economic and political weight in responding to the pandemic. The ramifications of corruption on COVID-19 global governments’ responses are examined in this article, with a focus on Nigeria.
Coronavirus is a disease 2019 is popularly known as COVID-19 is an illness caused by a novel coronavirus now called Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which was formerly described as 2019-nCov on 11th February, 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) in its 22 situation report officially named the novel virus as COVID-19 [5]. The disease was declared a pandemic by WHO on 11th March, 2020, having met the epidemiological criteria of infecting more than 100,000 people in 100 countries [5]. Yemisi [6] described COVID-19 as a pandemic that has created a global widespread panic posing health, socio-economic and political challenges such as drifting nations’ economies into recession, reducing democratic and participatory governance, reduction in social relations as a result of social distancing and other lockdown policies.
Corruption is described as the use of a public office for personal benefit. Bribery, nepotism and theft of public funds for private benefit are examples of this type of behavior. It is the act of offering or getting advantage through measures that are inconsistent with one’s obligation or others’ rights. The term ‘corruption’ has been defined in a variety of ways by various academics. This is due to the lack of a clear definition of corruption.
It specifically refers to national governments around the world implementing a variety of steps in response to COVID-19 outbreaks in this study. These included measures aimed at controlling the virus’s spread (such as mobility restrictions and border closures), as well as measures aimed at mitigating the economic repercussions (such as income support) and health-care-related measures (such as testing policies and contact tracing).
This chapter is both explorative and contextual, that is qualitative in nature. The qualitative approach was chosen because it allows the researchers to gain insight into the organizational structures and settings, social processes and poignantly underscores the importance of the personal narratives on the lived experiences in Nigeria. The inductive properties of flexibility and amenability available in qualitative methodology allow the researchers to discuss the issue through their personal and lived experiences as Nigerians through acquired knowledge about public policy and governance in Nigeria. In essence, the chapter, which is theoretical in nature, extracts its arguments from documentary sources of data such as legal frameworks and other related policies, journals, textbooks, articles, magazines, dissertations, research reports and relevant materials and publications from the internet related to the study. In its presentation, it attempts to demystify the discourse with relevant results/findings, discussion and conclusions that are largely derived from extant literature on the subject matter.
As governments throughout the world struggle to offset the economic effects of the coronavirus and protect employment and livelihoods, they have engaged in unprecedented fiscal maneuvering, spending vast sums of money to help businesses, workers and families. For instance, it was indicated that the United States introduced a $2 trillion stimulus package; Germany put aside €656 billion; France budgeted €350 billion and the UK allocated £450 billion, to contain the spike and economic consequences of the pandemic [4]. In the regional context, African states also spend huge resources to alleviate the challenges of COVID-19. By the end of 2020, governments had already mobilized $14 trillion in fiscal policy responses of different types. These included additional spending measures, tax relief programs and loans and loan guarantees—all aimed at funding necessary health services, addressing income losses and keeping economies afloat [7]. It is obvious that since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, African government have gained commendation for its rapid action to limit the spread of COVID-19, which may have helped the country avoid, so far, the massive death tolls experienced elsewhere [8, 9, 10]. Many also provided some assistance to help businesses and vulnerable families weather the pandemic [11]. But corruption, lockdowns and other restrictions, often implemented within days of the first recorded COVID-19 cases [12], and sometimes harshly enforced by the police and army, have also drawn criticism and, in some countries, large-scale protests [13, 14].
Around the world, the COVID-19 pandemic has sparked crisis management. In several nations, the state of public administration has deteriorated since the outbreak of the coronavirus. Governments have reacted by abusing power, silencing opponents and weakening or shuttering critical institutions, often undermining the very accountability systems essential to protect public health [15].
Consequently, the COVID-19 pandemic gives rise to very significant risks of corruption. Massive resources mobilized to respond to the health and economic crises create opportunities for corruption, while many corruption prevention and enforcement mechanisms are suspended due to the emergency [16]. Indeed, corruption during this time impairs the pandemic response, eroding much-needed public trust, squandering supplies and resources and obstructing their passage to those in need.
COVID-19 hit the world when there is rising inequality and eroding democracy, prompting citizens all across the world to question their governments’ management of public resources. The pandemic’s highly unequal impact, with low-wage informal workers, women and other disadvantaged groups suffering the brunt of the health and economic consequences, risks exacerbating the problem [7]. Unfortunately, many governments have ignored these warnings, putting the effectiveness and impact of their response to the crisis in jeopardy.
It was stressed that corruption is extremely flexible and easily adaptable to new scenarios, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. It is generally a major impediment to prosperity and security because it hinders sustainable economic growth, distorts market competition, undermines the rule of law and erodes trust between citizens and governments [17]. In times of emergency and crisis, however, the risk increases that corruption can exacerbate these negative effects, thwarting efforts geared towards a sustainable and resilient recovery. Corruption, therefore, has an even more debilitating effect during a
UNODC (2020) noted that while corruption is widespread in government procurement departments, fraudulent practices in the procurement of pharmaceuticals and medical devices are particularly prevalent during an emergency. Inevitably, in a crisis situation where medical supplies and equipment are urgently needed and where hospitals to treat and care are being commissioned within tight deadlines, there is an increased risk that abuses will happen, and quality will be sacrificed in exchange for quick action [19].
According to Transparency International [20] the COVID-19 pandemic has required an unprecedented public health response, with governments dedicating massive amounts of resources to their health systems at extraordinary speed. Governments have had to respond quickly to fast-changing contexts, with many competing interests and little in the way of historical precedent to guide them. Transparency here is paramount; publicly available information is critical to reducing the inherent risks of such a situation by ensuring governmental decisions are accountable and by enabling non-governmental expert input into the global vaccination process. In addition, emergency measures precipitated by COVID-19 have led many governments to relax safeguards “by trading compliance, oversight and accountability for speed of response and achievement of rapid impact, thus leading to the creation of significant opportunities for corruption.
In a study conducted by Afrobarometer cited in Seydou [9] Round 8 surveys during the period of October 2020–January 2021 in five West African countries: Benin, Liberia, Niger, Senegal and Togo. The study found out that all the five countries held critical views of their government’s role in managing the pandemic. The study indicated that saying the distribution of government assistance was unfair (71% on average). Resources intended for the COVID-19 response were lost to government corruption (67%). The citizens do not trust official numbers on COVID-19 cases and deaths (62%). They do not also trust the government to make sure that COVID-19 vaccines are safe (68%). They are worried that politicians are using or will use the pandemic to increase their power (58%).
Since the start of the pandemic, several countries have experienced governments breaching procurement laws and regulations. In the UK, for example, the government was accused of awarding secret contracts for PPEs to a single firm without going through a competitive bidding process. Other irregularities included the purchase of unusable face masks from a company that specialized in currency trading and offshore property [19]. Even the World Health Organization has not escaped criticism for mismanaging funds intended for COVID-19. An external audit of WHO released in May found that there were transgressions in the selection of a firm contracted to assist WHO in the procurement of PPEs, and that there was a lack of objectivity in bid evaluation and selection of suppliers of COVID-19 testing kits [19]. Van der Merwe cites a United Nations estimate that 10–25% of all money spent on government procurement globally is lost to corruption even in normal times. But compliance has been spotty. Several countries, including Nigeria—the largest recipient of relief funds, totaling $3.4 billion have set up websites to make spending and contracting data publicly available, but key information is missing, and there are technical issues that frequently limit access to documents (Sheridan, 2021). Among countries that did commit to undertake independent audits, Nigeria included, few have released results. In several African countries, COVID-19 funds have been lost to corruption or mismanagement. Table 1 shows the magnitude of corruption during the COVID-19 pandemic at the global level down to Africa.
Country | Corruption | Report/sources |
---|---|---|
Myanmar | The IMF transferred $372 million to officials in Naypyidaw just days before the military coup on February 1 to aid in the fight against the virus. However, eight months later, during a news conference, IMF spokesman Gerry Rice stated that the financing was not used to combat COVID-19 and protect the most vulnerable people. | Anrike, Visser (2021). Myanmar’s Missing Millions—The Diplomat https://thediplomat.com/2021/11/myanmars-missing-millions/ |
Afghanistan | It was reported that 2.6 million Afghan currency was misappropriated in Ghazni COVID-19 fund meant to tackle effect of the virus. | Device Discourse report (2021). https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/international/1791072-26-million |
Malawi | A labor minister in connection to the mismanagement COVID-19 funds was a sack. It is reported that the former minister borrowed about US$760 from the COVID-19 funds to use as his allowance when he accompanied Chakwera on his first official visit to South Africa in November last year. | Michael, O. (2021). Africanews https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/25/africa-s-covid-19-corruption-tha |
Kenya | There were suspicions that $400 million in public funds allocated for medical equipment was stolen by government officials and companies. Kenyans were shocked to find in July that a cash transfer program intended to help low-income individuals cope with the economic impact of COVID-19 had failed to do so due to corruption and other irregularities. According to a Human Rights Watch investigation, officials in charge of disbursing the funds regularly disregarded eligibility rules for beneficiaries, and in some cases, steered the monies to relatives or associates who were needed in the coronavirus fight. | Michael, O. (2021). Africanews https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/25/africa-s-covid-19-corruption-tha Rasna, W. (29 September 2021). Corruption is undermining Kenya’s COVID-19 response. https://www.one.org/africa/blog/corruption-undermining-kenya-covid19- |
Nigeria | Nigeria received US$3.4 billion in emergency financial assistance from the IMF in April 2020 to help it respond to COVID-19. Nigeria’s federal government announced a $6 billion stimulus package two months later. According to a poll conducted by Nigeria’s National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), only 12.5 percent of the poorest quintile of respondents have received food aid since the outbreak began on July 16. | Michael, O. (2021). Africanews.https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/25/africa-s-covid-19-corruption-tha |
Uganda | Four top Ugandan government officials were arrested in 2020 after being accused of inflating COVID-19 relief food prices. It is alleged they were arrested for causing the Ugandan government to run at a loss of $528,000. | Michael, O. (2021). Africanews.https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/25/africa-s-covid-19-corruption-tha |
South Africa | In South Africa, the Special Investigating Unit (SIU) reported on investigations — related to irregularities in COVID-19 procurement — with a total value of 14.2 billion rands (around US$1 billion). | U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre (2021). COVID 19 Corruption in 2021: April – MayDevelopment.(https://medium.com/u4-anti-corruption-resource-centre/covid-19-corrupt). |
Zimbabwe | Zimbabwe’s anti-graft police recently recovered around 40 boxes of COVID-19 test kits valued at thousands of dollars, which were stolen from a hospital in Bulawayo. | U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre (2021). COVID 19 Corruption in 2021: April – MayDevelopment.(https://medium.com/u4-anti-corruption-resource-centre/covid-19-corrupt). |
Malawi | Malawi faces mismanagement of over 6.2 billion kwacha (about US$8 million) meant for the COVID-19response. | U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre (2021). COVID 19 Corruption in 2021: April – May Development. (https://medium.com/u4-anti-corruption-resource-centre/covid-19-corrupt). |
Ghana | The World Bank, the IMF, the Ghana Stabilization Fund, the Contingency Fund of the Stabilization Fund, the Ghana Heritage Fund, Ghana Exim Bank, and the COVID-19 Trust Fund — all of which contributed 12.4 billion cedis (over US$2 billion) to Ghana — were found to be at risk due to irregular procurement practices, according to a report published in Ghana. | U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre (2021). COVID 19 Corruption in 2021: April – May Development. (https://medium.com/u4-anti-corruption-resource-centre/covid-19-corrupt). |
Bangladeshi | Large disparities in what the government paid for the Sinopharm vaccination were discovered. A government commission approved the purchase of 15 million doses for US$10 each, while a separate order for 3.15 million doses cost the government US$100 each, prompting suspicions of corruption. | https://www.u4.no/blog/covid-19-corruption-in-2021-may-july-develop |
Somalia | According to the Somali auditor general, $17 million in foreign aid was not channeled through the country’s single treasury account. He claims that the government set aside $51 million for the COVID-19 reaction, but only $15 million was used. He cited a lack of a coherent plan to coordinate the government’s reaction, as well as a failure to prepare enough isolation and treatment facilities, as well as a failure to account for $3.9 million in COVID-19 money distributed to areas. | GAROWE ONLINE (2021). A new report reveals millions missing due to corruption in Somalia. https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/new-report-reveals-mill |
Brazil | There was fraud in public tenders in Brazil, as well as misuse of monies intended to combat COVID-19. Between April and November 2020, the Federal Police allegedly arrested 133 people for acts of corruption or misapplication of public resources, as well as contractual fraud, totaling BRL 1.9 billion (approx. USD 400 million). The operations were diverse in terms of size and scope. For example, on May 25, Operation “Placebo” in the Brazilian states of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro involved governmental contracts worth BRL 835 million (approx. USD 170 million). Meanwhile, on September 29, Operation “S.O.S.” was launched in the state of Pará, involving governmental contracts valued at BRL 500 million (about USD 100 million). | FATF [21], FATF, Paris, France,www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/methodandtrends/documents/update-covid-19-ML-TF.html. |
Germany, Spain, Netherlands, Ireland, United Kingdom and Nigeria | In March, German health authorities fraudulently contracted two companies in Zurich and Hamburg to procure EUR 15 million worth of face masks. The buyers sought new vendors and found an email address and website which appeared to be linked to a company in Spain. Unbeknownst to them, the site was fake and the email addresses on it were compromised. When the buyers realized they had been duped, they notified their German bank, which contacted INTERPOL’s Financial Crimes unit. Banks, financial intelligence units and legal authorities joined INTERPOL in the inquiry, as did partner organizations Europol and EUROJUST. They were able to freeze EUR 1.5 million and identify the Irish business implicated due to a quick response. The EUR 880 000 that was moved from a German bank was tracked down by Dutch officials. Almost EUR 500 000 had already been wired to the UK, all of it destined for a Nigerian account. The authorities have now returned those monies to the Netherlands and frozen them. Two offenders were apprehended and sentenced in the Netherlands as a result of this operation. The two criminals were acting on behalf of the main suspect, who was arrested in Nigeria in August, according to the current findings of the investigations. | FATF [21], FATF, Paris, France,www.fatfgafi.org/publications/methodandtrends/documents/updatecovid-19-ML-TF.html. |
Hong Kong, China, Republic of Korea | During the early phases of the pandemic, when many people were fearful about medical equipment shortages due to COVID- 19, the victim was attempting to obtain surgical masks via an online advertisement on Instagram. The scammer approached the victim and demanded an upfront payment to secure the order. According to the fraudster’s instructions, the victim wired EUR 54 250 to a Korean bank account. The seller then cut off all contact with the victim. Law enforcement was notified, and the INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB) in Hong Kong was notified. In February, INTERPOL Hong Kong requested assistance from INTERPOL Seoul in their investigation. The Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs) in each country were also approached for assistance, and they in turn contacted the relevant financial institution. Due to the quick involvement of all parties involved, two perpetrators were apprehended four days after the victim filed the initial report, and the victim’s account was credited in full. | FATF [21], FATF, Paris, France,www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/methodandtrends/documents/update-covid-19-ML-TF.html. |
Italy, Indonesia | An Italian corporation was in talks with a Chinese company in May 2020 about buying a big number of medical supplies, including ventilators and COVID-19 monitoring equipment. Individuals with criminal intent hacked into the two companies’ email correspondence and persuaded the Italian buyers to make three bank transactions totaling EUR 3.67 million to an account they controlled in Indonesia. The transfers were made by the Italian company on the premise that this was a reputable supplier. When the Chinese supplier told the Italian victim company that it had not received payment for the medical equipment purchased, the scam was revealed. Interpol’s Financial Crime Unit was requested via the NCB Rome. Interpol facilitated the connection with Indonesian authorities through its global network. Law enforcement contacted the FIU’s in each jurisdiction and the financial institutions. The interception and freezing of EUR 3.1 million of the fraudulent payments in early June. Interpol held a virtual case coordination meeting with the key stakeholders in Italy and Indonesia. They worked together to secure the frozen assets and locate the suspects. Indonesian authorities identified the three suspects, who were part of a wider criminal network. Police also seized cash and assets allegedly purchased using the stolen money. | FATF [21], FATF, Paris, France,www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/methodandtrends/documents/update-covid-19-ML-TF.html. |
Hong Kong, China | In January 2020, a man claimed to have a big quantity of surgical masks and alcohol sanitizers for sale on several e-commerce sites. More than 200 victims acquired these items locally between January and March 2020, paying for them with cash or electronic funds transfers. The individual’s spouse and associates deposited a total of HKD 1.4 million (USD 180 630) into three Hong Kong bank accounts and four e-wallets. Victims reported not receiving their items and being unable to contact either of the individuals involved in early March 2020. The money was swiftly removed once victims deposited it in the authorized bank accounts and e-wallets, according to investigations. In April of 2020, four people were detained by law enforcement. Individuals have not been charged as of the time of publishing this story, and the investigation is still ongoing. | |
Germany | A German corporation ordered a big quantity of protective masks from a non-EU supplier at the end of February 2020. A large six-digit euro down payment was sent to the vendor in the non-EU country where the property was located (approximately 50 percent of the purchase price). However, there was no delivery. Any attempts to contact the German corporation were met with silence. A law enforcement agency in Germany then made an urgent request to the FIU in Germany. Following the request, the German FIU quickly issued an information request to the FIU of the non-EU country, along with a request to freeze the funds or block the beneficiary’s account. On the same day, the non-EU country’s FIU froze the cash. The frozen money was reported to the German FIU, and direct communication was established with the German law enforcement agency and the FIU liaison officer stationed there. The public prosecutor’s office then obtained an asset seizure, which was then funneled through the ordinary court procedures through judicial administrative and legal assistance petitions. In addition, the FIU in the non-EU country was notified of the asset seizure. | |
Finland | A private Finnish company sold 3.1 million masks to a Finnish government actor for around EUR 5 million. This corporation, in turn, bought the goods from a Chinese seller. However, shortly after the acquisition, it was discovered that the private Finnish company’s entrepreneur had a shady business past and that the quality of a large portion of the medical equipment delivered was subpar. During standard checks, the FIU identified the suspicious business background. There being a lack of tax reporting, the corporation had outstanding tax bills from previous fiscal years, and it was removed from certain official databases. As an aggravated fraud case, the case is currently being investigated. Authorities have, however, confiscated assets totaling EUR 2.6 million throughout the inquiry. | |
Denmark | With the COVID-19 relief packages, the Danish High Court handed down its first sentence in relation to economic fraud in October 2020. In this case, a 29-year-old man was sentenced to 2 years and 3 months at jail, as well as a claim of almost DKK 1.3 million (EUR 170,000) for attempting to gain unreasonable compensation for fictitious employment in his company. The total amount of compensation sought was DKK 427,500. (EUR 57,500). The application was thoroughly investigated by the Danish Business Authority. As a result, the funds were never approved, and the business was reported to the Danish authorities. | |
Malaysia | During the COVID-19 pandemic , FIU Malaysia received a request for information from a European country (Country A) regarding a possible facemask scam. A government agency in Country A remitted approximately EUR 5 million to Company ABC, a company in Country A, for the purchase of facemasks from Country B. Only a portion of the facemasks was delivered, and all of them were deemed to be inappropriate for hospital use. Company ABC may have moved a considerable amount of money meant for facemask purchase to another entity, notably Company XYZ in Malaysia, according to financial information acquired by Country A. Further investigation of the company account revealed an inward remittance received by Company XYZ from an entity in Country C, along with transaction notes that could imply facemask transactions. On the same day, another substantial chunk of money in the amount of USD 150,000 was received from Company DEF, a company in Country A that is suspected of selling healthcare equipment such as gloves, goggles and hearing protection. It was discovered that the cash received by firm XYZ were dispersed to numerous organizations in Country C and Country D. | |
Spain | The Spanish National Police disrupted a criminal organization in April 2020 that attempted to get state subsidies for businesses and employees affected by the COVID-19 pandemic’s economic crisis by fabricating and utilizing fraudulent documentation. Members of the criminal organization had formed roughly 50 companies with no employees, no activity and no turnover in the previous years. Under the guise of bogus employees of those enterprises, the group created and utilized phony documents in order to collect tax benefits, as well as subsidies from the social security system and other public stimulus initiatives. Prior to the COVID-19 economic stimulus measures, some members of the criminal group were focused on generating and selling phony employment contracts for foreign people in order to obtain subsidies for them. During the operation, the members of the organization were arrested, a large number of documents were seized as well as approximately EUR 15,000 in cash, and no stimulus measures were provided to them by the administration. | |
Switzerland | A financial institution in mid-June 2020 gave a building company a COVID-19 loan worth roughly CHF 90 000 (EUR 98 500). The financial institution was notified a few days later that the same company had applied for a second loan from a different financial institution. Meanwhile, the majority of the original loan was withdrawn in cash or used for everyday living expenditures. As a result, the financial institution submitted a suspicious activity report to the Swiss Financial Intelligence Unit. The case has been referred to the Swiss authorities, who are currently conducting criminal investigations. |
List of countries involved in corruption during COVID-19 pandemic.
Source: Authors’ Compilation, 2021.
Following confirmation of the pandemic’s spread in Nigeria on February 27, 2020, the government adopted a variety of tactics and strategies to protect civilians from the outbreak. Preventive measures included the following:
It was reported that the NCDC released guidance to the public on the causes, symptoms and preventive measures of the novel COVID-19 after noting the arrival of the index case by an Italian male in Lagos state. Surveillance and screening of persons were deployed quickly at all hotspots, such as large gathering sites and airports [22].
The federal government mandated that all those having a history of foreign travels should be traced and subsequently quarantined for 14 days in order to curtail the spread of COVID-19. The containment during the lockdown was enabled with the identification, tracing and isolation of individuals who contracted the virus.
To combat the virus’s spread, Nigeria’s federal government shut down international and domestic airports, as well as other entrance sites such as frontiers and seaports. There were also restrictions on movement, with the government issuing a nationwide prohibition on interstate travel and a curfew from 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. With the exception of transits of critical products and services, all inter-state movements [23].
To further reduce the virus’s spread, the federal authorities made the bold decision to prohibit all forms of social gathering. Churches, mosques, bars, theaters and sporting events with large crowds were all prohibited. Physical gatherings in cemeteries, weddings and restaurants were also restricted. Again, public employees in grades twelve and lower were prohibited from entering offices [24].
Another measure taken by the Nigerian government was the compulsory use of facemask by everyone in public places. Starting from 4th May, 2020, it was mandated that people should wear facemasks in all outings and it was very serious in states like Lagos, FCT and Ogun where the spike was very high.
According to the federal government of Nigeria, it will require $330 million to procure medical equipment, personal protective equipment and medicines for COVID-19 control. The government has committed to investing some of this amount, and financial commitments were also made by private, bilateral and multilateral institutions to raise the remaining funds. The Nigerian state oil company has pledged $30 million for the government’s COVID-19 efforts. The European Union has contributed 50 million euros to the basket fund to strengthen the Nigerian COVID-19 response. In addition, the private sector in Nigeria, after being called upon by the governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria, established the coalition against COVID-19 (CACOVID). It was launched on March 26, 2020, to help the government to control COVID-19 in Nigeria. CACOVID has raised over $72 million, which will be used for the purchase of food relief materials and to provide medical facilities and equipment in different regions of the country [3]. On topmost of all this, corruption’s impact continues to appear over Nigeria’s pandemic responses, threatening progress to counter its spread.
According to Dixit et al. [25] on April 1, 2020, the Nigerian government announced the transfer of 20,000 Naira ($52) to poor and vulnerable households registered in the National Social Register (NSR). Initially, the NSR has only 2.6 million households (about 11 million people) registered on its platform. The government increased this to 3.6 million households during the COVID-19 crisis. However, it was argued that the cash payments by the federal government only reached only a fraction of poor. Besides, Nigeria does not have a robust national information management system, making electronic payments difficult. This has resulted in many people in the NSR not receiving the money promised by the government. But people need a Bank Verification Number (BVN) to open a bank account, and obtaining a BVN requires a valid national ID or international passport, which many Nigerians do not have. Currently, only about 40 percent of the Nigerian population has bank accounts.
The IMF approved US$3.4 billion in emergency financial assistance under the rapid financing instrument on the eve of the epidemic in Nigeria to support the authorities’ efforts to confront the severe economic impact of the COVID-19 shock and the rapid drop in oil prices [18]. The IMF’s emergency fund was to assist the Nigerian government deal with the economic effects of the pandemic. In addition, the Nigerian government borrowed $4.34 billion from the domestic stock market to finance its budget in order to ameliorate the macroeconomic situation caused by the abrupt drop in oil prices.
In addition, the European Union has pledged a payment of 50 million euros (N21 billion) to help Nigeria conduct a coordinated response to the COVID-19 epidemic. The funds were intended to be used to achieve the following objectives; Procurement of equipment and supplies needed to respond to the outbreak quickly, including those needed for surveillance, prevention and control, as well as clinical management (portable ventilators, surgical masks, examination gloves, protective goggles, gowns, and PCR test kits, among other things) [26].
Similarly, as the pandemic began to hit Nigeria in mid-March, 2020, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) announced a N1 trillion stimulus package, and then the Federal Government asked the National Assembly to approve a N500 billion intervention fund; it also withdrew $150 million from the Sovereign Wealth Fund and indicated it would borrow $6.9 billion—all to cushion the economic effect of COVID-19 [27]. The CBN’s stimulus package offers a credit of 3 million Naira to poor families impacted by COVID-19.
The loan, however, demands security and does not come with no interest. Poor households might be given loans without having to put up any security, or they could be given loans with only signed pledges from community leaders. Low-interest loans with a long moratorium and payback time should be accessible. Furthermore, few disadvantaged people and enterprises in the informal sector are aware of the government’s offered economic packages and policies. The government, through the CBN, once again urged the private sector and local benefactors to fund the government’s COVID-19 interventions, as well as to launch their own.
As a result, in March 2020, the commercial sector joined forces with the CBN to form The Coalition Against COVID-19 (CACOVID) [28]. The CBN is holding funds from this effort in a private-sector-led COVID-19 Relief Fund [27]. CACOVID has raised about $30.1 billion ($72 million) as of the end of June 2020 (Coalition Against COVID-19, 2020), although it is still short of the aim of 120 billion dollars ($310 million). This demonstrates the limitations of local (private sector-led) government intervention funds.
Following President Buhari’s declaration of a state of emergency in Lagos, the Federal Capital Territory and Ogun on April 1, 2020, the Federal Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs, Disaster Management and Social Development announced that food rations would be provided to vulnerable households in these states. People in many parts of the country are going hungry as a result of the prolonged shutdown. The government has been unable to offer food assistance to everyone who requires it due to corruption and a lack of transparency in the distribution system [25]. Food aid (palliatives) to disadvantaged households around the country to counteract the impacts of the lockdown, which had resulted in increasing hunger in many parts of the country. While these social interventions had some success, they were hampered by corruption and a lack of transparency and accountability [25].
To this effect, one may argue that the Nigerian government has received a large sum of money in loans and grants from the commencement of the epidemic to address the health and economic effects of COVID-19. However, the public continues to have concerns about the government’s lack of openness and accountability in raising and spending cash. Indeed, it is worth noting that information on how money from the Nigeria COVID-19 Emergency Response Fund was allocated and utilized, as well as disaggregated data on COVID-19 budget allocations, is lacking. This is not unique to Nigeria; several governments have taken advantage of the pandemic to raise significant sums of money fast, often to close tax gaps.
The Nigerian government has been unable to defend how this money was used, making it impossible for oversight authorities such as the National Assembly, anti-corruption agencies and civil society organizations to hold it accountable. Indeed, the palliatives were allocated unequally, and a significant portion of the COVID-19 response budget was lost to corruption. The majority of Nigerians clearly do not trust their governments to provide accurate COVID-19 case and mortality statistics or to assure that COVID-19 vaccines are safe.
Furthermore, covid-19 vaccinations are currently being thrown away by governments around the world. In Nigeria, vaccine deployment has been delayed, owing in part to government mismanagement. Nearly one million doses had expired in the country as of December 22, implying that barely 2% of the country’s population of over 200 million had been completely vaccinated [3]. These failures, combined with suspected corruption scandals since the pandemic began, are fueling public outrage.
First and foremost, efforts to hold governments responsible for the success of their crisis response are hampered by a chronic absence of public information on policy execution. Only a handful of governments secured access to appropriate levels of reporting, while over half of the governments questioned disclosed little or no information on actual plans, spending, finance and performance. When it comes to reporting on the impact of policies on different groups of beneficiaries, transparency is especially lacking. Indeed, the value of making such data public, claiming that it would allow ordinary citizens, civic society and the media to bring an extra layer of scrutiny to the use of public resources, further entrenching transparency and accountability in government financial management. The lack of proper information on the execution of COVID-19 response plans further undermines accountability—not just on the amount of money spent but also on the actual impact on more disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, such as women and people living in poverty. Governments already had much of the essential data at their disposal and had plenty of time to ensure it was published in a timely manner, so the lack of public implementation information is particularly concerning.
The government must strengthen the food rationing system’s transparency and accountability. It should also ensure that middlemen do not have an undue amount of power. During food distribution, the government might adopt the house marking technique used in the polio campaign (in which houses visited by vaccinators are marked), i.e., placing a mark on those houses where food has been delivered.
Nigerian governments, through institutions such as the National Assembly and other anti-corruption authorities, including civil society organizations, should establish the transparency and accountability mechanisms required to ensure that the huge resources being mobilized are not wasted.
S/N | Name | Company | Amount (Naira) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | CENTRAL BANK OF NIGERIA | CENTRAL BANK OF NIGERIA | 2,000,000,000.00 |
2 | ALIKO DANGOTE | DANGOTE INDUSTRIES LIMITED | 2,000,000,000.00 |
3 | FLOOD RELIEF FUND | PRESIDENTIAL COMMITTEE ON FLOOD RELIEF AND REHABILITATION | 1,500,000,000.00 |
4 | ABDULSAMAD RABIU | BUA SUGAR REFINERY LIMITED | 1,000,000,000.00 |
5 | FEMI OTEDOLA | AMPERION POWER DISTRIBUTION LTD | 1,000,000,000.00 |
6 | HERBERT WIGWE | ACCESS BANK PLC | 1,000,000,000.00 |
7 | JIM OVIA | ZENITH BANK PLC | 1,000,000,000.00 |
8 | JOHN COUMANTATOUS | FLOUR MILLS OF NIGERIA PLC | 1,000,000,000.00 |
9 | MIKE ADENUGA | MIKE ADENUGA FOUNDATION | 1,000,000,000.00 |
10 | MODUPE & FOLORUNSHO ALAKIJA | FAMFA OIL LIMITED | 1,000,000,000.00 |
11 | MTN NIGERIA PLC | MTN NIGERA PLC | 1,000,000,000.00 |
12 | NDIC | NIGERIA DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION | 1,000,000,000.00 |
13 | OBA OTEDEKO | FIRST BANK OF NIGERIA | 1,000,000,000.00 |
14 | RAJ GUPTA | AFRICAN STEEL MILLS NIG. LTD | 1,000,000,000.00 |
15 | SEGUN AGBAJE | GUARANTY TRUST BANK PLC | 1,000,000,000.00 |
16 | TONY ELUMELU | UNITED BANK OF AFRICA | 1,000,000,000.00 |
17 | OLAM NIGERIA LIMITED | OLAM NIGERIA LIMITED | 600,000,000.00 |
18 | INDORAMA ELEME FERTILIZER CHEMICAL | INDORAMA ELEME FERTILIZER CHEMICAL | 550,000,000.00 |
19 | UNITED BANK FOR AFRICA PLC | UNITED BANK FOR AFRICA PLC | 500,000,338.75 |
20 | BANK OF INDUSTRY | BANK OF INDUSTRY | 500,000,000.00 |
21 | DEJI ADELEKE | PACIFIC HOLDING LIMITED | 500,000,000.00 |
22 | FRIESLAND CAMPINA WAMCO | FRIESLAND CAMPINA WAMCO | 500,000,000.00 |
23 | RAHUL SAVARA | WACOT RICE LIMITED | 500,000,000.00 |
24 | TOLARAM AFRICA ENTERPRISE LTD | TOLARAM AFRICA ENTERPRISE LTD | 500,000,000.00 |
25 | DE UNITED | DE UNITED | 500,000,000.00 |
26 | RAMESH KASANGRA | NIPCO PLC | 300,000,000.00 |
27 | AFRICA FINANCE CORPORATION | AFRICA FINANCE CORPORATION | 250,000,000.00 |
28 | CITIBANK NIGERIA LTD | CITIBANK NIGERIA LTD | 250,000,000.00 |
29 | ECOBANK PLC | ECOBANK PLC | 250,000,000.00 |
30 | FCMB | FCMB | 250,000,000.00 |
31 | FIDELITY BANK PLC | FIDELITY BANK PLC | 250,000,000.00 |
32 | STANBIC IBTC | STANBIC IBTC | 250,000,000.00 |
33 | STANDARD CHARTERED BANK | STANDARD CHARTERED BANK | 250,000,000.00 |
34 | STERLING BANK PLC | STERLING BANK PLC | 250,000,000.00 |
35 | UNION BANK PLC | UNION BANK PLC | 250,000,000.00 |
36 | GILBERT CHAGOURY | GILBERT CHAGOURY | 250,000,000.00 |
37 | RONALD RAMEZ CHAGOURY | RONALD RAMEZ CHAGOURY | 250,000,000.00 |
38 | MULTICHOICE NIGERIA LIMITED | MULTICHOICE NIGERIA LIMITED | 200,000,000.00 |
39 | PROMASIDOR NIGERIA LTD | PROMASIDOR NIGERIA LTD | 200,000,000.00 |
40 | APM TERMINALS APAPA LIMITED | APM TERMINALS APAPA LIMITED | 150,000,000.00 |
41 | CORONATION MERCHANT BANK | CORONATION MERCHANT BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
42 | FBN MERCHANT BANK | FBN MERCHANT BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
43 | FSDH | FSDH | 100,000,000.00 |
44 | HERITAGE BANK | HERITAGE BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
45 | KC GAMING NETWORKS LTD | KC GAMING NETWORKS LTD | 100,000,000.00 |
46 | KEYSTONE BANK | KEYSTONE BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
47 | NOVA MERCHANT BANK | NOVA MERCHANT BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
48 | POLARIS BANK | POLARIS BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
49 | PORTS AND TERMINAL MULTISERV LTD | PORTS AND TERMINAL MULTISERV LTD | 100,000,000.00 |
50 | PROVIDUS BANK | PROVIDUS BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
51 | RAND MERCHANT BANK | RAND MERCHANT BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
52 | SUNTRUST BANK | SUNTRUST BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
53 | UNITY BANK | UNITY BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
54 | WEMA BANK | WEMA BANK | 100,000,000.00 |
55 | DEVELOPMENT BANK OF NIGERIA | DEVELOPMENT BANK OF NIGERIA | 100,000,000.00 |
56 | TIN-CAN ISLAND TERM LTD | TIN-CAN ISLAND TERM LTD | 100,000,000.00 |
57 | FPCNL PENOP AFIS ESCROW ACCT | FPCNL PENOP AFIS ESCROW ACCT | 100,000,000.00 |
58 | UAC | UAC | 99,999,838.75 |
59 | FIVE STAR LOGISTICS LIMITED | FIVE STAR LOGISTICS LIMITED | 75,000,000.00 |
60 | PORTS AND CARGO HANDLING SERV | PORTS AND CARGO HANDLING SERV | 75,000,000.00 |
61 | ENL CONSORTIUM | ENL CONSORTIUM | 70,000,000.00 |
62 | JOSEPDAM PORTS SERVICES NIG | JOSEPDAM PORTS SERVICES NIG | 60,000,000.00 |
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"103042",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Cuevas",slug:"rosa-paula-cuevas",fullName:"Rosa Paula Cuevas"},{id:"104257",title:"Dr.",name:"Melissa",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"melissa-fitzgerald",fullName:"Melissa Fitzgerald"}]},{id:"31481",doi:"10.5772/33361",title:"Genetic Diversity in Apricot",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-apricot",totalDownloads:4151,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"2252",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Kadir Ugurtan Yilmaz and Kahraman Gurcan",authors:[{id:"95067",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadir Ugurtan",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"kadir-ugurtan-yilmaz",fullName:"Kadir Ugurtan Yilmaz"},{id:"130537",title:"Dr.",name:"Kahraman",middleName:null,surname:"Gurcan",slug:"kahraman-gurcan",fullName:"Kahraman Gurcan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65131",title:"Diversity of Cacao Pathogens and Impact on Yield and Global Production",slug:"diversity-of-cacao-pathogens-and-impact-on-yield-and-global-production",totalDownloads:1770,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Cacao, Theobroma cacao L., an important cash crop in foreign exchange earnings and also a major income source for many smallholder farmers in growing ecologies of West Africa. Global cocoa production has been rising fairly steadily over the years by increasing production in growing countries with most of the production taking place in areas of high pathogen biodiversity. Thus, the sustainability of the cocoa economy is under threat as diseases of various statuses now constitute the most serious constraint to production. Most important among these is the black pod disease caused by Phytophthora genus with annual losses of 30–90% of the crop. This economically important pathogen is very diverse in nature and varied across growing countries including species such as palmivora, megakarya, capsici and citrophthora distinguished based on chromosome number, sporangial characteristics and pedicel length. World losses of 20–25% in cacao production are due to black pod disease, an estimate of 700,000 metric tons on global scale reducing global cocoa production. High cacao loss to diseases is a prime factor limiting production; consequently, significant effort is required to deal with problems associated with disease control to ensure a sustainable cacao. The effective and sustainable management of black pod disease requires integrated approach encompassing different control measures.",book:{id:"7005",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Dele Adeniyi",authors:null},{id:"67634",title:"Cacao Growth and Development Under Different Nursery and Field Conditions",slug:"cacao-growth-and-development-under-different-nursery-and-field-conditions",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Experiments were conducted between 2004 and 2018 to examine cacao growth, development, establishment and yield under varying experimental conditions comprised of seed mucilage handling before sowing, sowing methods and its effects on seedling growth and development, timing of mycorrhizal inoculation on root and shoot growth and development and effects of shade and dry season drip irrigation on growth and yield of field-grown cacao. Results show that cleaning cacao seed mucilage before sowing enhanced sprouting rate and percent germination. The use of manure mixed with sawdust and loamy soil aided excellent seed germination, seedling vigor and root development. Inoculating cacao seeds with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) at point of sowing and early stages in the nursery aided root development and enhanced field establishment and survival during the dry season. Dense shade retarded cacao growth and development during the rainy season, while no shade enhances optimum growth and canopy development. The use of drip irrigation strategies in young cacao plantations increased seedling survival from less than 45% under no irrigation to above 95% at the end of the second dry season. This showed that irrigation during dry season can significantly enhance cacao establishment and survival.",book:{id:"7005",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Idowu Babadele Famuwagun and Samuel Ohi Agele",authors:null},{id:"68383",title:"Major Natural Vegetation in Coastal and Marine Wetlands: Edible Seaweeds",slug:"major-natural-vegetation-in-coastal-and-marine-wetlands-edible-seaweeds",totalDownloads:771,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For thousands of years, seaweeds grown in coastal and marine have been used as food, materials and medicines by the people. Edible seaweeds directly consumed, especially in Asian, are used for preparing food due to the their components containing minerals, essential trace elements, and various natural compounds. At the last decades, they have been getting more and more attention in food and pharmaceutical industries because of their biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-microbial, and anti-oxidant activity. Therefore, in the present study, we have worked on to understand the structure of edible seaweeds. It is worthy to mention that they can be considered as source of some proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, antioxidants, and phytochemicals.",book:{id:"8667",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",fullTitle:"Plant Communities and Their Environment"},signatures:"Ilknur Babahan, Birsen Kirim and Hamideh Mehr",authors:null},{id:"67540",title:"Aphid-Plant Interactions: Implications for Pest Management",slug:"aphid-plant-interactions-implications-for-pest-management",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Aphids are important herbivores and important pest of many field and forest crops. They have specialized long and flexible stylets which are adapted to feeding on phloem sap. To establish successful feeding on host plant, they need to counter a range of both physical and chemical defenses. The defenses employed by plants can have direct effect on the aphid species through difficulty in establishing successful feeding due to the presence of trichomes, thick cell wall, etc. or effect on their biology with lethal consequences in extreme cases (direct defenses). In contrast to this, plants can attract natural enemies of aphids through the release of volatile compounds (the so-called “cry or call for help”) (indirect defense). The information on different defense strategies employed by plants can be utilized to enhance the level of resistance (R) to develop sustainable pest management strategies.",book:{id:"8667",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",fullTitle:"Plant Communities and Their Environment"},signatures:"Sarwan Kumar",authors:null},{id:"72336",title:"Plant Phenology and An Assessment of the Effects Regarding Heavy Metals, Nanoparticles, and Nanotubes on Plant Development: Runner Bean, Artichoke, and Chickpea Seedlings",slug:"plant-phenology-and-an-assessment-of-the-effects-regarding-heavy-metals-nanoparticles-and-nanotubes-",totalDownloads:665,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The relationship between environmental pollution and nutrition in particular, which forms the basis of health, is fundamentally important for protecting human health. Therefore, the data obtained from the examination of how plants and animals consumed as food are affected by environmental pollution can be seen as an indicator of their effects on humans. On the other hand, the role of technology and nanotechnology in life has been increasing in this century, and a considerable amount of heavy metals, nanoparticles (NPs), and nanotubes (NTs) are released to the environment. The results of morphological or anatomical examination of runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L) and artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) plants subjected to copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) heavy metals and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) plants subjected to Au nanoparticles and C70 single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are presented with this study in the point of their phenological development process. The three taxa belonging to Fabaceae and Asteraceae families with high economic status and having flowers with characteristic features were chosen deliberately as representatives. This chapter presents a study that will shed light on future biomonitoring-based studies focusing on the impact of environmental pollution on plants phenology with economic value.",book:{id:"8667",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",fullTitle:"Plant Communities and Their Environment"},signatures:"Feyza Candan",authors:[{id:"155281",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Feyza",middleName:null,surname:"Candan",slug:"feyza-candan",fullName:"Feyza Candan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"141",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. 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He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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