\r\n\tsandwiches, etc.
\r\n\r\n\tListeria monocytogenes causes one of the most serious and life-threatening diseases (listeriosis), usually caused by eating food contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes. An estimate of 1,600 people get sick (especially at risk-groups including pregnant women, newborns, old people (65 years old and above), people with weakened immune systems, etc.) and about 260 die (Listeria is the third leading cause of death from foodborne illness in the U.S.) each year, in the U.S. from Listeriosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe main goal of the book is to provide accurate and updated information on Listeria monocytogenes so governments (decision-makers), food industry, consumers, and other stakeholders can implement appropriate preventative measures to control Listeria monocytogenes. This book will cover several topics including the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in developed countries, the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in developing countries, the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat food, detection of Listeria monocytogenes in Food, control of Listeria monocytogenes in food-processing facilities, etc.
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field having common interest to physicists, chemists, and engineers. Understanding the basic principles and properties of materials has been one of the most challenging attempts of mankind. Researches starting from apprehending a single atom to bulk materials such as metals, insulators, and semiconductors have led us to the point of current technological revolution. In this fascinating endeavor, electrical and electronic properties of matters have played a crucial role.
Properties from microscopic such as (but not limited to) band structure to macroscopic resistivity, conductivity, effective mass, permittivity, etc. are of immense interest to the materials scientists. Theoretical and experimental analyses of such characteristics are inevitable before employing different materials such as nanotube, polymer, ceramics, porous compacts, etc. in different fields of engineering.
There are many basic textbooks on the fundamental concepts of materials. This book is more specifically aimed to special materials that are of current interests. It is not possible to cover all the emerging materials and their properties in a small book. Still, the content of this concise yet complete enough book covers polyesters, varistor ceramics, powdered porous compacts, and some measurement and parameter extraction methods of dielectric properties. These classes of materials are of interest to materials scientists as well as to engineers, physicist, and chemist or other related fields. There are four contributed chapters in this book. Each class of materials as mentioned above is explained with reference to experimental works or real-world examples.
Researchers have been intrigued about the electrical conductivity of porous materials and been trying to cite its causes by studying it from various angles [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Model equations with empirical parameters to estimate the effective resistivity of metal powder systems are presented. It is shown that the effective electrical resistivity can be estimated from the material resistivity and the porosity degree of the sample and of the tap porosity of the starting powders. The validity of proposed equations has been experimentally justified with reasonably good agreement between experimental and fitted theoretical values. The equations would be useful to describe the early stages of electrical consolidation techniques. Electrical activation process has also been described based on the presented models, which may be useful to describe dielectric breakdown process of oxide layers.
During the last decade, polyesters, which include biodegradable and conventional polymers, have been under the limelight of interdisciplinary research [7, 8]. Their wide variety of applications in diverse arenas such as medical, ecological, and agricultural have attracted researchers from wider disciplines. Futuristic applications enabled by the chemical as well as physical metamorphosis of polyesters have also propelled their studies in different research fields. This has begged many questions regarding the behavior of polyesters under different electrical phenomena, which are yet to be answered. One such question, covered in this book, demands the analysis on behavior of polyester under a DC field [9].
In particular, the characteristics of aliphatic-aromatic polyesters such as poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), polycarbonate (PC), and aliphatic polyester such as poly(lactic acid) under an applied DC field are analyzed. The microstructure of polymers has important consequences for their electric properties as addressed in this book. For instance, electrets are materials which can retain a permanent electric charge, and the susceptibility of polymers to polarization enables their use as electret materials. As such, the electrical conductivity of poly(ethylene terephthalate) films in a DC field is discussed. Among other factors, the relative humidity of the medium is known to affect the properties of polymer films such as poly(ethylene terephthalate) [7, 10]. To address this notion, the electrical conductance of poly(ethylene terephthalate)-based products under different relative humidities in a DC field is studied.
In modern processing, the most common deposition techniques include physical vapor deposition (PVD) [11] and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [12]. The potential of changing the innate electroinsulating properties of polyester fabrics via the use of these techniques as well as digital printing [13] to impart electroconductive and antistatic properties is also investigated in this book. In particular, studies on the contact electricity in the PET film and various metal systems are presented. A potential use of polyester fabrics in packaging is often hindered by its susceptibility to static electricity. The intent of this investigation is to reduce the risk in this potential use and also introduce new range of applications for polyester fabrics by extending its functionalization.
Another class of materials, varistor ceramics, has made their mark for applications in power system and protection circuits, which can be traced back to their excellent nonlinear current–voltage characteristics [14, 15, 16]. However, keeping in trend with the miniaturization of electronic devices, it has become imperative to improve the breakdown characteristics of existing varistors. It is known that the breakdown field is majorly affected by single grain boundary characteristics, as determined by Schottky barriers and the amount of grain boundaries in the direction of the electric field [17, 18]. In this book, different doping techniques are introduced to improve the microstructure of varistors, in particular ZnO varistor ceramics and perovskite CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) ceramics, and to result in enhanced breakdown performance. Precisely, the electrical breakdown field is increased in Ca1−xSrxCu3Ti4O12 ceramics via tailoring donor density and CCTO-xCuAl2O4varistor ceramics synthesized in situ. Enhanced nonlinear electrical characteristics are obtained in CCTO-YCTO composite ceramics prepared with solid-state reaction method. The improvement in breakdown characteristics is attributed to the control of defect structure of Schottky barrier at grain boundaries and restricted grain size.
Besides their microstructure, the electrical performance of varistors has also been reported to vary within the bulk of the ceramic. Dimensional effect presents as the variation of the breakdown field in varistor ceramics with its thickness [19, 20]. It has been found that both the breakdown field and the nonlinearity in electrical characteristics decrease alarmingly as the thickness decreases beyond a critical limit. Investigating the origin of dimensional effect in varistor microstructures both theoretically and experimentally, the uniformity of grain sizes is found to have major consequences for the dimensional effect observed in ZnO ceramics as well as CCTO ceramics. To provide solid evidence for the idea, experimental efforts are made to eliminate dimensional effect in the aforementioned varistor ceramics by controlling grain sizes. Indeed, restrictions in grain sizes and their subsequent narrower distribution have allowed the observed dimensional effect to diminish.
The last chapter of this book focuses on the different measurement methods and extraction techniques that are employed to inherit the dielectric properties of dielectric materials. To facilitate increasingly novel applications in microwave, mm waves, and THz frequency range, accurate and precise knowledge of material properties is essential, which drives focus onto material characterization and appropriate measurement and extraction methods [21, 22, 23]. A particular dichotomy of the vast numbers of measurement methods can be into upconversion, such as a microwave or mm wave measurement method aimed at increasing frequency from 1010 to 1011 Hz, and downconversion to decrease the frequency from 1014 to 1012 or 1011 Hz. Important dielectric properties, such as complex permittivity and refractive index, are used for presenting the comparison and analysis in this study. A comparison is made between the expensive THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) system and multimode laser diode (MLD) for TDS systems [24], where advantages of the latter are discussed theoretically and experimentally. The prospects of free space measurement method, traditionally labeled as a microwave measurement method, in measuring material properties in THz frequency range, are discussed.
Poor extraction of data from measurements made with high accuracy can also present as a hindrance to precise material characterization. In that regard, different calibrating and extraction techniques are applied to measured data in this chapter to establish a comparison between them. Extraction of the complex permittivity and permeability of the materials is enabled by scattering parameters using analytical, for instance, Nicolson-Ross-Weir (NRW), and numerical extraction techniques such as Newton-Raphson method [25]. Keeping with recent trends, the idea of using artificial intelligence (AI) methods to bolster numerical techniques in extracting the dielectric properties is also put forward [26].
Advanced knowledge in materials science is essential, particularly since, at the present time, scientific innovation in this area has excelled beyond expectations. This work serves that purpose very well. The content of this book is not only extremely appropriate for engineering students, material scientists, physicists, chemists, etc. but also equivalently beneficial to those who pursue this field in the industry.
About 800 million metric tons (Mt) of plastics were produced worldwide in the last 67 years, and 79% of this production is accumulated in the environment [1]. According to these authors, in 2050 is estimated an accumulation of about 12,000 Mt in landfills or in the natural environment that represent an annual accumulation of ~339 Mt. Therefore, the development of efficient degradation process is very important to avoid this annual accumulation.
\nThe human population on the Earth in 2050 will be about 10 billion people [2]. Thus, adequate disposal of plastics wastes is important for the maintenance of the natural resources to supply this population. Furthermore, the development of degradable plastics is necessary to prevent the accumulation of plastic waste in the ocean [3].
\nIn Brazil, the National Solid Waste Policy [4] establishes the selective collection, separation of solid waste, recycling and the shared responsibility for the appropriate management of these wastes among manufacturers, distributors, consumers and the government. However, in these 7 years of law it has observed satisfactory results only in selective collection. In 2014, with the deadline for replacing dumps to landfills, new deadlines for 2021 are in discussion in the National Congress [5].
\nOur results of biotic and fungal degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastics and green polyethylene could contribute for development of a process of degradation of these residues using white rot fungi. These microorganisms can grow under adverse temperature, nutrient and moisture conditions that facilitate composting and fermentation processes.
\nThe plastics polymers degradation is analyzed by alterations in mechanical, optical or electrical characteristics, cracking, fission, corrosion, discoloration, phase separation, chemical transformations and formation of new functional groups after degradation process [6].
\nUnlike of the petroleum-derived synthetic polymers, the biodegradable plastics polymers, when discarded in the environment, can be degraded by non-biological and biological processes [7]. Exposure to ultraviolet light, thermal heating, and treatment with acidic or basic substances function as term initiators or photo-oxidation of polyethylene [6]. After this oxidation fragments of polyethylene are degraded by action of microbial enzymes [7].
\nOxo-biodegradable or d2W plastics are polymers that contain a pro-oxidant additive to accelerate photo or thermo-oxidation [8, 9]. So, these polymers when exposed to ultraviolet light or at high temperatures are cleaved in low molecular mass compounds that are assimilated by microorganisms [8]. Several studies have shown the biodegradable plastics degradation, after exposed to ultraviolet light or heat, by bacteria and fungi [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
\nThe plastic bags of green polyethylene are produced using low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and green polymers obtain of sugarcane [17]. We have showed the green polyethylene degradation by Pleurotus ostreatus PLO6 [15]. However, little information regarding to the biodegradation of these bags is available.
\nThe microbial enzymes, such as depolymerase, esterase and lignolytic ones, that cleave the polymers in small chain compounds, may be involved in the plastics degradation [6, 13, 18, 19]. Thus, white rot fungi have a great potential, because they are enzymes producers and have shown their ability for treatment of industrial waste [20, 21, 22].
\nThe white rot, P. ostreatus, is a potent degrader of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose, which lives as saprophyte in wood. This fungus has also been used in the bioconversion of agricultural residues, in biodegradation of organic pollutants, xenobiotics, and industrial effluents, in the cellulose bleaching and production of food and enzymes [23, 24, 25]. We showed that P. ostreatus PLO6 are capable to degrade oxo-biodegradable plastics and green polyethylene [13, 14, 15]. Furthermore, this fungus form edible mushroom that is source of proteins, fibers, minerals and carbohydrates.
\nThus, in this chapter described the plastics bags degradation, by abiotic and microbial process, using the exposure to sunlight and P. ostreatus.
\nThe degradation of two plastic polymers used in the production of supermarket plastic bags was evaluated (\nFigure 1\n, I). The oxo-biodegradable and green polyethylene polymers were submitted the abiotic and biotic degradation (\nFigure 1\n, II). The oxo-biodegradable bags contain titanium oxide as pro-oxidant additive and low-density polyethylene [14].
\nSteps and technics used for monitoring the abiotic and biotic (fungal) degradation of oxo-biodegradable e green polyethylene plastics bags.
The abiotic degradation of the plastic bags was the exposure to sunlight up to 120 days (\nFigure 1\n, III). This exposure was in the summer time in a green house. In this season, the sunlight is from 6:00 am to 5:00 pm.
\nFor the biotic degradation (\nFigure 1\n, IV at VIII) the plastic polymers without (\nFigure 1\n, II) or with the exposure to sunlight (\nFigure 1\n, IV) was used P. ostreatus PLO6 (GenBank accession number KC782771). These polymers were cut in fragments of 5 cm2 (\nFigure 1\n, V) and placed in a glass flask (100 mL) containing paper towel fragments (5–10 cm2) and mineral medium (\nFigure 1\n, VI). The proportion of plastics and paper towel was of 99:1.
\nIn each glass flask fours discs of agar (6–8 mm) containing the mycelium of P. ostreatus PLO6 were inoculated (\nFigure 1\n, VII). This fungus was cultivated in 20 mL of potato dextrose lignin (0.1%) agar (PDLA) for 15 days. The initial inoculum was obtained from the collection of the Department of Microbiology of Universidade Federal de Viçosa. The stock culture is maintained on PDLA at 4°C.
\nAfter inoculation the glass flask were incubated at 25°C for 30, 60, 90 and 120 days (\nFigure 1\n, VIII).
\nThe alterations in plastic polymers (\nFigure 1\n, IX) after each time of incubation were performed (\nFigure 1\n, III, IV at VIII). These alterations were compared with analysis done before of the exposure to sunlight.
\nPhysical alterations (\nFigure 1\n, IX a), such as wrinkles on the surface, formation of holes and cracks, crumbling, discoloration, were performed by digital photograph and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with a magnification of 50,000 (\nFigure 1\n, IX a2). Mechanical properties, such as, energy at break and load at tensile strength were made in universal testing equipment (Instron model 3367) (\nFigure 1\n, IX a3).
\nChemical changes (\nFigure 1\n, IX b) by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (\nFigure 1\n, IX b1) and SEM coupled with X-ray diffraction (\nFigure 1\n, IX b2) were determined. These alterations were the disappearance or formation of new functional groups in spectrum of FTIR with scanning of 500 at 4000 cm−1 wavenumbers and the decrease in-oxidant additive concentration by spectrum of X-ray diffraction.
\nThe mycelial growth (\nFigure 1\n, IX c), the main agent of the biological alterations, was evaluated by dry mass (\nFigure 1\n, IX c1), respiratory activity (\nFigure 1\n, IX c2) determined without interruption for 120 days of incubation, electronic micrograph (\nFigure 1\n, IX c3), digital photography (\nFigure 1\n, IX c3) and lignocellulolytic enzymes activity (\nFigure 1\n, IX c5).
\nThe capacity of P. ostreatus to produce mushrooms in plastics waste may be evaluated under the same growing conditions, steps and procedures shown in \nFigure 1\n. However, for mushrooms formation it is need, after the mycelial growth (about 20 days), a thermal shock that can be performed by reducing the incubation temperature to 4°C for 24 h and returning to 25°C. During the mushrooms growth, the flasks should be kept in a place at 18 ± 2°C and a relative humidity of 80%.
\nA total of 240 days were the time applied to degradation of the plastic bags, being 120 days of exposure to sunlight and 120 days of fungal incubation. According to the manufacturer, depending on environmental conditions, for example, the exposure to oxygen and outdoor element, oxo-biodegradable plastic bags decompose within a maximum period of 18 months after disposal [26, 27]. They also add that in only 121 days the biodegradability index of d2W plastics was 88.86% [28]. Our time of abiotic degradation is the same those used for calculating the biodegradability index and corresponds to ¼ of the required time for the decomposition of these bags. However, after 4 months of exposure to sunlight we did not observe any fragmentation of the plastic bags, only the appearance of small cracks and the bleaching of the film were observed (\nFigure 2\n). Da Luz et al. [14, 15] also showed changes in mechanical properties of oxo-biodegradable and green polyethylene after 120 days of exposure to sunlight. According to them, this time of exposure is insufficient for other physical or chemical changes, concluding that the mechanical properties alterations, such as the reduction of breaking energy and elasticity facilitated the fungal colonization of plastic waste. The chemical and physical changes in the low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was observed after pretreated of the LDPE sheets with low discharge plasma (O2, 3.0 × 10−2 mbar, 600 V) for 6 minutes [29, 30]. According to authors, this pretreated was important by plastics biodeterioration by P. ostreatus.
\nScanning electron micrograph of oxy-biodegradable plastics before (A) and after 120 days of exposure to sunlight (B).
In a new experiment, we observed a fragmentation of oxo-biodegradable plastics bags after 21 months of exposure to sunlight (\nFigure 3\n). The control samples were cut with a scissors (\nFigure 3A\n), but after that exposure to sunlight, it was no longer possible to cut the bags. These plastics were easily fragmented using the hand, resulting in a powder (\nFigure 3B\n, \nC\n). This result shows that there are needed more than 18 months of exposure to sunlight to completely degradation of the plastics. However, this result is promising, shows the ability of abiotic degradation of these bags and enables new testing using these bags with exposure to sunlight in a period equal to or greater than 18 months and inoculation of microorganisms to complete degradation of the remaining polymers. Degradation analysis with P. ostreatus has not been performed in this experiment.
\nOxo-biodegradable plastic bags before (A) and after 21 months of exposure to sunlight (B and C). The letter C shows the fragmented plastic.
The oxo-biodegradable polyethylene degradation, assessed by carbonyl index, was observed through exposure to sunlight, up to 90 days, in soil with of moisture and pH control [28]. However, these authors concluded that the polyethylene films without pro-oxidant additive had greater structural and superficial modifications, than the films with the additive. Thus, action of the pro-oxidants by the effect of sunlight depends on e conditions and time of exposure to sunlight.
\nIn the plastic bags the presence of titanium was identified, a component of the pro-oxidant additive (\nFigure 4\n). This element presents a higher relative concentration than the other elements analyzed and it is uniformly distributed on the surface of the bags. This homogeneous distribution was also observed to manganese, iron and cobalt (\nFigure 4\n). Furthermore, with the exception of titanium and cadmium, the other elements analyzed are important for fungal metabolism (\nFigure 4\n). These micronutrients may be elicitors or enzyme cofactors. Thus, the presence of these elements may also have contributed to the P. ostreatus growth on the surface of plastic bags.
\nSpatial distribution and relative concentration of the main elements found in oxo-biodegradable bags. Analysis carried out by a scanning electron microscope coupled to the X-ray diffraction detector.
Mycelial growth of P. ostreatus was observed on the surface of the paper towel (\nFigure 5A\n) and the plastic waste (\nFigure 5B\n). This figure shows an example of mycelial growth in oxo-biodegradable plastics after 30 (\nFigure 5A\n) and 90 days (\nFigure 5B\n) of exposure to sunlight and 30 days incubation with the fungus. The yellow circle and the red arrow show, respectively, the mycelial growth on the paper towel and plastic. This paper was added in the culture medium to retain moisture and to be an inducer of fungal growth and stimulates the synthesis of lignocellulolytic enzymes that degrades the paper itself and the plastic (\nFigure 5\n).
\nMycelial growth of Pleurotus ostreatus after 30 days of incubation in paper towel and oxo-biodegradable plastic bags after 30 (A) and 90 (B) days of exposure to sunlight. The arrow and circle show mycelial growth.
The respiratory activity of P. ostreatus was influenced by time exposure to sunlight. This result confirms that the physical changes caused by sunlight contributed to the fungal growth in plastic bags. Furthermore, we did not observe reduction of this activity until 90 days of incubation showing a cellular activity for a long period. The activity of lignocellulolytic enzymes, like laccase, cellulase and xylanase, during 45 days of incubation of P. ostreatus in oxo-biodegradable plastics was observed [13].
\nThe P. ostreatus growth on the surface of oxo-biodegradable plastic was also observed by SEM (\nFigure 6\n). In this micrograph, the red arrows show hyphae in plastic waste after 60 days of exposure to sunlight and 30 days of incubation. Da Luz et al. [13, 14, 15] showed the formation of mycelium on the surface of d2w plastic and green polyethylene with different time of exposure to sunlight and of fungal incubation. They also reported the morphological characteristics of the mycelia of P. ostreatus PLO6.
\nScanning electron micrograph of oxo-biodegradable plastics after 60 days of exposure to sunlight and 30 days of incubation with Pleurotus ostreatus. The arrows show the hyphae.
The loss of plastic dry mass was influenced by the time of exposure to sunlight and fungal incubation (\nFigure 7\n). Fungal growth was lower in plastic polymers without exposure to sunlight than in others with different time of exposure to sunlight. This result shows that P. ostreatus can grow in plastic waste without or with exposure to sunlight. However, this exposure facilitates the fungal growth, as shown by Da Luz et al. [14, 15]. Thus, the combination of abiotic and biotic processes shows to be more efficient in the oxo-biodegradable plastic and green polyethylene degradation. In addition, the presence of other carbon sources from marine sediments and lack of abiotic degradation as the initiator were the main factors of the lack of biodegradation of polyethylene and biodegradable plastic bags after 100 days of incubation with benthic microbes [3].
\nLoss of dry mass plastic after inoculated with Pleurotus ostreatus in oxo-biodegradable plastic bags before (0uv) or after 30, 60, 90 and 120 days of exposure to sunlight.
In this study, we observed the formation of cracks and holes in oxo-biodegradable plastics and green polyethylene after fungal growth (\nFigures 8\n and \n9\n). Comparing the \nFigure 2B\n and \n8\n it is observed that these changes in plastic polymers were caused by P. ostreatus growth. The fungi, Penicillium oxalicum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Myceliophthora sp., Phanerochaete chrysosporium, and Trametes versicolor, also exhibit the ability to degrade polyethylene [16, 31, 32].
\nScanning electron micrograph of oxo-biodegradable plastics bags after 30 days of exposure to sunlight and 30 days of incubation with Pleurotus ostreatus. Micrograph without (A) and with a scale of 100 folds (B).
Scanning electron micrograph of green polyethylene plastics bags after 30 days of exposure to sunlight and 30 days of incubation with Pleurotus ostreatus. Micrograph without (A) and with scaling of 100 fold (B).
In a simulation according to ASTM G160–03 of polyethylene films degradation with and without pro-oxidant additive through the exposure to sunlight on the soil, different genera or microbial groups, Geothrichum spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp., Thichoderma spp., Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp. and Zygomycota, were identified [28]. These results indicate that (1) the plastic films did not alter or inhibit the development of the microbial community of the soil, since these microorganisms are part of the natural microbial community of the soil or (2) the growth of these microorganisms was due to the use of the films as source of carbon and energy. According to the authors, the biodegradation of polyethylene without or with pro-oxidant additive can be shown by the adhesion and surface erosion of the films, microbial colonization and presence of fruiting bodies and hyphae on the plastic surface.
\nThe \nFigures 8\n and \n9\n show the plastic degradation with 30 days of exposure to sunlight and 30 days of incubation with different scale enlargements. According to Da Luz et al. [14], the low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes and presence of pro-oxidant ions and endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms were the main reasons for the biotic degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastics. Gómez-Méndez et al., [29] observed activities of laccase, manganese peroxidase (MnP) and lignin peroxidase during P. ostreatus growth in plasma pretreated Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) sheets. These authors showed that LDPE biodeterioration was due to activities of these fungal enzymes. Furthermore, the LDPE after mycelia fungal may be used by biochar production [30].
\nThe laccase produced by the fungus Cochliobolus sp. isolated from plastic dumped soils showed capacity for polyvinyl chloride degradation [33]. This enzyme produced by Myceliophthora sp. was also able to degrade polyethylene [30] and polyurethane [34]. Manganese peroxidase from white rot fungi, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, is involved in the degradation of nylon and polyethylene [35]. The laccase and manganese peroxidase activity of Penicillium sp. are responsible by degradation of polyethylene [31, 36] and natural rubber [37]. These studies confirm the low specificity of these enzymes to the substrate.
\nAfter 120 days exposure to sunlight, no changes in the FTIR spectrum of oxo-biodegradable plastics was observed. This result shows that pro-oxidant oxidation by sunlight was not sufficient for cleavage of the polymer chain or it there is no oxidation thereof. However, in a previous study, a reduction of the relative concentration of titanium on the surface of oxo-biodegradable plastics wastes after exposure to sunlight was observed [14]. According to these authors, the oxidation of the pro-oxidant may have occurred initially by sunlight and then by co-metabolism with the extracellular fungal enzymes. The authors concluded that the presence of this pro-oxidant proved to be important to cause the breakage of this chain in fragments that were used as a source of carbon and energy by fungus.
\nIn polyethylene green, which contain none pro-oxidant additive, no changes in the FTIR spectrum after exposure to sunlight was observed.
\nThe formation of bands of the bonds oxygen-hydrogen and carbon-hydrogen at 3500–3000 cm−1 and carbon–oxygen and ether or peroxide at 1500–1000 cm−1 were the main changes in the FTIR spectra observed in plastic waste after P. ostreatus growth. The carbon-hydrogen bond band may be evidence of the fragmentation of the polyethylene chain. The other bands observed indicate that an oxidation has occurred, which may have contributed to the fungal colonization in the plastic polymers (13–15).
\nIn studies on the plastics degradation for P. ostreatus, the authors also observed chemical and physical changes similar to the observed in our study [29, 30].
\nThe intensity of the degradation was higher in the green polyethylene than in the oxo-biodegradable polymers (\nFigures 8\n and \n9\n). The green polyethylene degradation by fungus was possible due to the presence of sugarcane polymers in the composition of the bags, low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes and presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In addition, Da Luz et al. [15] was observed mineralization in green polyethylene with longer times of exposure to sunlight and fungal incubation.
\nSimilar to Da Luz et al. [13], during the time of incubation we also observed the mushrooms formation in the plastic (\nFigure 10\n). The conversion of plastic waste into fungal biomass and mushrooms would be a very important biotechnological innovation for plastic waste degradation that has been increased by millions of tons in recent years [1, 3, 16] and for environmental sustainability. However, the presence of toxic compounds and heavy metals, and also due to the low productivity and high costs are the main limitations to mushrooms production. Productivity in mushrooms can be increased by altering the composition of substrate, as for example, adding different proportions of agroindustrial residue and plastic.
\nMycelial growth and Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms (arrows) formation in substrate containing oxo-biodegradable plastics and paper towels (99: 1 m/m).
The exposure to sunlight up to 120 days is insufficient to initiate degradation of oxo-biodegradable and green polyethylene plastic bags. However, this exposure is important for P. ostreatus growth. Therefore, these plastics degradation occurs more efficiently with the combination of abiotic and biotic process. These plastics degradation may be due to the activities of lignocellulolytic enzymes that are produced during fungal growth on the plastics sheets.
\nThe authors are grateful to the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Capes), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), Fundação Arthur Bernardes (FUNARBE) and Núcleo de Microscópia e Microanálise da UFV.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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