Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
\r\n\tSome of them are potential hazards caused by novel (bio)technologies, such as nanoparticles or process-related toxicants. Others are well-known hazards that climate change and new trends in food consumption have now moved under the spotlight. Some are due to the deliberate adulteration of food for economic reasons, that is strongly affecting the global market.
\r\n\tFood scientists are strongly involved in tackling this global challenge, supported by novel technologies and ICT-based tools. On one hand, innovative analytical approaches, mainly based on omics science and big data, may offer a great support for hazard characterization and risk assessment. On the other hand, early warning tools are strongly needed to efficiently support risk management and avoid food losses.
\r\n\tAlthough many contaminants are regulated worldwide and routine control plans ensure the compliance of food before entering our plate, scientists are now focusing their research not only on single compounds, but mainly on a cocktail of toxicants thanks to biomonitoring and imaging techniques. This change in the approach will lead to a new design of risk assessment within few years.
\r\n\tBesides traditional players, like scientists and policy-makers, also agro-food companies are investing efforts and resources in the identification and assessment of emerging risks, to meet consumer’s demand of safer food and prevent misleading communication.
\r\n\tIt is clear that the food safety scenario is rapidly changing, driven by innovation and big data. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview on the methodological advances the scientific community has brought about to face emerging risks and new trends.The main emerging risks will be covered, and methodological improvements will be outlined. Strategies in management and communication will be described. New market trends and consumers’ behavior leading to a change in the future scenario, will be discussed.
Vascular injuries caused by civilian or war trauma represent a surgical challenge. These lesions are potentially lethal and can cause death at the scene. One of the most fascinating and misdiagnosed complications of vascular injuries is the arteriovenous fistula (AVF), which results from a direct communication between an artery and a vein. They are usually secondary to penetrating trauma and occasionally may be diagnosed many years after the injury.
Knowledge and experience on vascular trauma was obtained especially in wartime. In 1757 William Hunter has described the physiopathology associated with an AVF and since then the management of these clinical problem has challenged many surgeons.
In addition to case reports of the 19th Century, there have been many published series resulting from wartime experience throughout the 20th Century. Much of the experience acquired from treating and diagnosing AVF comes from the II World War and the Korean and Vietnam Wars. In the Korean conflict as many as 215 fistulas and aneurysms have been described. Cumulative, fistulas and false aneurysms may account for 7 % of the casualties in Vietnam. At that time, diagnosis was established by physical examination with palpation and auscultation, and confirmed by arteriography.
Most cases of arteriovenous fistulas and pseudoaneurysms were treated conservatively in wartime, and operated only later.
Most recently, experience has been obtained from the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. Treatment has evolved over the past decades thanks to the endovascular techniques, however early diagnosing still seems to be a challenge. Even in recent studies arteriovenous fistulas are frequently occult findings and are diagnosed only when an arteriogram is performed.
Traumatic AVFs are usually caused by penetrating trauma, accounting for as many as 90 % of cases. Blunt trauma is rarely the cause and it is responsible for the other 10 %. Gunshot wounds are the most frequent ones, but stab wounds and iatrogenic lesions may also account for traumatic AVFs.
Most of the military trauma injuries affect the extremities. On the other hand extremities and abdominal injuries are equally distributed in the civilian population.
Traumatic AVFs often result from a cold weapon or a small-caliber bullet, as high-velocity lesions are usually cause of hemorrhage and potentially hemodynamic shock (Fig 1 and 2).
Three-dimensional computed tomography (CT) reconstruction shows an AVF involving below the the knee vessels and multiple bullet shrapnel near the lesion.
Three dimensional CT reconstruction shows a brachial AVF associated with a pseudoaneurysm after a stab wound in the arm.
When it comes from iatrogenic lesions, the most frequent are the ones caused by percutaneous interventions such as renal biopsies, cardiac catheterization and orthopedic procedures. Therapeutic procedures and their complexity increase the risk. Following cardiac catheterization the femoral AVF is the most common. Nonetheless it has also been reported carotid or subclavian AVFs following placement of a central venous catheters.
Carotid-cavernous fistulae (CCF) are usually traumatic and potentially lethal. Mechanisms include fractures to the base of the skull, penetrating wounds and even more rarely rupture of preexisting aneurysms.
Post-traumatic AVF is an unusual disease with a wide variability of presentations. They are often asymptomatic, but when significant can cause rapid shunting with return of oxygenated blood to the right heart. Clinical signs may be detected from a few hours to many years after the injury and may vary according to the location and diameter of the affected vessels.
The clinical diagnosis of a traumatic AVF is based on a history of trauma and meticulous physical examination. Physical examination with palpation and auscultation may reveal thrills, murmurs, bruits and a pulsatile mass. Distal pulses may be palpable, but the AVF can shunt away blood from the extremity and cause symptoms of distal ischemia.
The Nicoladoni-Israel-Branham\'s sign may be present: the manual compression of the fistula or the artery proximal to the fistula causes a decrease in the heart rate. This maneuver produces an increase in peripheral vascular resistance and afterload. The response to the increased afterload is a reflex bradycardia.
In a trauma scenario bone fractures or neurologic deficits can raise the suspicion of a vascular injury, especially when the physical examination is not remarkable.
Chronic fistulas are even more rare, and large flow AVFs can present with symptoms of high output congestive heart failure, edema and cardiomegaly. Those more prompt to develop a delayed presentation are young trauma victims.
Aneurysmal degeneration of the involved arterial and venous segments may also occur due to structural changes secondary to hemodynamic stress (Fig 3). Fistulas affecting the extremities may lead to signs of venous hypertension, varicosities, pain and limb overgrowth. Pulsatile varicose veins can draw attention to the pathology lying underneath (Fig 4 and 5).
As regard to CCF, clinical signs include pulsatile exophthalmos, eyeball redness, bruit, diplopia, ptosis, visual disturbances, and loss of visual acuity. During physical examination it has been observed that the bruit shall disappear should the examiner occlude the ICA by digital compression.
Three-dimensional CT reconstruction shows aneurysmal degeneration of iliac and femoral arteries and veins secondary to an AVF involving below the knee vessels.
According to literature, the most frequent locations are the femoral and popliteal vessels. Other sites include aorto-caval, iliac, carotid-jugular and renal fistulas.
The differential diagnosis must include pseudoaneurysm, true aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, cyst, abscess and hematoma. One must remember that nonvascular lesions may appear pulsatile due to transmitted pulsation from adjacent arteries.
Contrast-enhanced CT demonstrates an AVF between femoral artery and vein, secondary to a gunshot wound 15 years earlier, with left lower limb overgrowth and venous hypertension.
The same patient of
Diagnosis is usually difficult and greatly dependent on imaging studies. Arteriography was the main exam in the 1960 and 1970s and still plays an important role in diagnosing AVF. However, nowadays the computed tomography (CT) angiography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and color Doppler have been playing an important role in the diagnosis of this pathology.
Arteriography is still the gold standard exam for diagnosing vascular traumas, including traumatic AVFs. Catheter based angiography is a dynamic study and can, in most cases accurately demonstrates the arteries filling the fistula and the exact point of the arteriovenous communication. The major disadvantages of conventional arteriography are the cost of the procedure, the delay that occurs before arteriography, and the need for a specialized team comprising a physician, angiography technologist, and nurse. Besides being an invasive exam that requires an arterial access it can result in a number of different complications.
Computed tomographic angiography is a reliable and convenient imaging modality for diagnosing AVF after blunt and penetrating trauma. It is a noninvasive modality that could replace conventional arteriography as the initial diagnostic study for arterial injuries after trauma, even when the suspected diagnosis is an AVF. The technique requires scanning with multidetector helical CT after rapid intravenous injection of iodinated contrast material. This is a noninvasive, accurate, and easily accessible diagnostic imaging test acquired by a single trained technologist.
In recent years CT is increasingly available in the emergency setting. The development of helical CT scanners with a multi-detector row configuration and three-dimensional postprocessing has further encouraged the use of CT angiography in the evaluation of a suspected vascular injury. High quality axial images and reformatted angiography exams can be obtained in a shorter time than with other modalities and with a lesser complication rate than catheter angiography.
In some cases metallic streak artifact, motion artifact, and inadequate arterial opacification may render a CT angiogram nondiagnostic. Streak artifacts are the major limiting factor of CT angiography to demonstrate AVFs after penetrating missile injuries. The deposited metallic fragments may create streak artifacts that obscure the arteries, commonly at the exact location where the AVF is likely to occur (Fig. 6). In these cases, angiography is necessary for optimal assessment.
Contrast-enhanced CT has also an important role in surgical planning because it can reveal where the lesion is, its extension, and its relation to adjacent structures, mainly in the abdominal or thoracic cavities. It is also important for endovascular treatment planning allowing precise measurements of the diameters and length of involved vessels. Computed tomography and MRI typically show early contrast filling in the vein during the arterial phase (Fig. 7).
Computed tomography in a patient who sustained an iliac AVF with bullet fragments obscuring the vessels near the arteriovenous communication
Angiography and CT share the same complications rates related to the use of iodinated contrast, like allergic reactions and renal function impairment and requires also the use of radiation for execution.
Some authors have also proposed MRI for assessment of vascular injuries including traumatic AVF, but it may be limited for depiction of concurrent osseous injuries. Furthermore, MR is not well suited for some patients with impacted metallic fragments and acutely injured ones requiring life support devices as they may be not compatible with the magnet.
In chronic AVF both the artery and the vein dilate and elongate in response to the greater blood flow and shear stress, but the vein dilates more and becomes "arterialized". Findings include a pseudoaneurysm, large venous aneurysms, proximal dilation of the artery or hematoma of the vessel wall (Fig. 7).
Contrast-enhanced CT shows dilated inferior vena cava with the same contrast opacification of the aorta in the arterial phase in a patient with iliac AVF.
In the setting of a suspected AVF, not confirmed by physical findings, the color doppler, a simple non-invasive method can usually clear out the diagnosis. Gray-scale ultrasound imaging is not helpful in the evaluation of acute AVF, although may be important in chronic AVF when the high flow state has caused dilatation of the vein and artery. Color doppler imaging is usually diagnostic. Tissue vibrations caused by turbulent flow are the most notable color Doppler finding. Also, the exact spot of the arteriovenous communication can sometimes be identified. The Doppler waveform in the feeding artery shows a low resistance pattern with increased diastolic flow. The jet of arterial flow entering the vein can cause a marked flow disturbance and chaotic waveform or an arterial waveform is present in more severe cases (Fig 8, 9).
Ultrasound demonstrates the arteriovenous communication in a brachial AVF secondary to a stab wound.
Color Doppler shows the communication between the brachial artery and vein with marked flow disturbance in the same patient of
All imaging studies used in the diagnosis of arterial or venous diseases may play a role in traumatic AVF diagnosing. Nowadays color doppler and CT angiography are the usual exams, and the catheter based angiography is performed only for the more complex cases and as confirmatory exam or when it is necessary for planning the endovascular treatment.
Early recognition and prompt repair may lead to a significant decrease in the number of complications such as congestive heart failure or venous hypertension of the limb. AVFs do not resolve spontaneously in the majority cases. The aim of the treatment is the closure of the AVF, with preservation of patency of the main vessels.
Surgical repair using traditional surgical techniques is feasible. However, an open approach for many of these lesions may be fraught with peril owing to grossly distorted and edematous tissue planes. Arterial and venous repair with the saphenous vein or prosthetic graft were largely used in the war series and are still used nowadays. Venous ligation can be used depending on its diameter, quadruple ligation-excision and complex reconstructions may be used. However, late presentation of AVF is prone to significant intraoperative bleeding due to the complex venous anatomy encountered during surgical dissection and repair. Associated morbidities can include limb ischemia, gangrene, limb loss, Vena Cava thrombosis, pulmonary embolus, venous stasis, and uncontrollable bleeding.
In an effort to avoid the morbidity and mortality associated with an open approach for traumatic AVFs, the focus has shifted to endovascular techniques. The main advantage of endovascular approach is that the system can be inserted through a remote access site, obviating the need for extensive surgical exposure. Endovascular repair can include the use of covered stents and coil embolization, depending on the location and diameter of the involved vessels. In some cases open surgical repair has prohibitive morbidity and mortality, and a minimal invasive technique has emerged as an effective treatment alternative. Recognized advantages of endovascular repair for traumatic AVF compared with open repair include diminished pain, decreased disability and rapid recovery. The first recorded repair of an AVF using an endovascular approach was in 1992 by Parodi when a covered stent was deployed to treat a traumatic AVF in subclavian vessels.
The goal of endovascular therapy is the selective elimination of the vascular lesion, with the preservation of normal patency of the essential vessels. Endovascular therapy using covered stents and coils are both feasible and safe for treating traumatic AVF. Of these endovascular methods, stent-graft placement can be used to exclude the fistula from circulation and preserve the parent artery and vein. Embolization with coils may be used in selective cases, when nonessential vessels are responsible for the arteriovenous communication, and both procedures may be associated. Complications during covered stent placement are due to dissection or rupture and embolization of the devices causing ischemic complications.
Sequential figures show catheter-based angiography demonstrating AVF in tibial anterior and posterior vessels, subsequent self-expanding covered stents deployment and final arteriography demonstrating closure of the arteriovenous communication.
Subacute thrombosis and intimal hyperplasia leading to in-stent stenosis or vessel occlusion are other complications associated with covered stents. The long-term patency of these devices is unknown. Some authors consider that balloon-expandable covered stents like Advanta V12 (Atrium, USA) are better when accurate deployment is required. We believe that newer self-expanding devices, such as Fluency (Bard, USA) and Viabahn (Gore, USA), which are stent grafts composed of nitinol stents covered with polytetrafluoroethylene, are more flexible, conform more easily to the vessel walls, and the polytetrafluoroethylene covering is less thrombogenic. Therefore, we thought that these devices appear to be more suitable. When chronic AVF presents with very enlarged vessels the use of endografts primarily designed for aortic and iliac diseases may be used in aorto-iliac and other vessels (Fig. 10,11, 12).
Computed tomography in coronal view show an iliac AVF dilated iliac veins and inferior vena cava, with the same contrast opacification.
Computed tomography in coronal view of the same patient in
Due to the reduced venous flow following AVF closure, venous thrombosis can occur especially when venous aneurysms are present, carrying out complications like pulmonary embolism. In this situation systemic anticoagulation is recommended for at least six months after the AVF treatment. Inferior vena cava filters may have significant importance in some cases, however attention to the diameter of these veins is essential to prevent migration of the filters.
Neuroradiologists or interventional radiologists usually carry out treatment of CCFs with innumerous endovascular possibilities, such as coil embolization, double balloon occlusion technique or occlusion of the ICA by use of detachable balloon, the last being the gold standard.
Cereals play a pivotal role to satisfy the global food demand of growing population, particularly in developing nations where cereal-based production system is the only predominant source of nutrition and calorie intake [1, 2]. The nutri-rich cereal is grown in diversified environments; globally wheat occupies around 217 million hectares holding the position of highest acreage among all crops with an annual production hovering around 731 million tonnes [3]. Wheat (
India, being blessed and enriched with a diverse agroecological condition, ensuring food and nutrition security to a majority of the Indian population through production and steady supply particularly in the recent past, is the second largest producer of wheat worldwide [4, 5, 6]. The crop has been under cultivation in about 30 million hectares (14% of global area) to produce the all-time highest output of 99.70 million tonnes of wheat (13.64% of world production) with a record average productivity of 3371 kg/ha [7]. Having a significant share in consumption of food basket with a 36% share in the total food grains produced from India and ensuring not only food security but also nutrition security, wheat is extensively procured by the government and distributed to a majority of the population; it ensures not only food security but also nutrition security. The cereal is one of the cheapest sources of energy, provides a major share of protein (20%) and calorie intake (19%) from consumption. Wheat is accessible across the country and consumed as various processed forms from prehistoric times [4].
After independence, India was net deficit in food production and had to import wheat for domestic consumption. During 1966–1967, India adopted new strategy which led the ‘Green Revolution’, especially in the production of wheat and rice. Coordinated research and several developmental and food security-based programmes in various phases have made the nation to progress closer towards ‘food and nutrition for all’ by achieving record and surplus production of wheat. After the Green Revolution, the nation has maintained strategic distance from famine even during unfavorable weather conditions. The impact of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat improvement is explicit and contributed significantly to the nation’s food security [8].
The All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) was started in 1965 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, the nodal centre of the coordinated research. The AICWIP is one of the largest crop improvement network projects which set the dawn for the ‘Green Revolution’ in India. Under this project, several high-yielding wheat varieties have been developed which became extensively popular and adopted by the farming community. For instance, C 306, HD 2009, WL 711, UP 262, HUW 234, HD 2189, WH 147, Lok 1, HI 617 (Sujata), HD 2285, HD 2329, PBW 343, Raj 3765, PBW 502, HD 2733, HD 2967, HD 3086, DBW 17, PBW 550, GW 273, GW 322 and GW 496 in bread wheat and Raj 1555, PBW 34, HI 8498 and PDW 233 in durum wheat were developed and became the popular deliverables of the project. Apart from the aforementioned varieties, viz., NP 4, Kalyansona, Sonalika, Sharbati Sonora, WL 711, HD 1220, HD 1931 ‘SIB’, HD 2009, HD 2172, UP 262, etc., developed through the AICWIP were also cultivated beyond national borders. Several changes happened post inception of the AICWIP, and during 2017, the project has been renamed as the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Wheat and Barley with ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research as its headquarter based at Karnal (Haryana). It is a premier organization under the aegis of ICAR coordinating the multidisciplinary and multilocation testing of varieties in different AICRP centres across the different ecosystems for enhancing and sustaining the wheat production [8]. At present, there are 29 funded centres located in different agroclimatic regions across the country supporting the multidisciplinary research. The project, hitherto, has contributed in the release of around 448 high-yielding improved wheat varieties comprising bread, durum and dicoccum wheat. Over the years, prominent improvements have been made in the development arena post inception of the coordinated project (Figure 1).
Major developments in the country post inception of the AICRP.
Since the establishment of the AICRP, the productivity of wheat has increased by 2.5-folds (308%: +2.54 tonnes/ha) as furnished in Figure 2. A decadal analysis of productivity growth across major food commodities indicates that wheat production growth has outperformed rice and pulses for the past 5 decades since 1950. Overall scenario indicated that wheat production has grown at 4.72 percent per annum since 1950, the highest among other food grains [9].
Productivity trend in Indian wheat pre- and post-AICRP.
In India wheat crop is cultivated in
State/UT | Area (million ha) | Change (%) | Production (million tonnes) | Change (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | |||
Assam | 0.05 | 0.02 | −52.35 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −43.40 |
Bihar | 2.16 | 2.08 | −3.57 | 4.63 | 4.86 | 4.98 |
Chhattisgarh | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.59 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 13.22 |
Gujarat | 1.12 | 1.09 | −2.85 | 3.20 | 3.22 | 0.60 |
Haryana | 2.50 | 2.55 | 2.21 | 11.35 | 11.24 | −0.93 |
Himachal Pradesh | 0.36 | 0.34 | −4.26 | 0.53 | 0.66 | 24.79 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 0.29 | 0.29 | 1.83 | 0.44 | 0.48 | 10.52 |
Jharkhand | 0.12 | 0.19 | 50.99 | 0.22 | 0.38 | 70.04 |
Karnataka | 0.25 | 0.19 | −25.30 | 0.23 | 0.20 | −13.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 4.52 | 5.73 | 26.76 | 9.45 | 16.32 | 72.72 |
Maharashtra | 1.01 | 1.05 | 4.79 | 1.61 | 1.48 | −8.27 |
Punjab | 3.52 | 3.51 | −0.40 | 16.25 | 16.61 | 2.21 |
Rajasthan | 2.63 | 2.98 | 12.99 | 8.12 | 9.31 | 14.62 |
Uttar Pradesh | 9.66 | 9.75 | 0.94 | 29.33 | 27.93 | −4.77 |
Uttarakhand | 0.38 | 0.34 | −9.89 | 0.85 | 0.81 | −4.64 |
West Bengal | 0.32 | 0.29 | −8.33 | 0.85 | 0.80 | −5.94 |
Others | 0.04 | 0.04 | −20.64 | 0.12 | 0.12 | −3.54 |
All India | 29.04 | 30.54 | 5.16 | 87.39 | 94.57 | 8.22 |
Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
State/UT | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | Change (%) |
---|---|---|---|
India | 3009 | 3100 | 3.03 |
Punjab | 4617 | 4738 | 2.61 |
Haryana | 4544 | 4407 | −3.01 |
Others | 3083 | 3331 | 8.05 |
Rajasthan | 3038 | 3133 | 3.12 |
Gujarat | 2845 | 2922 | 2.69 |
Uttar Pradesh | 2724 | 2867 | 5.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 2698 | 2843 | 5.38 |
West Bengal | 2241 | 2754 | 22.90 |
Uttarakhand | 2144 | 2375 | 10.76 |
Bihar | 2091 | 2339 | 11.87 |
Jharkhand | 1790 | 2005 | 12.01 |
Himachal Pradesh | 1602 | 1911 | 19.28 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 1511 | 1656 | 9.58 |
Maharashtra | 1466 | 1400 | −4.53 |
Assam | 1180 | 1373 | 16.39 |
Chhattisgarh | 1149 | 1328 | 15.59 |
Karnataka | 914 | 1057 | 15.64 |
Statewise quinquennial average of wheat yield (kg/ha).
The production of wheat has also showed an increasing trend, from 87.39 to 94.57 million tonnes from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 with a magnitude of 7.18 million tonnes (8.22%). The major source of this increase in production is mainly attributed to expansion in area followed by marginal increase in productivity. Uttar Pradesh still holds the position of largest producer in the country accounting for about 28 million tonnes which is roughly 30% of the total production. Around 85 million tonnes (90%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing regions such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan [10]. The maximum quantum jump has been noticed in Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand which almost doubled their production from 9.45–16.32 million tonnes to 0.22–0.38 million tonnes. However, 1.4 million tonnes reduction was noticed in Uttar Pradesh during the same period which is a matter of serious concern.
The national productivity trend for wheat showed a marginal improvement, which has increased from 3009 kg/ha to 3100 kg/ha from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 (Table 2). This rise in productivity is due to adoption of high-yielding varieties coupled with other inputs. The traditional wheat-growing states Punjab and Haryana have highest productivity than the national productivity [10]. The maximum increase in productivity has been observed in nontraditional wheat-growing states like West Bengal (23%), Himachal Pradesh (19.28%) and Assam (16.39%). However, the productivity of Haryana has declined which pose a serious matter of concern.
Quinquennial data on wheat area, production and yield for India indicates that there is a variation in crop acreage that declined to 29.58 million hectare (Figure 3). However, the production of wheat has increased significantly from 95.85 to 99.70 million tonnes. Increase in production was largely attributed to rise in productivity levels registered across the wheat-growing regions.
Quinquennial scenario in area, production and yield of wheat.
Wheat is one of the predominant staple foods and a main cereal crop of many diets around the world. Table 3 furnishes the current scenario of area, production and yield of wheat in the world. Globally wheat is cultivated in an area about 220 million hectares with a record production of 763.06 million tonnes of grain. Maximum area under wheat is in India (14%), followed by Russia (12.43%), China (11.14%) and the USA (6.90%) which altogether accounts for about 45% of global area. However, China is the major producer of wheat with a record production of 136 million tonnes, followed by India (98.51mt), Russia (85mt) and the USA (47.35mt). Around 449 million tonnes (58%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing countries like China, India, Russia, the USA, Canada, Ukraine and Pakistan. The average yield per hectare is maximum in New Zealand (10 tonnes/ha), followed by Zambia (7 tonnes/ha) and Mexico (6 tonnes/ha). However, the average wheat yield in major wheat-growing countries is significantly low, and only China has maximum yield (5.48 tonnes/ha) followed by Ukraine, India and the USA. Despite India’s productivity being on par with the world average, the per day productivity is relatively high (20 kg/day) in comparison to other countries, viz. the USA, Uzbekistan, Hungary, Poland, Italy, Bulgaria and Romania, which predominantly cultivates winter wheat with crop cycle hovering around 275 days. However, in India, in comparison to its competing country, China, the per day productivity is almost the same. It should be noted that the winter wheat-cultivating countries do not deal with any other crop in a year, while in India, in which spring wheat cultivation occurs around 150 days duration, farmers has the choice to grow at the maximum two sole crops apart from wheat [8].
Countries | Area (million ha) | Production (million tonnes) | Yield (tonnes/ha) |
---|---|---|---|
China | 24.51 (11.14) | 134.33 (17.60) | 5.48 |
India | 29.58 (14.00) | 99.70 (12.91) | 3.37 |
Russia | 27.34 (12.43) | 84.99 (11.14) | 3.11 |
USA | 15.19 (6.90) | 47.35 (6.21) | 3.12 |
Canada | 8.98 (4.08) | 29.98 (3.93) | 3.34 |
Ukraine | 6.64 (3.02) | 26.98 (3.54) | 4.06 |
Pakistan | 8.97 (4.08) | 26.67 (3.50) | 2.97 |
Australia | 12.25 (5.57) | 21.30 (2.79) | 1.74 |
Turkey | 7.8 (3.55) | 21.00 (2.75) | 2.69 |
Kazakhstan | 11.91 (5.41) | 14.80 (1.93) | 1.24 |
World | 220 | 763.06 | 3.47 |
Area, production and yield of major wheat-producing countries (2017–2018).
Note: Figure within parenthesis indicates the percent to world.
The global wheat production has increased around 7 million tonnes (0.9%) in the year 2017–2018 in comparison to its past. The major source for the increase in production is mainly attributed to increase in productivity followed by marginal increase in area in major wheat-growing countries (Figure 4).
Annual growth in area, production and yield (2017–2018 over 2016–2017).
At the national level, there is a shift in area, production and yield under wheat during 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 vis-à-vis 2013–2014 to 2017–2018. Currently, wheat acreage is around 30 million hectares. Comparing the past two periods, the change was more prominent in wheat production, followed by area and yield (Tables 1 and 2). The average change in production was around 9%. The country on an average produced 7.3 million tonnes more than the past period. The major wheat-growing states like Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have witnessed positive change in area and yield and production [6]. Surprisingly, Jharkhand registered positive change in area, yield and production, while Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, the major traditional wheat-growing states, witnessed a negative change in production due to negative change in yield. Regional disparities in area and yield had a significant impact on the wheat production. Average production in Madhya Pradesh showed an increase by 6.87 million tonnes, followed by Rajasthan (1.2 million tonnes). However, the production has declined in Uttar Pradesh (1.41 million tonnes) and Haryana (0.11 million tonnes).
Statewise comparison of area and production for 2017–2018 shows that Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana were the major contributors to the national production (Figure 5). However, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh retained the status of higher productivity for many years. The scope for additional production of these states has been limited due to stagnation of wheat acreage and yield. This indicates that these states almost reached their saturation in wheat cultivation and production. Potential exists for states like Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh to explore for additional wheat production in the coming years. Area under these states has to increase in yield at farmers’ field so as to attain higher production. The current production from these states is around 29 million tonnes which has to be doubled by 2050 with an overall production target of 140 million tonnes [11, 12, 13].
Statewise comparison of wheat area and production (2017–2018).
Production constraints are manifold and vary from crop to crop and between regions. Burgeoning population vis-à-vis increasing demand for food; growing competition for cultivable land, irrigation water and energy; intensive cropping especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains resulting in irrational use of resources; pest-environment interaction; reduction of natural resource base; declining total factor productivity; and yield plateau (Figure 6) are the prominent challenges put forth against crop production [11, 12, 13, 14]. Wheat production not only faces the above routine challenges, but the intensity gets magnified in the context of climate change owing to its vulnerability [15, 16, 17, 18].
Production challenges in Indian setting.
In India a significant part of wheat area is under heat stress, and Gangetic plains and central and peninsular India are the most heat-stressed regions, whereas it is moderate in northwestern parts of Indo-Gangetic Plains [19]. Variability in climate is also one of the biggest environmental threats to Indian agriculture, potentially impacting the wheat production and security. In India, it has been predicted that with every rise in 1°C temperature, the wheat production will be decreased by 4–6 million tonnes. Rainfed wheat will experience a reduction in yield with 9–25% profit loss for every 2–3.5°C rise in temperature [20].
After the Green Revolution, the productivity of wheat has been significantly increased with the increase in input usage, plant protection chemicals and irrigated areas. The excessive use of fertilizer, chemicals and irrigation has degraded the fertility of the soil and also caused a reduction in groundwater table. The monocropping system led to deterioration in soil quality. If the current trend continues, the country will face a serious problem in utilization of scarce natural resources.
In India about 4.5 million hectares salt affected area is under wheat cultivation posing a major problem for canal irrigated areas [21]. Even though soil amendments and proper drainage are the more constructive solution, pace of reclamation is not substantial. This will significantly reduce the wheat yield.
As year passes, the pests of wheat have developed some resistance even though controlled under contingent situation. If not, a new range of pests and diseases have been emerging putting a serious constraint on the wheat productivity.
Adoption system and germplasm dissemination in India have been made in formal (organized) and informal (unorganized) ways [22]. Even though new improved varieties are developed and made available to farmers by NARS around, 80% of all seeds are saved by the farmers [19]. Further, a majority of farmers in India have lack of awareness of improved wheat varieties due to weak linkages [19]. The development and diffusion of improved varieties are crucial for achieving target production of wheat.
Volatility in prices of agricultural commodities has received considerable attention in the recent past among producers, consumers and policy makers. Price fluctuations create an uncertain farming situation threatening wheat production and have a negative impact on the welfare of wheat growers. Further, volatility in prices of wheat in international market hinders the smooth flow of trade across nations.
Over the years, a visible declining trend in farm holding size has been observed and is another major concern for the nation as a whole. This is caused by fragmentation of farmland owing to nuclear family system and decline in cultivable area due to urbanization. Estimate from the agricultural census (2010–2011) reports that the average operational holding in India was 1.16 ha. Among major wheat-growing states, average operational holding was highest in the case of Punjab (3.77 ha) and lowest in Bihar (0.39 ha). Declining farm size and conversion of farmland to residential area are the major setbacks with respect to food production in general and wheat production in particular.
A major concern among policy makers is the declining total factor productivity over the years owing to stagnating yield levels with increased use of inputs and resource services. It is a major concern in the intensive cropping areas wherein rice-wheat is widely under cultivation. This can be countered by adoption of improved technologies coupled with the use of optimal resources.
The constraints in wheat production are region-specific (Table 4), and it requires setting research priorities to address them. Rust, infestation of weeds such as
Zone | Major production constraints |
---|---|
Northern hills zone | Lack of accessibility of seed of newly released variety, |
Northwestern plains zone | High cost of inputs, low price of wheat, erratic power supply, |
Northeastern plains zone | Small land holdings, inadequacy of seeds of newly released variety, lack of information among the farmers about recently developed new technologies, late sowing, temperature fluctuations during growth, high-priced inputs, poor quality of seeds, non-availability of labour, low organic matter in the soil, non-availability of farm machinery |
Central zone | Non-availability of labour, imbalanced use of fertilizer, high temperature at maturity, limited accessibility to seed of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth, high cost of inputs, lack of irrigation facilities, small land holding, decline in water table, untimely rain |
Peninsular zone | Low price of wheat, irregular power supply, high cost of inputs, non-availability of labour, non-availability of electricity, higher rate of custom hiring, untimely rain, lack of facilities of canal irrigation, poor accessibility to seeds of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth |
Zone-wise production constraints in wheat.
With a limited scope for increasing the crop acreage besides the production threats and challenges at the forefront [12, 13], the production target has been fixed at 140 mt by 2050 (Figure 7) [11]. Under stable wheat acreage and given the optimistic production target, the existing average yield has to be increased from 33 to 47 Qtls/ha by 2050. Concerted research should focus to break the yield barriers in gradual manner and develop genotypes tailored for specific wheat-growing regions.
Existing production and target for 2050.
The following are the strategies set for increasing the crop productivity to achieve the set target of 140 million tonnes [9, 23, 24]:
Improvement of wheat under conventional methods
Exploitation of heterosis for developing the hybrids
Pre-breeding programme by broadening the varieties’ genetic base
Capitalizing exotic germplasm and extensive utilization
Precision phenotyping of germplasm
Mining novel alleles for genes of known function
Production of segregating populations for lines of interest identified in primary germplasm screens
Use of existing landrace x elite segregating populations to identify QTL controlling traits of interest
Production of NILs for QTL and allelic variants
Assessing agronomic performance of NILs
Development of informative genetic markers and their use in commercial wheat breeding programmes
Development of new plant types
Desired canopy structure
Rapid leaf area development
Rapid nutrient uptake
Increasing lodging resistance (robust stem)
Biotechnological interventions
Marker-assisted breeding
Wheat genome sequence and associated genomic tools
Allele mining on the basis of probing germplasm sets for specific gene sequences
Innumerable new molecular markers in genomic regions of choice to facilitate large-scale cloning of new genes
A plethora of approaches for understanding the function of each and every gene
Understanding temporal and tissue-specific gene expression in response to developmental and environmental cues
Uncovering molecular basis of complex adaptation syndromes including tolerance to various abiotic stresses
Designing of a genome-wide perfect marker system based on SNPs in entire gene space of the species
Potential of wheat transgenics and possibilities of greater public acceptance
Functional characterization of genome
Tackling disease resistance
Tackling abiotic stress-climate change
Resource management
Quality improvement
Policy reorientation [6]
Price policy
Seed policy
Credit policy
Institutional innovations like e-National Agriculture Market
Extension: transfer of technology
Economic assessment of various improved technologies for upscaling and outscaling
Promotion of resource conservation technologies [25]
Awareness among farmers of new improved varieties and production technologies for yield as well as income enhancement [26, 27]
Wheat atlas: creation and updating regional-level database on parameters like area, production, yield, yield gaps and input usage.
Analysis of benefit-cost ratio (BCR) in wheat production and development
Access to critical inputs for timely sowing like improved seeds particularly in eastern UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh; access to fertilizers, irrigation water and farm machinery [28]
Infrastructure development (roads, storage structures, market)
Agriculture transformation is of utmost importance for regional development. Cutting-edge research involving multidiscipline is the need of the hour and is expected to develop superior genotypes breaking the yield barrier. Despite being cost-intensive, development is mandatory which warrants for higher public and private investment in R&D. In addition, productivity has to be increased through massive efforts from extension personnel who serve as change agents among the farming community. A reorientation in price policy (fair price system benefiting both producers and consumers, deficient payment system to producers for difference between the market and procurement price and cash transfers to producers under colossal loss), seed policy (quality seed production and ensuring its availability for all) and credit policy (timely distribution with minimum administrative work) is highly required to support the existing production system and to carry forward. Increased access to input and output markets, revamped distributions systems, investment in rural infrastructures and skilling of the rural labour force will help immensely to increase the crop productivity. On the whole, a synergy between research-extension-policy-institutions will play an impending role to achieve the desired level of production as well as to ensure food security for future generation. The realization of the expected increase in production in agriculture will only be possible with high efficiency, high quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and by offering them to the service of the farmer by improving the stable varieties in breeding programmes.
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