Monitoring sites and details of the measurement program.
\r\n\t- Image Classification – type or class of an object in an image prediction;
\r\n\t- Object Localization – the presence of objects in an image location and indication of their location with a bounding box;
\r\n\t- Object Detection – the presence of objects with a bounding box location and types or classes of the located objects in an image;
\r\n\t- Object Segmentation – recognized objects instances indication by highlighting the specific pixels of the object instead of a coarse bounding box.
\r\n\tThis book provides the reader with a balanced approach between the theory and practice of selected methods in these areas to make the book accessible to a range of researchers, engineers, developers and postgraduate students working in computer vision and related fields.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e319d5ec22f712c84fad52564c2a0b3d",bookSignature:"Dr. George Melillos",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9968.jpg",keywords:"Detecting irregularities, Automatic visual inspection, Detecting unusual objects, Detection techniques, Object detection, Computer vision, Underground objects, Thermography, Digital photos, Pixels, Object localization, Geo location",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"292389",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Melillos",slug:"george-melillos",fullName:"George Melillos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292389/images/system/292389.jpg",biography:"Dr George Melillos is Postdoctoral Researcher at the Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Cyprus University of Technology. He has over 20 years’ experience in IT and 15 years’ experience in GIS. He holds Diploma in Computer Programming/Programmer, Higher National Diploma (HND) in Software Engineering, a B.Sc. (Hons) in Computing, an M.A (Master of Arts) in ICT and Education and PhD in Remote Sensing, GIS and Space Technology at Cyprus University of Technology. He holds many professional certifications, including the Microsoft Certified Trainer (MCT), Microsoft Certified Application Developer (MCAD), Microsoft Certified Application Specialist (MCAS), Adobe Certified Associate (ACA) for Adobe Dreamweaver and Adobe Photoshop, ECDL Certified Trainer Professional (ECDL CTP) and ISO/IEC 27001 Lead Implementer. He is a member of the Cyprus Computer Society, member (MBCS) of the British Computer Society (BCS) - The Chartered Institute for IT, member of SPIE (Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers), member of IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), member of IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society Resource Center, member of The Cyprus Remote Sensing Society and member of Engineering Council UK as Chartered Engineer (CEng). He is the author of two books: one for ECDL Web Editing – Using Adobe Dreamweaver and another one for ECDL Image Editing – Using Adobe Photoshop which have been approved by Ministry of Education of Cyprus, by Cyprus Computer Society and ECDL. These books are taught in schools (secondary education) in Cyprus. His research focuses on the detection of buried structures using space & GIS techniques for security & defense applications. He has publish scientific publications in high prestigious journals, edited books and conference proceedings as main author. He won an international recognition, attending as speaker in several conferences/workshops, and organizing international workshops.",institutionString:"Cyprus University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Cyprus University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52290",title:"The Air Quality Influences of Vehicular Traffic Emissions",doi:"10.5772/64692",slug:"the-air-quality-influences-of-vehicular-traffic-emissions",body:'\nAerosol black carbon (BC) is a widespread environmental pollutant, which is generated from combustion processes of carbonaceous materials at high temperature. Being the principal light absorbing aerosol species with specific absorption coefficients ranging from 11 to 12 m2 g-1 at 650 nm, BC absorbs radiation that lowers the single scattering albedo [1, 2]. As a result, the amount of reflected radiation is reduced, and the radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is increased. Due to the nature of higher porosity, BC adsorbs other species from the vapor phase, especially organics that are potentially mutagens or carcinogens [3, 4]. For example, BC adsorbs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with four rings or more, those are carcinogenic in nature [5, 6]. In the environment, BC is inhaled frequently by humans that can be deposited in the lungs or other airways causing severe health effects on a long‐ or short‐term basis [7, 8]. In addition, BC provides surfaces that may catalytically promote certain other reactions in the atmosphere [9]. This can be seen in the environment with higher levels of BC that affect ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) concentrations due to heterogeneous destruction of O3 molecules on particles [10]. For example, Dasch and Cadle [11] observed that oxidation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) is also catalyzed by BC aerosol.
\nDuring the past two decades, research on BC has been increasing rapidly due to its role on local air quality causing visibility problems and adverse health effects, regional air quality affecting cloud microphysics, and global climate change due to its positive radiative effects [12–18]. Previous studies have also reported that BC of local origin can be transported over a long distance due to its long lifetime (order of several days to several weeks depending on meteorology) in the atmosphere [19]. Major anthropogenic sources of BC include on‐road vehicles, domestic heating, industrial activities, and refuse burning, among which vehicular emissions are particularly dominant [20–22].
\nHuman exposure to ambient BC, carbon monoxide (CO), and nitric oxide (NO) is of concern in urban environments due to a high population of vehicles [23, 24]. Such higher exposure to BC, CO, and NO causes several health effects, including myocardial infarction and pneumonia, elevated inflammatory markers of cardiovascular disease, diminished heart rate variability, and ventricular tachyarrhythmias. [23–27].
\nIn general, two types of studies are performed to characterize the vehicular emissions, i.e., direct tests on engines and experiments in the ambient air. In the past, several studies focused on engine particle emission through engine test sites or chassis dynamotors [28–30]. However, to get the real atmospheric particulate characterization, it is essential to perform field measurements. Although some studies [31, 32] were performed under stationary measurements in recent years, these studies were, however, confined to a particular measurement site. Therefore, ambient characterization with on‐road measurements under real moving traffic conditions are the best experiments that can provide better scientific knowledge on traffic emissions.
\nIn the past, several detailed studies were undertaken in Singapore to assess the status of air quality and particulate matter characterization [33, 34]. However, these studies did not address the effects of vehicles on aerosol BC and association of NO and CO with BC. The latest study by Kalaiarasan et al. [35] investigated traffic‐generated airborne particles in naturally ventilated multistorey residential buildings of Singapore and the potential health risk at different vertical heights. To get a clear picture on the role of vehicles on ambient air quality, it is essential to get the status of air quality at different urban locations with varying traffic loads. The status of ambient air quality at human breathing levels (2 m above ground) can be augmented to health risk models to assess the risk due to location of a particular area.
\nSome limited studies have been carried out in the urban areas of developed countries recently to assess the effects of vehicles on ambient air quality [36–40]. These studies monitored the air quality status (BC, CO, and NO) near locations of heavy and low traffic flows for comparative assessment of air quality. However, no such studies were undertaken in tropical areas within Southeast Asia. We undertook a preliminary study in Singapore for the first time. Being a heavily motorized country, the traffic system in Singapore (the fourth most densely populated country in the world) is of particular interest in the region of Asia Pacific from air pollution point of view [35, 41, 42]. In connection to health problems, bronchial asthma is one of the common respiratory disorders in Singapore and is commonly observed that about 1 of 5 children is asthmatics [35]. Therefore, there is a strong need to investigate traffic‐generated pollutants (BC, CO, and NO) in ambient air at different locations and to assess the effects of vehicles on the ambient air quality.
\nThe present study was designed with the following objectives: (1) measurements of levels of BC, NO, and CO in ambient air at four different locations having variations in traffic flows and meteorology, (2) assessment of the relationship between traffic flows and prevailing levels of the three air pollutants, and (3) examination of the association of these air pollutants among each other and with the meteorology.
\nThe study was conducted in Singapore, which is located at the tip of the Malayan Peninsula (1°09ʹN to 1°29ʹN and 103°36ʹE to 104°25ʹE) with areas of about 699 km2 and population of about 4.7 million [35]. Singapore\'s geographical location and maritime exposure, uniform temperature, pressure, and high humidity characterize its climate. The temperature ranges from 32°C for a high and 24°C for a low with a daily mean humidity of 84.4%. Singapore is the fourth most densely populated country in the world with a population density of 6369 persons/km2 as at 2008 and can be considered as a land scarce country [35]. Early to 1995 and after independence, Singapore\'s public transport systems were managed separately, but in 1995 most land transport functions were brought together by the Land Transport Authority (LTA) [43]. With the plans and policies for implementation to provide a world class transport system, since 1998 onwards Singapore is known to be a heavily motorized country with the most developed road system in the Asia‐Pacific region [44].
\nIn Singapore, the number of automobiles has been steadily increasing as a consequence of rapid urbanization and economic growth. As an example, based on LTA data, the total number of vehicles in Singapore were 688,811 in 1999 and 956,704 in 2011 (LTA, 1999; LTA, 2011) [45, 46]. In the present study, we have studied the effects of vehicles on local air quality at the human breathing level in 2010. We give the vehicle details in the break‐up of different categories for 2009, as described below. As per the data of LTA (1999), cars accounted for 61% of the total vehicle population. These cars are all gasoline driven and a majority of them have catalytic converters. Goods vehicles, running on gasoline and diesel, accounted for 18%. The gasoline driven two wheelers, i.e., motorcycles and scooters accounted for approximately 16% of the vehicle population. Buses and taxis accounted for 2% and 3%, respectively, and these vehicles run with diesel fuel. Although the percentage composition of the buses and taxis in the total population is low, the overall vehicle kilometers traveled by them on road are quite high.
\nSingapore\'s strategy for reducing air pollution from vehicles focuses on two main aspects: improving the fuel quality to reduce emissions and management of traffic to control the increase in the number of vehicles [47]. The high expense of owning and operating a vehicle in Singapore has effectively controlled the growth of vehicles. In addition, car owners pay annual road taxes based on the engine capacity of their vehicles. “Singapore has also introduced a full‐fledged use of the Electronic Road Pricing System, commonly known as ERP, for vehicles on major expressways. According to this system, vehicles traveling on certain expressways at certain time periods have to pay a toll” (LTA, 2011). The Singapore government introduced a quota system known as Certificate of Entitlement (COE), in January 1990. Under this system, a vehicle entitlement is valid for 10 years from the date of registration of the vehicle. If the owner wishes to continue using the vehicle on expiration of the vehicle entitlement, he has to pay a revalidation fee.
\nTo achieve the objectives of this study, field measurements were carried out at four different sites: (i) road side in the National University of Singapore campus (NUS), (ii) road side in the vicinity of expressway (EXW), (iii) central express tunnel (CTE), and (iv) a remote site near coastal region (RME). These measurement sites were selected on the basis of intensity of traffic flow. The parameters of measurement included were air quality (BC, CO, and NO), meteorology (wind speed and wind direction), and traffic volumes (car, bus, taxi, motorbike, and others). Table 1 presents the details of the field measurement program with information of the monitoring sites.
\nMeasurement site | \nSite code | \nCharacteristics of sites | \nDetails of field measurement | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Air quality | \nMeteorology | \nTraffic survey | \nDuration of study | \n|||
Road side in National University of Singapore campus | \nNUS | \nMedium traffic volume | \nBC, CO, NO | \nWind speed, wind direction | \nCar, bus, taxi, bike, etc. | \n13–16 May, 2010 | \n
Road side of expressway | \nEXW | \nHigher traffic volume | \nBC, CO, NO | \nWind speed, wind direction | \nCar, bus, taxi, bike, etc. | \n22–23 July, 2010 | \n
Central express (CTE) tunnel | \nCTE | \nHigher traffic volume | \nBC, CO, NO | \nWind speed, wind direction | \nCar, bus, taxi, bike, etc. | \n02–04 June, 2010 | \n
Remote site near coastal region | \nRME | \nNegligible traffic influence | \nBC, CO, NO | \nWind speed, wind direction | \nCar, bus, taxi, bike, etc. | \n05 May, 2010 | \n
Monitoring sites and details of the measurement program.
To get insights into the behavior of air pollution patterns during weekdays and weekends, measurements at the NUS site were conducted from Thursday to Sunday. Automated equipment was maintained in an air conditioned mobile enclosure with the sampling tubes protruding out from the window of the van. A video camera was used to capture the traffic flows and to characterize the composition of the vehicles traveling at each measurement site. In the tunnel site, CTE, the monitoring point was at the center of the tunnel, so that the field measurements could be carried out under smooth flowing traffic conditions. The wind speed and wind direction were measured with digital wind vane and anemometer, respectively.
\nIn this study, field equipment was placed at a distance of 5.0 m from the road at all measurement sites except the tunnel site, CTE. Air pollutants were measured at approximately 2.0 m height above the ground except the NUS site. Measurements at NUS were done on the rooftop of the Atmospheric Research Station, which is about 15 m above the ground level.
\nFor the measurement of BC in ambient air, the optical and thermal techniques are widely used. In the past, various research groups used these techniques to estimate the BC concentration [48]. However, aethalometer is the only equipment that is used for the real‐time measurement of BC [49]. To get measurement information with short‐term peaks in quasi‐real time, aethalometer is the best option. The model AE–20UV Aethalometer (Magee Scientific Company, Berkeley, CA) was used to measure BC in real time for this study. The sample flow rate was 5.0 L/min, and sampling time base was 5 min. The principle of measurement method is based on the optical attenuation of light by particles collected on the quartz fiber filter, which is summarized as follows: (i) light from a stabilized lamp is split and passes the sampling portion and a reference blank portion of the filter, (ii) the intensity of the transmitted light is determined by the light sensors placed after the filter, (iii) thus, changes of light transmitted through the sampling portion of the filter due to collected absorbing aerosols are detected and recorded as changes in optical attenuation, and (iv) finally, assuming a constant specific attenuation cross‐section of BC, the concentration of BC is calculated. We used the original laboratory calibration factor of 17 m2/g, as recommended by the manufacturer.
\nCO was measured by a real‐time CO analyzer, Thermo Environmental Instruments (TEI), Model 48C. The instrument is based on the principle that CO absorbs infrared radiation at the wavelength of 4.6 µm. The model 42C, NO–NO2–NOX analyzer from TEI, was used to measure NO based on the principle of chemiluminescence. It is based on the principle that NO and O3 react to produce a characteristic luminescence with intensity linearly proportional to the NO concentration.
\nTable 2 presents the overall results of the ambient levels of BC, CO, and NO at four measurement sites. On the basis of 1 h observations, the mean BC varied as the lowest at the RME site (1.7 µg/m3) to the highest at the CTE site (45.6 µg/m3). Similarly, CO and NO varied from 336.3 ppbv (parts per billion by volume) at the RME site to 8322.4 ppbv at the CTE site and 60.0 ppbv at the NUS site to 100.2 ppbv at the EXE site, respectively. Concurrent measurements of NO at CTE and RME were not possible due to instrumental problems. From the results obtained at the four sites, it can be clearly seen that the tunnel, CTE, experienced the highest air pollution followed by the expressway site, EXW, and the site with the least influence of vehicles (RME) experienced the lowest air pollution. Therefore, the contribution of vehicles to the ambient levels of these air pollutants is significant. The highest levels of BC and CO measured at the CTE site can be attributed to the high traffic flow of vehicles of different types with reduced ventilation as well as little homogeneous mixing of air pollutants inside the tunnel. The relation between various types of the volume of vehicles and the resulting levels of air pollutants during the measurement period can provide better insights into the role of vehicles on the profiles of the measured concentrations of air pollutants. This aspect of the study is discussed in a subsequent section.
\nMeasurement site* | \nBC (μg/m3) | \nCO (ppbv) | \nNO (ppbv) | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Mean | \nSD | \nN | \nMean | \nSD | \nN | \nMean | \nSD | \nN | \n
NUS | \n6.2 | \n3.8 | \n94 | \n582.9 | \n404.3 | \n95 | \n60.0 | \n58.3 | \n87 | \n
EXW | \n7.2 | \n1.9 | \n45 | \n1384.8 | \n325.4 | \n46 | \n100.2 | \n37.1 | \n47 | \n
CTE | \n45.6 | \n9.6 | \n14 | \n8322.4 | \n886.6 | \n15 | \nNA | \nNA | \nNA | \n
RME | \n1.7 | \n0.5 | \n23 | \n336 .3 | \n162.5 | \n24 | \nNA | \nNA | \nNA | \n
Overall results of BC, CO, and NO during the measurement period.
*Experimental results are based on average of 1 h observations.
SD: standard deviation; N: number of observations; NA: not applicable.
To compare the results obtained from this study with those from other appropriate studies reported in the literature, Table 3 presents the relevant data on BC, CO, and NO. In general, the ambient concentrations of BC, CO, and NO in Singapore are comparable to those reported for other urban areas of the world.
\nLocation | \nBC (μg/m3) | \nCO (ppbv) | \nNO (ppbv) | \nParticular of site | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Essen East, Germany | \nNA | \n1 921.4 | \n60.0 | \nUrban | \n[50] | \n
Düsseldorf–Mörsenbroich, Germany | \nNA | \n2707.4 | \n111.2 | \nUrban | \n[50] | \n
Helsinki, Finland | \n1.5 | \nNA | \nNA | \nSub Urban | \n[21] | \n
Los Angeles, USA | \n4.4 | \n230 | \nNA | \nUrban | \n[38] | \n
Toronto, Canada | \nNA | \nNA | \n70.5 | \nUrban | \n[37] | \n
Aachen, Germany | \n9.4 | \nNA | \nNA | \nUrban | \n[36] | \n
Aachen, Germany | \n1.5 | \nNA | \nNA | \nRural | \n[36] | \n
Barcelona, Spain | \n3.6 | \nNA | \n14.2 | \nUrban | \n[40] | \n
Ambient concentrations of BC, CO, and NO reported for different parts of the world.
NA: not available.
Diurnal variations of concentrations BC, CO, and NO at the NUS site. The error bars represent the corresponding standard deviations.
To get a better insight into the diurnal variations of BC, CO, and NO, the measurement data obtained for every 5‐min interval observations were averaged during all hours of the day. In this section, we have considered two measurement sites (NUS and EXW) for examining diurnal variations, because of the similar pollution status of BC at these two sites. However, the tunnel site, EXW, and the remote site, RME, experienced different pollution status and traffic flows (Table 2). Therefore, in this paper, we discuss the pollution and traffic patterns at the CTE site in a separate section. The site, RME, did not show any specific trends of air pollution. Figure 1 shows the diurnal variations of BC, CO, and NO with hourly average observations at NUS. BC showed pronounced peaks in the morning traffic hours (7:00–11:00) with a maximum concentration of 8.9 µg/m3 at 9:00, indicating that vehicular emission is an important source of BC (Figure 1). Similarly, CO and NO showed pronounced peaks in the morning traffic hours (7:00–11:00) with maximum concentrations of 959.7 and 102.8 ppbv, respectively, at 9:00, indicating that vehicular emission is an important source of CO and NO (Figure 1).
\nThe concentrations of BC, CO, and NO remained low in the afternoon. There were no significant evening rush hour peaks, which could be probably due to unstable atmospheric conditions induced by long hours of sunshine and hence improved dispersion of traffic emissions during the afternoon. Moreover, being a tropical country, the solar radiation in Singapore remains high even during the evening rush hour, thereby resulting in the enhanced vertical mixing of air pollutants. This leads to dilution of BC, CO, and NO concentrations. Relatively higher concentrations in the early morning could be attributed to low mixing heights and reduced dispersive conditions. Being a coastal city, Singapore\'s air quality is also influenced by land breeze and sea breeze. Land breeze blowing during early morning brings in contaminated air, whereas the sea breeze that blows during afternoon brings in relatively clean air. In addition, the traffic flow of heavy‐duty/utility vehicles is relatively higher in the morning than during other periods of the day.
\nDiurnal variations of concentrations of BC, CO, and NO at the NUS site during weekday and weekend.
In the case of the expressway site, EXW, it was observed that the traffic volume remained high on the expressway even in the noon; there was no decrease in the concentration in the afternoon in contrast to the diurnal profiles of BC, CO, and NO concentrations in the ambient air at NUS. Furthermore, the effect of dispersion on the concentrations of air pollutants does not play a significant role at this site because the measurements were performed at the ground level.
\n\nTo examine the effect of rush hour traffic, the mean diurnal variations of BC, CO, and NO were divided into weekdays (Thursday and Friday) and weekends (Saturday and Sunday). This is to be noted that the measurement at the NUS site was done for 4 days with two weekdays and two weekends. Figure 2 shows the diurnal trends of these pollutants during weekdays and weekends. The morning peak, which is usually seen between 7:00 and 11:00 on weekdays, does not exist on weekends. The peak concentrations on weekdays were 11.9 µg/m3, 1279.6 ppbv, and 137.1 ppbv for BC, CO, and NO, respectively. However, during weekends, the peak values seemed to be less than half of respective peaks of weekdays (the peaks on weekend were 5.5 µg/m3, 590.8 ppbv, and 52.1 ppbv for BC, CO, and NO, respectively). From these observations, it can be confirmed that vehicles play a major role in making significant contributions to the prevailing air pollution levels in Singapore.
\n\n\nIn the eastern United States, at Uniontown, PA, the diurnal variation of BC concentrations was measured in 1990 [49]. A clear peak was observed between 6:00 and 10:00. There was no significant evening rush hour peak, but instead slightly elevated concentrations were observed from 20:00 to 23:00. Pakkanen et al. [21] analyzed in Helinski reported that the peak in hourly average BC concentrations was observed during the morning and evening rush hours on weekdays. Weekends showed relatively stable hourly average concentrations. Therefore, based on these comparisons, it appeared that our observations on BC due to traffic emissions were consistent with those from the other studies reported in the literature.
\nThe field measurements at CTE were conducted under varying traffic composition to examine the effect of traffic volume and the composition on the levels of BC and CO measured in the traffic tunnel. Air sampling and traffic surveys were performed on 2 days from 13:40 to 19:25 on day 1 and from 9:45 to 16:10 on day 2. The average traffic count on the first day was 3900 vehicles per hour, and the vehicle fleet comprised 8% motorbikes, 3% heavy‐duty vehicles, 24% pickups and vans, 49% cars, 1% buses, and 15% taxis. On the second day, the traffic count was around 4400 vehicles per hour, almost 10% higher as compared to the first day. The traffic composition was similar to the first day consisting of 6% motorbikes, 3% heavy‐duty vehicles, 24% pickups and vans, 48% cars, 1% buses, and 18% taxis. Heavy‐duty vehicles, pickups and vans, buses, and taxis are driven by diesel fuel, whereas the fuel used in motorbikes and cars are with gasoline. Based on the classification by fuel types, the fraction of diesel‐driven vehicles on the first day was 0.43 and on the second day was 0.46.
\nThe concentration of BC was 40.9 µg/m3 on the first day and 49.9 µg/m3 on the second day. The concentration of CO was 8394.5 ppbv on the first day and 8247.3 ppbv on the second day. Average concentrations of the air pollutants at different sampling locations are also shown in Table 2. As can be seen from Table 2, the concentration of air pollutants in the CTE was observed to be much higher than those at other sampling sites. Such higher concentrations at CTE site could be due to a combination of three factors: (1) measurements in the tunnel were performed very close to the emission source (vehicles), (2) there was a substantially high volume of traffic flow in the tunnel, and (3) there was a limited vertical dispersion of BC and CO in the confined environment in the tunnel.
\nVariations of BC concentration with the number vehicles: (a) diesel‐driven vehicles, and (b) gasoline‐driven vehicles.
Figures 3(a) and (b) show the variations of BC with the total number of diesel‐driven vehicles and the total number of gasoline‐driven vehicles, respectively, for 2 days. It should be noted that the concentration plots were made based on the observations of 5‐min interval. The concentration of BC could not be continuously obtained in the tunnel during these 2 days as the instrument was automatically set in the calibration mode for every hour. Hence, the variations of BC in Figures 3(a) and (b) do not show their continuous profiles. The increase in the frequency of calibration is especially important as the instrument tends to be saturated with such a high concentration of BC in ambient air of the tunnel. The variations of CO concentration with traffic are shown in Figures 4(a) and (b).
\n\n\nThe variation in the concentration of BC followed closely the trend in percentage of diesel‐driven vehicles. However, such a similarity in the trends of concentration of BC and gasoline vehicles was not seen. For example, on the first day of the air sampling in the tunnel, there was a gradual decrease in the number of diesel‐driven vehicle between 16:40 and 19:40, which was accompanied by a similar decrease in the concentration of BC. On the other hand, the number of gasoline vehicles remained almost the same. The link between the number of diesel‐driven vehicles and the corresponding change in the concentration of BC is further strengthened by the variability in the concentration of CO. In other words, the concentration of CO follows a trend very similar to the number of gasoline vehicles, which is in contrast to the pattern of BC.
\nVariations of CO concentration with the number of vehicles: (a) diesel‐driven vehicles, and (b) gasoline‐driven vehicles.
This finding strongly suggests that diesel‐driven vehicles emit much higher levels of BC than gasoline‐driven vehicles. This observation is consistent with the previous studies, which have indicated that BC is more abundant in heavy‐duty diesel‐fuelled exhaust than in light‐duty gasoline‐fuelled vehicle exhaust [51, 52]. The amount of BC emitted is highly variable, and depends on the vehicle condition, its age, quality of the fuel used, maintenance, the speed of vehicles, and the operating modes of drivers. Miguel et al. [52] did the measurement of CO and BC in two bores of the Caldecott tunnel in California: one bore was influenced by heavy‐duty diesel truck emissions; a second bore was reserved for light‐duty vehicles. Miguel et al. [52] found that concentration of BC in truck‐influenced bore was higher by a factor of 5 in spite of higher traffic volume in other bore. The concentration of CO was higher in the bore dominated by light duty vehicles. According to Miguel et al. [52] light‐duty gasoline‐driven vehicles and heavy‐duty diesel trucks, emitted, respectively, 30 ± 2 mg and 1440 ± 160 mg of fine BC particles per kg of fuel burned. Gray and Cass [53] estimated that diesel‐driven vehicles were responsible for 60% of total BC emissions. Steiner et al. [54] showed that the contribution of BC to total suspended particulate matter (TSP) emitted from a spark ignition engine is 11%. On the other hand, the contribution of BC to TSP in the case of particles emitted from diesel engine ranges from 50% to 80%.
\nCorrelation plots of BC with NO and CO at the NUS and EXW sites: (a) BC vs. NO at NUS, (b) BC vs. CO at NUS, (c) BC vs. NO at EXW, and (d) BC vs. CO at EXW.
From the time‐series plots of BC and CO with vehicles (in Section 3.2), it has been observed that the traffic flow makes a major contribution to the existing levels of these air pollutants. To further confirm this trend, we reviewed the relevant literature on studies done in various parts of the world. From the literature review, it could be concluded that vehicular emissions are strongly correlated with the levels of CO and NO under normal conditions and these pollutants are indicators of traffic emissions in the urban environment [55, 56]. From the estimation of USEPA [57], it is clear that transportation sources were responsible for nearly 72% of total CO emissions, 40% of NOx, and 31.5% of hydrocarbons in the United States in 1991. In the UK west Midlands conurbation, of which Birmingham is the major city, 98% of CO and 85% of NOx emissions arise from road traffic. In Australia, the local transport was responsible for up to 63% of NOx emissions and 95% of CO emissions. In Mexico City, traffic accounts for 99% of the CO and 70% of NOx [58].
\nTherefore, to provide further evidence that BC is influenced by traffic flows and to estimate the contribution of traffic flows toward the total ambient levels of BC, the statistical correlation of BC with CO and NO were examined. In this interpretation, we considered the data from the sites of NUS and EXW as we made observations of air pollutants in the open ambient air at these measurement sites with substantial traffic volumes. Linear regressions of 15 min observations of BC versus NO and BC versus CO were performed from the data of these two sites individually. High correlations of BC with NO (R2 = 0.825, n = 343, p < 0.01) and with CO (R2 = 0.776, n = 352, p < 0.001) were observed at NUS (Figures 5a and b). Similarly, the EXW site also experienced high correlations of BC with NO (R2 = 0.891, n = 183, p < 0.001) and with CO (R2 = 0.861, n = 181, p < 0.001) as shown in Figures 5(c) and (d), respectively. These high correlations suggest a strong association between vehicular emissions and levels of BC. With these highly significant correlations, we have attempted to assess the contribution of vehicles to the BC concentration in the ambient air using the linear regression equations obtained from the plots of BC and CO in Figures 5(b) and (d) at the sites, NUS and EXW.
\n\nA linear regression of BC with CO yielded the following equations at NUS (Eq. 1) and EXW (Eq. 2):
\nwhere BC is in ng/m3 and CO is in ppbv. To estimate the contribution of BC from vehicular sources, we assumed that 90% of the total emission of CO is traffic generated. Therefore, the background CO in the absence of traffic would be 58.3 and 138.5 ppbv at NUS and EXW, respectively (i.e., 10% of 1 h average CO concentration; see Table 2). For these values of CO, Eqs. (1) and (2) gave an estimate of BC concentration of 1.6 and 1.4 µg/m3 at NUS and EXW, respectively, in the absence of traffic. The average ambient concentrations of BC at NUS and EXW were 6.2 and 7.2 µg/m3 (Table 2). Thus, the average concentrations of BC due to traffic were 4.6 and 5.8 µg/m3 at NUS and EXW. Finally, the contributions of vehicular traffic to the total BC concentration were estimated to be 74% and 80% at NUS and EXW, respectively. While EXW is close to the road, NUS is relatively far from the road. Consequently, the roadside environment involving human exposure to higher BC emissions could cause more health effects. It should be noted that the approach to estimate the traffic contribution toward air pollutants through the regression analysis has been used by other investigators. For example, Lim et al. [59] estimated the contribution of traffic to PAHs concentration using a regression equation.
\nAs described in Section 3.3, the traffic flow showed a significant influence on the levels of BC and CO. It is also evident from the past studies [55, 56] that vehicles have a dominant influence on the ambient levels of NO concentration. Therefore, to examine the role of vehicles on the levels of BC, CO, and NO, correlation coefficients were estimated between various species using Minitab 15 English. In this approach, we classified the entire observations into two parts with respect to the site characteristics (results are presented in Tables 4a and b). It should be noted that the observations were made in the ambient air at the sites, NUS and EXW. However, in the case of CTE, the observations were made inside the tunnel. In the correlation analysis, all pollutant concentrations and their corresponding traffic numbers (diesel‐driven and gasoline‐driven) were included at both NUS and EXW sites. The correlation analysis at CTE was made separately to ensure that the assessment of correlation was based on traffic flows only.
\n\n | BC | \nCO | \nNO | \nNd | \nNp | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BC | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
CO | \n0.85III | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n | \n |
NO | \n0.92III | \n0.21 | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n |
Nd | \n0.84III | \n0.29II | \n0.85III | \n1.00 | \n\n |
Np | \n0.27II | \n0.82III | \n0.88III | \n0.49III | \n1.00 | \n
Correlation matrix for NUS and EXW sites.
Nd: number of diesel‐driven vehicles; Np: number of gasoline‐driven vehicles.
Bold marks are statistically significant. Superscripts II and III denote that correlation is significant at P < 0.01 and P < 0.001.
\n | BC | \nCO | \nNd | \nNp | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
BC | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n | \n |
CO | \n0.91III | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n |
Nd | \n0.92III | \n0.56II | \n1.00 | \n\n |
Np | \n0.53II | \n0.94III | \n72III | \n1.00 | \n
Correlation matrix for CTE site.
Nd: number of diesel‐driven vehicles; Np: number of gasoline‐driven vehicles.
Bold marks are statistically significant. Superscripts II and III denote that correlation is significant at P < 0.01 and P < 0.001.
Table 4(a) presents the correlation matrix of the sites of NUS and EXW. The observations from this correlation analysis are summarized as follows: (1) BC concentration showed significant correlations with CO and NO, (2) BC concentration showed strong and significant correlations with the number of diesel‐driven vehicles monitored during that period, (3) CO concentrations showed a strong and significant correlation with the number of gasoline‐driven vehicles observed during that period, and (4) NO showed strong and significant correlations with both gasoline‐driven and diesel‐driven vehicles. Hence, it could be concluded that the BC concentrations were mainly influenced by the diesel‐driven vehicles. However, the CO concentrations were predominantly influenced by the gasoline‐driven vehicles.
\nTable 4(b) presents the correlation matrix of the site, CTE. It should be noted that the parameter, NO concentration, was not included due to unavailability of observational data. Overall, it can be seen that the concentrations of BC and CO were influenced by diesel‐driven and gasoline‐driven vehicles, respectively.
\nIn general, the variability of pollutant concentration levels strongly depends on the origin of the air masses arriving at the sampling site and the concentration of pollutants in the ambient air is influenced by the direction from which wind blows. In this study, we did not find any specific trends between wind directions and the concentrations of air pollutants at the measurement sites. For example, at the NUS site, we observed that winds mainly blew from the Northeast during the morning rush hour. However, on the following day, there was a change in the wind direction. To assess the role of meteorology in the variation of ambient levels of BC, CO, and NO, we estimated correlation coefficients between pollutant levels, wind speed, and wind direction using Minitab 15 English. As explained in Section 3.5, we considered the NUS and EXW sites in a single platform for correlation analysis and further interpretation. Table 5 presents the correlation matrix of BC, CO, NO, wind speed, and wind direction. It was observed that the wind direction had lower correlations with the air pollutant concentrations during the measurement period, indicating that there was little change of air pollution levels with the change in wind direction. The reason for such observations could be due to the fact that winds blowing from the South bring in clean marine air resulting in relatively low concentrations of air pollutants; however, the northerly winds originated from land air mass. Being influenced by human activities, the land air mass led to the enhancement in the level of air pollutants.
\n\n | BC | \nCO | \nNO | \nWS | \nWD | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BC | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
CO | \n0.85III | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n | \n |
NO | \n0.92III | \n0.21 | \n1.00 | \n\n | \n |
WS | \n-0.68III | \n-0.72III | \n-0.67III | \n1.00 | \n\n |
WD | \n0.14I | \n0.16I | \n0.15I | \n0.13I | \n1.00 | \n
Correlation matrix meant for meteorology at NUS and EXW sites.
WS: wind speed; WD: wind direction.
Bold marks are statistically significant. Superscripts I and III denote that correlation is significant at P < 0.05 and P < 0.001.
In general, wind speed is considered as one of the important parameters affecting the concentration of air pollutants. It determines the time taken to travel from a source to a given receptor and the total area over which the air pollutant would be dispersed. The wind speed showed strong and significant negative correlations with BC, CO, and NO. Higher wind speeds result in better mixing of air pollutants, causing their dilution. As the wind speed gets lower, air pollutants tend to get accumulated due to poor dispersion of air. Therefore, the concentration of BC < CO, and NO increased at low wind speeds. Harrison et al. [7] compared the daily mean elemental carbon concentration and wind speeds at Birmingham, and found quite a similar relationship as the one observed in this study.
\nThe present study investigated the on‐road emissions of BC, CO, and NO under real moving traffic conditions at four different measurement sites (NUS, EXW, CTE, and RME) of Singapore, an urban environment in the Asia‐pacific region. On the basis of 1 h observations, the mean BC varied from the lowest value at the RME site (1.7 µg/m3) to the highest one at the CTE site (45.6 µg/m3). Similarly, CO and NO varied from 336.3 ppbv at the RME site to 8322.4 ppbv at the CTE site and 60.0 ppbv at the NUS site to 100.2 ppbv at the EXE site, respectively. At the NUS site, BC showed pronounced peaks in the morning traffic hours (7:00–11:00) with a maximum of 8.9 µg/m3 at 9:00, and CO and NO showed pronounced peaks in the morning traffic hours (7:00–11:00) with maximum values of 959.7 and 102.8 ppbv, respectively, at 9:00, indicating that vehicular emission is an important source of BC, CO, and NO. The concentration of air pollutants in the tunnel site, CTE, was observed to be much higher than those at other measurement sites. The study revealed that diesel‐driven vehicles had a major influence on the ambient BC concentration. However, gasoline‐driven vehicles had more influence on ambient CO concentrations. The contribution of on‐road vehicles to the total BC concentration was estimated to be 74% and 80% at NUS and EXW, respectively. The statistical analysis of data obtained in this study showed significant correlations between BC, CO, and NO, confirming that the on‐road vehicles were the dominant source of these air pollutants. A significant negative correlation between wind speeds and concentrations of BC, CO, and NO was observed, confirming that the lower wind speed was mainly responsible for the accumulation of air pollutants in the sampling location due to poor dispersion of air.
\nOver the past decade, suicide has gained prominence across all social groups as the world experienced a significant change in lifestyle with the rise in technological advancement. There is a significant change in the way humans connect and the way information is being shared. The advent of social media has sparked the popularization of certain terms and it serves as a go-to place for firsthand information on happenings all over the world. These come with a need for equilibrium in other to avert the dire consequences it poses on mental health and wellbeing. Unfortunately, social media usage has popularized the act of suicide both directly and indirectly, from its means of information sharing to the influence and consequences it has on emotional health. Social media have indeed resulted in an upsurge of suicide risk factors and suicide-related behaviors.
\nThis chapter elucidates the existing affiliation between social media use and suicide. It also showcases the connection between social media and suicide on one hand and the potential of social media as a positive tool for wellbeing on the other hand.
\nIn a world where there is a constant need to enhance communication and connect with people, it is only inevitable for humans to find means of easing the process. The fact that man is a social being who does not exist in isolation spells out the importance of Communication to human survival. With the dawn of the information age, the internet era birthed a resolution to this dire human need of communication. The twentieth century experienced a surge in technological advancement, and this heralded the more sophisticated means of information sharing via social media. Social media are a platform or are platforms that make it possible to connect with other people all over the world by enabling communication through the sharing of content and information via a computer, a website or an application. The different platforms can be categorized base on the type of content being shared and the mode of sharing. There are now social networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Myspace, Snapchat, WhatsApp which provides an avenue for people all over the world to connect, communicate and share various contents in forms of pictures, videos, voice recordings, events, podcasts, web links and more. With this, people can share their day to day activities with family and friends. Although there is now a wide range of online activities that help ease work and day to day living, social media top the list as being the most popular online activity. From estimated statistics, the year 2018 revealed 2.65 billion constantly using social media worldwide. This statistic is also projected to increase to an estimate of 3.2 billion people constantly using social media in the year 2021 [1]. In Nigeria alone, 2018 statistics revealed an estimate of 29.3 million social network users which is projected to increase to an estimate of 36.8 million users in the year 2023 [1].
\nSocial networking platforms now facilitates the ability to detect the happenings in the life of others even without reaching out, people are able to project the type of lives they so desire to be displayed for others to see even when it is dissimilar to reality. There is now the possibility of having a social media life where people’s decisions are constantly being influenced by the activities of others. With these possibilities, come various gains as well as losses. Social media platforms are also a great source of news, information, entertainment, products, as well as tools for learning. Blogging websites, business directory, E-commerce website, informational websites, online communities and more are such veritable avenues for learning and obtaining information that people no longer have to physically present themselves in an educational setting in other to acquire skills. With the advent of such a video site as YouTube, there is now growing confidence in the opinion that anything can be learnt online. The advent of the internet and social media has indeed made life fluid. E-learning, E-commerce, E-banking, E-governance has changed the face of the world as it becomes more sophisticated and advanced. Social media have impacted the lifestyle of many from the way we develop social skills, relate to our loved ones, discover self and choose a career to the way we do business. There has been a significant shift and especially for the younger generation who are found to be the most avid users of social media.
\nA crucial point to note is the pitfalls which accompany the use of social media, it comes with experiences such as loss in concentration/motivation, comparison, lower grades, poor effects on physical and mental health, reduced social skills in real human contact, time wastage, wrong influences, quick access to vulgar information, internet Freud, cyberbullying and many more negativities. There is a prevailing irony with social media usage; could it be that the same medium which was created to ease social behavior might be the one destroying it? These evident factors demand that we get a full understanding of all precipitating and perpetuating factors of behavioral change due to social media usage, to find ways that balance can be attained. Indeed, social media are here to stay, hence; it is only important that humans establish means to unravel and unhinge its downsides.
\nSuicide is a calamitous act that calls to take antecedence as a major global health concern. It is simply the act of an individual ending his/her own life intentionally. According to other definitions, Suicide is defined as a death caused by one engaging in injurious behaviors toward self to die as a result of the behavior [2]. It can also be defined as purposeful behavior carried out either to manage or eradicate unbearable levels of pain in one’s present life circumstances [2].
\nSuicide is a leading cause of death, particularly among young people. Suicide occurs all over the world in all regions, across cultures, economic and social status and indeed all age groups. Although suicidal behaviors might differ across age groups, sex and geographic regions, no human is immune to it.
\nSuicide accounts for high rates of deaths in all regions of the world today. According to the WHO [3], statistics reveal close to 800,000 who take their own life every year and this estimated amount differentiates from those who attempt that act alone which sometimes can be more. Suicide is also known to occur throughout the life span with the highest occurrence happening during adolescence. Suicide is the third leading cause of death among 15-19-year-olds. In America, suicide is one of the 10 leading causes of death overall and in persons within the age group of 10–64 years [4]. Every suicide is both an individual tragedy and a part of a public health crisis that imposes a great burden on society [5]. The burden of suicide reaches beyond the deaths themselves, extending to family, friends, and colleagues of the individuals who have died by suicide [6]. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [7] it is estimated that between six and 32 survivors (e.g. close family and friends) are personally affected by suicide mortality in terms of increased mental health risk, and this may include increased risk of suicide for the bereaved. Concomitantly, suicide results in financial burdens, costing society approximately US$44.6 billion per year in combined medical and work loss costs [7]. Thus, the prevention of suicide has become a matter of paramount public health importance globally.
\nSuicide is preventable as it comes with lots of warning signs that, if detected early enough, can be cured. The more common cause of suicide known to many is depression. Although this majorly leads to suicide, many other factors come to play in explaining the cause of suicide. A combination of social, psychological, environmental, biological, medical and genetic factors could result in suicide. Various studies have been carried out in assessing the risk factors for suicide. Some risk factors associated with suicide are family history of suicide and child maltreatment, family history of alcohol/substance abuse and mental illnesses particularly depression, previous attempts at suicide, impulsive and aggressive behavioral tendencies, feelings of hopelessness, isolation, loss of loved ones, job or financial difficulties, physical illness, lack of access to mental health care, abuse, local epidemics of suicide, stigma and other factors that hinders one from seeking help [8].
\nIn a study [9] on suicide trajectories, it was revealed that although mental illnesses as depression and anxiety result in Suicidal Behaviors across the lifespan, past and present studies have revealed that other factors as impulsive aggression, conduct disorder, interpersonal conflict, antisocial behavior, and alcohol and substance abuse more prominently result in suicidal behaviors among adolescents and young adults.
\nThe suicide-related behaviors to always look out for are:
Feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness
Neglect of personal welfare
Lack of interest in usual fun activities
Irregular sleeping and eating habits
Social withdrawal and isolation
Overwhelmed feelings of pain
Anxiety and irritability
Suicidal ideation in which the individual engages with thoughts on how to end one’s life
Suicidal plan in which the individual makes plans and preparations toward ending his/her own life
Suicidal attempt in which the individual attempts self-injurious behavior with an intent to die
Although suicide is commonplace globally, there is still an existing stigma associated with this act and with any form of mental illness in some parts of the world today. This often prevents those who are at risk from speaking up and from seeking help. A study [10] revealed that although there has been a reduction in the stigmatization of mental illnesses, suicide remains as stigmatized as ever. Many developing countries of the world today, including Nigeria, do not have meaningful statistical records of suicide and suicide-related behaviors. Because there is no proper record of deaths and their causes in most developing countries, it can be said that suicide rates are grossly underreported globally.
\nThe relationship between social media and mental health is extant as social media are being linked to mental health problems like stress, psychological distress, anxiety and depression. In recent times, there is a rising research interest on this topic as research works carried out have established a link between mental health, lifestyle and social media. Social media have been linked to high rates of depression, anxiety and poor sleep, and research has revealed a 70% increase in depression and anxiety resulting from social media use in the past 25 years [11]. Other literatures have also described social media as being more addictive than substances like alcohol and cigarette [11]. There are now such terms as ‘Facebook depression’ which occurs as a result of spending so much time on Facebook and being exposed to the intensity of online activities of others that one starts to exhibit depressive symptoms. FOMO—Fear of Missing Out is another issue of mental health concern that results from the constant use of social media. It is a form of anxiety aroused by the fear that others might be having exciting and rewarding experiences from which one is missing out on. It results in the constant desire to be everywhere events are taking place, the constant need to check one’s phone for the latest updates, the obsessive desire to always stay connected with what others are doing [12]. FOMO often affects both mental and physical health, and it results in the feeling of inferiority, life dissatisfaction, mood swings, low self-esteem, loneliness, increased negative feelings and depression [12].
\nSocial media also encourage attitudes that are unhealthy to mental health such as unhealthy comparisons, jealousy, emulations, and counterfeit appearances. Most people put up only the best version of their lives on social media and with this might torture others who follow them and aspire to be like them. It has encouraged the living of fake lives just for social media presence.
\nThe change in lifestyle that results from social media use has become an issue of concern globally due to the rising rate of mental health disorders. It has become important for people to learn proper ways of using social media to their benefit and not otherwise.
\nSocial media and its effect on suicide related behavior have now become a topic of growing concern and debate [13]. The question that results is if social media help in suicide prevention or helps in increasing suicidal behaviors. Social media and the internet, in general, have helped in the advancement of communication, social connections, and businesses, which have helped make man’s life better. This being the case, in promoting suicide prevention, social media come in handy as a powerful tool, as this same platform is now evidently being associated with enhancing suicidal behaviors especially among teenagers. The risk of social media usage today is now more associated with adolescents simply because they are the more vulnerable population who are likely to be influenced. The adolescent stage is a stage of significant developmental changes where there is an increased risk of experimentation and peer emulation, teens at this stage are trying to form an identity that leads them to be more susceptible to peer pressures. With adolescence comes the tendency to engage in risky behaviors which also explains why there is a high rate of social media misuse among adolescents.
\nThere is no doubt that adolescents have a lot to benefit from the use of social media both socially, academically and personally. It helps in enhancing communication skills and connecting with others. They can experiment with self-expression, share ideas and learn from others. It also helps in developing new interests and skills as there are basic social and technical skills important to everyday functioning that are learnt through social media use [14]. Most adolescents utilize social media as an extension of activities and relationships that take place at school; with social media, they can build on their social skills and enrich their friendships [14]. With this, it can be said that teen deprivation of social media could take its toll on their social skills and learning experiences.
\nSocial media also serve as a useful tool to reach people in crises by providing information, guidance, and support. In present times, the internet has been employed as a tool of intervention for those facing several types of mental difficulties. With social media, online resources/information, counseling/therapy, and support groups can be easily accessed. On the downside, there is the risk of accessing vulgar, distressing and negative information that affects more vulnerable people. There are now series of contents that not only encourage risky behaviors like substance abuse, casual sex, sexting, pornography, inappropriate sexual behaviors, and suicide but also go out to attack or bully others into these behaviors.
\nThis is also referred to as cyber-harassment or online bullying. It is a form of bullying or harassment that takes place online using electronic devices like mobile phones and computers and social media are the main platform often used in carrying out this act. In cyberbullying, the perpetrator harasses the victim by putting out negative, harmful and false posts, comments and contents about the victim [15]. It could also involve the perpetrator sending out private information about the victim to embarrass or humiliate the other party [15]. An eminent example is an act of cyberbullying that led to the death of a college student in 2010 called Tyler Clementi who committed suicide after a fellow student posted her private sexual encounter with another male student on social media [16]. Cyberbullicide is suicide which results from cyberbullying. Cyberbullying has led to suicide and suicidal behaviors among adolescents. Victims of cyberbullying are at a higher risk of experiencing self-harm and suicidal behaviors than those who are not [17]. Teenagers who experience any form of bullying including cyberbullying are at a higher risk of anxiety, sleep deprivation, poor academic performance, dropping out of school and depression [18]. It has been recorded that Seven in ten young people have experienced cyberbullying, with 37% of them saying they experience cyberbullying on a high-frequency basis [11]. Research [19] also revealed that students who experience any form of bullying and cyberbullying are twice more likely to attempt suicide. In a study [20], 33.8% of students reported that they have been cyberbullied in their lifetime while 11.5% admitted to having cyberbullied others.
\nThis can be defined as the feelings and negative attitudes a person has about their body and is usually influenced by certain factors such as the cultural norms relating to an ideal body, personal perceptions toward weight gain, and body appearance [21]. In a study [22] social media were revealed to influence the attitude of young women and adolescent girls causing them to engage in social comparisons which often leads to the feeling of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction. Concerns with body image lead people to depression and suicidal thoughts. Body image dissatisfaction occurs in both male and female although it tends to be more common in females, both genders are exposed to images online which they tend to fix as their perfect and ideal body. The activities and images portrayed by celebrities and social media influencers play a huge role in shaping standards for young people as they strive to emulate their admirers online.
\nBody image dissatisfaction often results in feelings of low self-esteem, depression, low body confidence, eating disorders. Results from a study revealed a link between suicide ideation and how both male and female adolescents perceive their body image [23].
\nThe link between social media use and substance abuse cannot be overlooked as social media are not only capable of pressuring one to use substances but also provide a platform that eases the process of accessing hard drugs. Drug dealers now use social media to connect with their buyers all over the world which makes it easy to purchase hard drugs online. Adolescents through social media are being constantly exposed to the popularity of drug use, it has become commonplace to see celebrities display their use of hard drugs online [24]. The behavior of celebrities and social media influencers who glamorize and normalize the abuse of substances on social media goes a long way in influencing the attitude of adolescents who follow them [24]. Most adolescent engages in comparison with such social media influencers and by these, they begin to lose their values as they seek to emulate the popular behaviors they perceive online. Such social comparison could lead to depressive symptoms and other mental health difficulties which could in turn fuel the abuse of substances. The view that friends and fans on social media are having fun with their lifestyle can tempt adolescents into risky behaviors just to fit in. All these experiences are detrimental to mental health and can increase suicide risk.
\nThis is a possible increase in suicide or suicide-related behaviors that results from exposure to information on suicide-related behaviors and actual suicide occurrences within one’s immediate group. This form of information is often passed across through social media and can become popular within a very short time. The term ‘Werther effect’ explains a case of suicide that occurs as a result of a person copying cases of suicidal behaviors seen or heard of from various online platforms. Werther effect also referred to as copycat suicide and it explains the process of suicide contagion [16]. A person who has prior suicidal thoughts but is unable to carry out the act for several contingent issues of concern can suddenly become motivated to carry out the act after learning of another’s case of suicide on media. The term ‘Werther’ was derived from a book written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe titled ‘The Sorrows of Young Werther’, in which the principal character in the book named Werther, ends his own life by shooting himself at his desk [25]. After the book was published, several suicide cases were recorded with similar methods to the suicide case described in the book. This made it evident that the suicide cases that followed were influenced by that of Werther’s character in the novel. Reporting of suicide cases especially celebrity suicide has popularized the incidence of suicide among the general public and it has now become very crucial that guidelines be adhered to, to reduce the popularity of suicide through Werther Effect.
\nAs has been reiterated severally, and with good reason, Social media have changed the world as we have come to know it, and this includes the mental health of the populace. The potential detrimental, stressor and suicidal capacity of social media use has been largely investigated and somewhat accepted. Dissimilarly, however, the potential use of online social media in suicide prevention is only in its infancy as it is only recently started accruing mainstream attention.
\nLogically, preventing any menace will center majorly on efforts to handicap its perpetrating factors, and in the same vein, involve an in-depth understanding of its underlying mechanism and attempting to impede it at any and several stages in its evolution.
\nAlmost all cases of successful and failed suicidal attempts have a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) psychiatric illness. Mood disorders, principally major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are associated with about 60% of suicides [26, 27, 28].
\nConsequently, any efforts at using social media to avert suicide must cater for mental health broadly; increasing its awareness, diagnosis and treatment alongside providing a means to access appropriate help.
\nNowadays, in the age of the internet, young people can effortlessly access and share content across the globe in the snap of a finger using varying platforms including but not exclusive to collaborative projects (e.g. Wikipedia and social bookmarking), blogs and microblogs (e.g. Twitter), content communities (e.g. YouTube), social networking sites (e.g. Facebook, WhatsApp), virtual game and social worlds [29]. These avenues can and have been used by youth to find out about suicide and varying means of perpetrating it as well as making suicide pacts with other distressed individuals. Alas, fortunately, this provides an opportunity to find and intervene early if someone expresses suicidal intent as well as an avenue for people who have felt suicidal in the past to help persons currently feeling so.
\nIn a small-scale internet survey administered by Robinson et al. they noted that respondents had identified social media as an avenue to provide support and equally receive help as relating to suicide, with the respondents acknowledging increased feelings of well-being by being able to help and support suicidal persons; the latter further accentuating previous reports that social media users found the ability to help therapeutic in and of itself. This beneficial reversibility of roles provided by social media is not applicable in one-on-one therapy. Another immense advantage of social media also highlighted by respondents was the potential to intervene swiftly if and when persons expressed suicidal intent online. Two previous studies cited this as a unique benefit of social media [30, 31]. One of these reports [31] described a successful intervention in a suicide attempt following the posting of a suicide note on Twitter.
\nA more representative and personal experience is shared by Reidenberg, the Executive director of the United States-based prevention organization Suicide Awareness Voices of Education (SAVE) [32].
\nDaniel Reidenberg was scanning Facebook for his suicide-prevention organization on a Friday evening in the spring of 2014 when he noticed the post of a clearly suicidal young widow who had declared the intent to take her life and that of her baby. As he had a wealth of experience working with Facebook and other digital companies on the prevention of suicide, he knew exactly what to do: he contacted Facebook’s safety center. Although, there was no indication in the post of the woman’s location, he knew Facebook would still be able to find her, and that they did in very few minutes. Facebook employees determined the woman had posted her message from an Internet café in a small village in South America. They contacted the local police. Holding a picture from the woman’s Facebook page, police officers walked through the village. Within ten minutes of leaving the café, the police found were able to find her and get her into a hospital and get her childcare [32].
\nWith 2 billion people using social media and 500 million people posting on Facebook alone, there is “a lot of opportunity for intervention and prevention,” says Reidenberg. “It’s critical that everyone starts looking at this new era with technology being involved in the field of suicide prevention. It isn’t just going to a doctor’s office any longer—it is that ‘plus’.”
\n“In a few short years since some of the big social media companies began meeting periodically at Facebook’s California head office in 2011 to brainstorm about what to do, the world’s largest social network has rolled out a direct intervention. In 25 of the 50 American states, when a user posts a message on Facebook containing a phrase that its algorithms flag as indicating suicidal thoughts or intentions, a banner pops up on the user’s page. Friends viewing the post can also click on an icon that reports the message, sending it to the Facebook safety centre to review” [32].
\nThe automatic banner asks whether the user needs help and provides the number of the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline. Facebook then contacts the user and offers to connect him or her to the distress line. The message includes tips and links to support videos aligned with best prevention practices. Facebook may also freeze the user’s page until the person in distress has interacted with the support applications. The program is billed to be expanded to the entire country and is even said to piloted in some undisclosed countries [32].
\nA psychiatrist has said that Facebook’s program raises a ‘thorny’ issue as users can post content they don’t intend to act on. Reidenberg acknowledged that companies are wrestling with the privacy issue, but he reminded the audience at the International Association for Suicide Prevention’s annual conference in Montréal, Quebec, that once someone posts anything on a social media site—even if it’s personal health information—it is no longer private [32].
\nCurrent efforts at suicide prevention center largely on reducing suicidal desire among individuals hospitalized for suicidality or being treated for related psychopathology. Such efforts have yielded evidence-based treatments, and yet the national suicide rate has continued to climb [33]. The contrast between the robust evidence base for several treatments and the continually increasing suicide rate points toward a vital disconnect between the primary problem and the tools we are using to address it [33].
\nRightly so, new frontiers and novel approaches to suicide prevention are emerging by the day. One such compelling proposal was made by Michael et al. [33], who propose that this disconnect is heavily influenced by an unmet need to consider population-level interventions aimed at reducing the capability for suicide.
\nHIV death rates peaked in 1965, necessitating the need for national-level intervention strategies. However, one that was noted to have been quite effective was the needle exchange program whose aim was to reduce needle sharing, which at the time was the main means of contracting the disease. It also provided an avenue for counseling and health education on safe sex and intravenous drug use. A similar approach was employed to drastically reduce the incidence and prevalence of lung cancer by aggressive public education, increased taxation of cigarette companies, policies limiting places where smokers could publicly smoke as well as the introduction of cigarette filters. By the same token, vehicular accidents were massively reduced by laws imposing the use of seatbelts, child passenger safety and bans on alcohol consumption whilst driving.
\nDrawing from these largely successful interventions that quelled major public health concerns, Michael et al. resolved that a similar population-level means restriction approach be undertaken. They postulate that achieving a position of strength as regards suicide prevention will stem from a more adept understanding of the mechanism underpinning various aspects of suicide risk. A recent meta-analysis by Franklin et al has shown no increased predictive value of the past few decades of research examining traditional risk factors of suicide. Besides, research has shown that lots of people who think about taking their own lives, never do and the great majority who do try do not die by suicide. The failure of these traditional methods has led to a new approach in suicidology, “ideation to action framework”, which has heralded the various psychological theories of suicide. Foremost and oldest amongst these theories is the interpersonal theory of suicide.
\nThe interpersonal theory of suicide (ITS) [34] posits that individuals are at greatest risk of suicide ideation when they feel a sense of burdensomeness to others, lack a sense of belonging, and feel hopeless that these states will change. Although, the ability to make a suicidal attempt is acquired through exposure to painful and provocative events, such as experiences that heighten individuals’ pain tolerance and fearlessness about death. Examples of such painful and provocative events include starvation [35], risky illegal behaviors [36], and combat [37]. Additionally, research has indicated that genetic factors may influence individuals’ capability for suicide [38]. Conclusively, both suicidal ideation and suicidal capacity must be present for suicidal behavior to ensue [33]. O’Connor’s Integrated Motivational–Volitional Model of Suicidal Behavior (IMV) [39] is another suicidal theory influenced by the ITS. Both the IMV and ITS have been empirically tested and supported [40]. Klonsky and May [41] have proposed and empirically tested the most recent of theory within the ideation to action framework, the Three-Step Theory (3ST).
\nAll three theories posit that suicidal intent and suicidal capacity must be present for suicide to ensue. Although defined somewhat differently across each theory, they posit that for a suicidal or lethal attempt to occur, suicidal capacity must be in play. It is important to note that capacity is not in and of itself pathological, in actual fact it is beneficial and can be adaptive in the right circumstances. For instance, increased comfort with blood would prove beneficial to emergency doctors and nurses, likewise, an increased fearlessness of death would enable soldiers to complete a dangerous mission. However, in conditions where persons with an elevated capacity for suicide also experience danger and an increased suicidal desire, the odds for a fatal suicidal attempt increase substantially. Consequently, this offers a promising opportunity for the development of broader-scale national level preventive interventions that target suicidal capacity, even in individuals who deny suicidal thoughts. The most prominent example of such approaches currently in practice, albeit sporadically, is means safety [33]. Novel as this may seem, it’s actually an age long, veritably tested and acknowledged measure as evinced by the significant reduction in suicide rates following reduced packaging and access to drugs known to be lethal in high doses, restriction of access to suicide hotspots (bridge barriers), detoxification of gas, ban on popular insecticides frequently used to execute suicide. This effect was witnessed in 2006 in Israel as the Israeli defense Force prevented soldiers from taking their firearms home over the weekend having noted that firearm suicide was high over weekends. As much as a 40% reduction was noted in suicide rates amongst soldiers aged 18–21 following the intervention. Literature, scientific and historical, is fraught with successful campaigns of means restriction/safety. Decreased access to and safe use/storage of lethal means might represent an opportunity to address an important aspect of the capability for suicide without diminishing the ability of individuals to succeed in their chosen professions and environments [33].
\nA reasonable concern among individuals first hearing about means safety is the possibility that limiting access to one specific method for suicide will simply result in individuals dying by another method. Importantly, this argument has been largely refuted by available research [33]. In his review of means restriction and means substitution research, Daigle [42] found little evidence in favor of means substitution, Similarly, Sarchiapone et al. [43] also examined the effect of broad-scale means safety efforts and found that means substitution was uncommon across a variety of methods.
\nThe overwhelming evidence for means restriction and safety, as a means of suicide prevention, lends credence to the recommendation that it be promulgated into law. Whilst a few countries have passed laws and regulations encouraging means restriction, most are yet to. Social media advocacy can be a veritable tool to ensure legislation of means restriction and safety globally, public education on the importance of the subject matter and ultimately shift public perception and cultural views on means safety.
\nAnother budding and promising endeavor for the cause of suicide prevention, presented by recent advancements in science and technology, is ‘big data’. Generally, big data is high-volume, high-velocity and high-variety data usually in its raw inedited format and coming from diverse sources. This large data set potentially offers scientists and researchers alike, the access to an unprecedented sample size to experiment and test hypothesis and published data. More so, analytics of text, images, videos, audio and social media information can be used to extract information, patterns, relationships and diversities which can in turn be used to predict suicide risk in varying demographics the world over. Additionally, this may also impel the development of online and app-based interventions to extend even to persons who are unawares of their suicidal capacity. One such app is Therapeutic Evaluative Conditioning, TEC, which aims to alter an individual’s association with suicidal behavior. Although, caution has been advised with its use, it exemplifies the burgeoning opportunities the use of big-data will afford the world in preventing suicide.
\nThe media are a something of a double-edged sword as concerning its effect on mental health and suicide, making its use in suicide prevention fraught with a lot of danger; hence, caution must be exercised in this undertaking. Albeit, this chapter is replete with means by which the internet can be used to prevent suicide, it can also exacerbate suicide risk by glamorizing suicide or promoting it as a solution to life’s problems. As elucidated by Pirkis and Blood [44, 45] and Gould [46], the latter could encourage distressed and suicidal individuals to actually attempt suicide or be drawn to suicide hot spots portrayed in various media. The Internet is of increasing concern, particularly the effects of suicide chat rooms, the provision of instruction in methods for suicide, and the active solicitation of suicide-pact partners [47]. Media blackouts on reporting suicide have coincided with decreases in suicide rates [48]. A 1987 campaign [49] to decrease media coverage of subway suicides in Austria cut subway suicides by 80%. This only goes to show how vital the education of journalists and reporters is, as well as the regulation of suicide reporting. The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention [50] and Annenberg Public Policy Center, and The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [51] in the United States have produced guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide; however, no published studies have evaluated their impact [47].
\nAdditionally, in an online survey by Robinson et al. [29], most organizations that facilitated user-user interaction via their social media sites had trained moderators in situ; however, few had clear safety protocols or a code of ethics underpinning their work. The need for clear protocols and ethical standards for suicide prevention activities using social media platforms has been emphasized before [52]. The subsequent implementation of these guidelines will be an important step toward enhancing the safe delivery of suicide prevention initiatives using the internet [29].
\nRobinson et al. [29] identified the need for more interventional studies for persons at risk of suicide, and bereaved due to suicide; they also noted the need for additional research investigating the safety and ethics of delivering interventions via social media.
\nThe unstructured, formless and anonymous nature of social media has constituted not only systematic but also ethical challenges for researchers and other stake holders looking to use social media to curb suicide. It has therefore become something of a necessity that if this endeavor were to be successful, the development of methodologies that can be rigorously and aptly applied to researches that utilize social media as a platform has become imperative. In the same vein, service-related guidelines that will ensure the acceptability, utility, efficacy, and ethical standards of social media-based suicide prevention services must be formulated. In doing this, researchers must work more closely with agencies and organizations involved in using social media for suicide prevention to ensure the practical applicability of these guidelines as well as their implementation.
\nLocally and internationally, researchers have shown that detailed and sensationalized reporting of suicide is associated with suicidal behavior especially in persons in the same sex-age demographics as the deceased even after accounting for reporting and methodological and reporting bias.
\nFollowing the release of JW Von Goethe’s novel ‘The Sorrows of Jung Werther’, imitative suicides of young men across European countries were identified leading to the coining of the term ‘The Werther effect’. Similarly, there was an increase of about 12% in suicide rates after the suicidal death of famous American model and actress, Marilyn Monroe. Numerous studies have shown that the copycat and imitation effects of media reporting are primarily found for vulnerable people, such as people with depression and those who have engaged in self-harm [53].
\nThe provision and compliance with media reporting guidelines have heralded applaudable impact with reduction in suicide rates and use of lethal weapons. However, Bohanna and Wang report that media guidelines can be effective only when ‘accompanied by media endorsement, active dissemination strategies and ongoing training and monitoring’ [54].
\nThe internet has heralded an age of global interconnection via social media and this wave of modernization has become ingrained in almost all human endeavors leaving an indelible mark of positives as well as negatives on the very fabric of society. In this time, suicide and suicidal behavior have snowballed especially amongst young people, the most avid social media users.
\nThis chapter is replete with empirical evidence to disprove any coincidentally in this simultaneous pattern of events as well as establish that social media usage is associated with mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, etc. Phenomena such as cyber-bullying, body image dissatisfaction, substance abuse, suicide contagion and celebrity suicide that are caused or promoted by social media are contributory to self-harming and suicidal behavior.
\nWe have examined the existing channels of suicide prevention via social media as well as the potential and novel avenues it presents for the prevention of suicide and suicidal behavior. Emphasis was placed on the use of ‘big data’ and appropriate reporting of suicide following laid down guidelines. A major talking point was the adoption of a new approach to exploring the mechanism of suicide and reducing the capacity for it.
\nFuture priorities identified included more inquiry and research into the safety and ethics of delivering suicide prevention interventions online whilst developing and enforcing service-related guidelines. Additionally, legislative enforcement and media endorsement of suicide reporting guidelines should be acidly pursued.
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