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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10627.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146384",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Sales Guerra",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuzuki",slug:"marcos-sales-guerra-tsuzuki",fullName:"Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11551",leadTitle:null,title:"Blockchain",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state of the technology Blockchain for Digital Twins by ensuring transparency, decentralized data storage, data immutability, and peer-to-peer communication in industrial sectors. Our book envisages how blockchain can reshape and transform Digital Twins as technology/tools to bring about secure manufacturing that guarantees traceability, compliance, authenticity, quality, and safety. The scope includes several benefits of employing blockchain taxonomies in Digital Twins in the literature based on key parameters and levels, design phases, industrial use cases, key objectives, enabling technologies, and core applications. Our team provides insights into ongoing progress made towards Digital Twins as technology/tools by presenting recent synergies and case studies. Finally, the content should cover open challenges that serve as future research directions. This book is presented news authors' ideas of blockchain joint/plus Digital Twins as technology/tools.
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Dr. Vardan Mkrttchian taught for undergraduate and graduate student’s courses of control system, information sciences and technology, at the Astrakhan State University (Russian Federation), where he was is the Professor of the Information Systems (www.aspu.ru ) six years. Now he is full professor CAD&Economy departments of Penza State University (www.pnzgu.ru ). He is currently chief executive of HHH University, Australia and team leader of the international academics (www.hhhuniversity.com ). He also serves as executive director of the HHH Technology Incorporation. Professor Vardan Mkrttchian has authored over 400 refereed publications. He is the author of over twenty books published of IGI Global, included ten books indexed of SCOPUS in IT, Control System, Digital Economy, and Education Technology, and 43 works in SCOPUS and 47 in WoS. He also is Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of Applied Research in Bioinformatics (IJARB). For additional information please see https://www.igi-global.com/affiliate/vardan-mkrttchian/272027.",institutionString:"HHH University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49072",title:"Multiphase Mass Transfer in Iron and Steel Refining Processes",doi:"10.5772/60800",slug:"multiphase-mass-transfer-in-iron-and-steel-refining-processes",body:'With the growing demand for high quality steels, several processes for hot metal and steel refining were developed for various purposes, such as decarburization, removal of inclusions, narrowing the range of chemical composition, thermal homogenization, and production of steels with low levels of impurities.
The efficiency and the productivity of these processes depend largely on the kinetics of the chemical reactions. Since these processes are usually developed at high temperatures, the rate-controlling step of the reactions involved is usually a mass transfer step.
In iron and steel refining, mass transfer is always a multiphase phenomenon. Different situations occur, depending on the phases involved, as follows:
Liquid–liquid mass transfer, in the case of reactions involving liquid hot metal and steel and slag
Liquid–gas mass transfer, when a gas is injected into or onto liquid hot metal and steel
Liquid–solid mass transfer, when solid particles are injected into liquid hot metal and steel to promote refining reactions
In the present chapter, the importance of multiphase mass transfer in hot metal and steel refining processes will be emphasized. The fundamentals of multiphase mass transfer will be addressed, including the different techniques that are usually adopted to evaluate the mass transfer coefficient and to analyze the effects of the variables that affect its value.
Finally, two case studies, analyzing multiphase mass transfer rate during the desulfurization of hot metal and steel, will be presented and discussed.
Steels with ultralow sulfur contents are used in the manufacture of pipes for transporting oil and construction of offshore platforms, which require high impact strength and resistance to lamellar crack formation by interaction with hydrogen and sulfide inclusions.
It is well known that the efficiencies of the desulfurization of liquid hot metal and steel depends on the setting of the kinetic and thermodynamic factors that must be adjusted simultaneously to provide theoretical and practical ways to enable the optimization of the process parameters. In these case studies, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for multiphase flow was developed, allowing the simulation of two different processes, the desulfurization of hot metal in a ladle mechanically agitated by an impeller and the desulfurization of steel in a gas-agitated ladle. The model gives important information to characterize the fluid flow conditions, to define the velocity profiles, and to predict the evolution of the sulfur content during the desulfurization treatments.
The model was able to predict the sulfur contents of hot metal and steel as a function of time. The predictions of the model were validated based on experimental data obtained in an industrial plant for steel desulfurization. After the validation, the model was used to simulate the effects of several parameters and to optimize the processes.
The desulfurization of hot metal and steel is a reaction that occurs at the interface between liquid metal and liquid slag. Due to the high temperatures involved, the reaction rate is usually controlled by mass transfer between these two phases. To enhance the mass transfer rate, different methods of agitation are used. The most common are gas injection and mechanical agitation using an impeller.
The mass transfer rate of sulfur between metal and slag is usually determined by the following relationship [1]:
where
To apply Equation (1) in the evaluation of the mass transfer rate, the sulfur mass transfer coefficient, the interface area, and the sulfur concentration at the metal–slag interface must be known. These parameters depend on the fluid flow patterns of both phases, on the geometry of the interface, and on the partition coefficient of sulfur between metal and slag. The sulfur concentration at the metal–slag interface is usually considered the equilibrium concentration since the chemical reaction at the interface is very fast at the temperatures at which these processes are developed. To estimate the equilibrium concentration, it is necessary to know the partition coefficient of sulfur between metal and slag. This partition coefficient is a thermodynamic variable that depends on the temperature and on the chemical composition of the slag and can be estimated using data available in the literature or using thermodynamic softwares (i.e., FactSage, Thermocalc, etc.).
The fluid flow patterns of the phases involved and the geometry of the metal–slag interface can be determined by simulations using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Independent of the method of agitation, the procedure adopted to simulate the sulfur mass transfer during hot metal or steel refining followed the same sequence of steps:
Evaluation of the fluid flow patterns of the phases involved, solving the turbulent form of the Navier–Stokes equations for multiphase systems. In this stage, the velocities and the turbulence parameters for all phases were determined. The geometry of the metal–slag interface was also obtained. Steady-state conditions are assumed in this step.
Calculation of the partition coefficient of sulfur between the metal and the slag. The temperature and the slag composition must be specified. In the simulations presented here, the partition coefficients were determined based on information available in the literature.
Simulation of the sulfur content variation in the metal during the desulfurization process. Using the results obtained on the previous steps, the transient mass conservation equation for sulfur was solved. The variation of sulfur concentration as a function of time and position in the simulation domain was calculated. The variation of the average sulfur concentration in the liquid metal was then compared to some experimental results obtained in an industrial plant for validation purposes.
In the next section, two case studies of metal desulfurization are present and discussed.
In this section, simulations of steel desulfurization in a gas-stirred ladle and hot metal desulfurization in a mechanically agitated ladle (KR-process) are presented and discussed. The validation of the predictions of the models using industrial data is also included. Finally, the effects of process variables on the desulfurization rate are analyzed.
Steel desulfurization is usually developed in a gas-stirred ladle. Different configurations of the gas injection system are adopted and that can affect the efficiency of the process. In the present case, the configuration considered was used in a Brazilian steelmaking industry.
The ladle considered is schematically shown in Figure 1. Its main characteristics are presented in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Height | \n\t\t\t3.3 m | \n\t\t
Diameter at the bottom | \n\t\t\t2.32 m | \n\t\t
Diameter at the top | \n\t\t\t2.50 m | \n\t\t
Number of porous plugs | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t
Diameter of the plugs | \n\t\t\t0.076 m | \n\t\t
Nominal capacity | \n\t\t\t80 tons | \n\t\t
Main characteristics of the ladle.
Schematic view of the ladle used for steel desulfurization with locations of the porous plugs at the bottom of the ladle.
Three phases were considered: liquid steel, liquid slag, and argon. The turbulent form of the conservation equations for mass, momentum, and turbulence quantities for each individual phase were solved using the commercial software Ansys-CFX. For turbulence, the standard
Steel and slag were considered Newtonian fluids with constant density and viscosity. Argon was assumed as an ideal gas. Isothermal condition was considered in all simulations.
The diameter of the gas bubbles was considered uniform. It was evaluated using the equation proposed for liquid steel and argon [2]:
where
Nonslip conditions were assumed on all the solid walls of the ladle. At the porous plug, the gas flow rates were specified. Since the gas is injected at ambient temperature, the gas flow rates were adjusted considering the thermal expansion to the temperature of the domain. The top of the ladle was considered as an opening. The volumetric fractions of the three phases involved in the simulations were calculated in each of the control volumes of the domain. This enabled the evaluation of the contours of the phases and the interphase areas.
Grid-independent solutions were attained dividing the domain in approximately 1.5 × 106 volume elements. Figure 2 shows the mesh configuration adopted in the simulations.
Mesh configuration considered in the simulations. Vertical plane passing through the porous plugs.
Nonuniform mesh was adopted, with smaller volume elements in the plume region and in the metal–slag interface.
An additional equation for sulfur transfer between metal and slag was incorporated into the model:
where
This equation was applied in every volume element where metal and slag coexisted. The metal–slag interface area and the volume of metal in each control volume were calculated by the Ansys-CFX software.
The partition coefficient was determined according to an equation proposed by Gaye et al. [3]. The mass transfer coefficient was estimated based on the correlation proposed by Incropera and DeWitt [4]:
where
Sh is the Sherwood number,
Re is the Reynolds number, and
Sc is the Schmidt number.
In this equation, most of the parameters depend on the physical properties of the liquid metal and are constant. Considering this, Equation (4) can be rewritten in the following form:
where
The value of constant C was determined using industrial data in which samples of liquid steel were taken from the ladle desulfurization.
To validate the predictions of the model, data from three industrial treatments were obtained. The information collected in these treatments included the following:
Variation of the sulfur content of the liquid steel during the process (samples taken at intervals of five minutes)
Mass of liquid steel being treated
Mass and chemical composition of the slag
Temperature of the process
Argon flow rate in each porous plug
The conditions adopted in all the CFD simulations are presented in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Height of liquid steel | \n\t\t\t2.48 m | \n\t\t
Mass of liquid steel | \n\t\t\t80.84 tons | \n\t\t
Thickness of the slag layer | \n\t\t\t0.12 m | \n\t\t
Mass of liquid slag | \n\t\t\t1430 kg | \n\t\t
Argon flow rate | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Porous plug 1 | \n\t\t\t13.2 Nm3/h | \n\t\t
Porous plug 2 | \n\t\t\t4.8 Nm3/h | \n\t\t
Viscosity of liquid steel | \n\t\t\t6.5 x 10-3 Pa.s | \n\t\t
Viscosity of liquid slag | \n\t\t\t0.65 Pa.s | \n\t\t
Conditions considered in the CFD simulations of desulfurization in a gas-stirred ladle.
Figure 3 illustrates the velocity profile of liquid steel in a vertical plane passing through the porous plugs. This profile is similar to those presented by Patil et al. [5].
Velocity profile of liquid steel in a vertical plane passing through the porous plugs.
Figure 4 shows the regions of liquid steel, slag, and plume (argon) for the same vertical plane seen in Figure 3.
Regions of liquid steel, slag, and plume (argon) in a vertical plane passing through the nozzles.
For the conditions simulated, there is an “open eye” of liquid steel at the top of the ladle.
To estimate the value of constant C in Equation (5), samples of liquid steel were taken during a desulfurization treatment. The samples were taken at intervals of 5 minutes. Adjusting the simulation predictions to the experimental results, it was possible to determine the value of 1.45 × 10–3. The composition of the slag used in this treatment was as follows (in weight percent): CaO, 54%; MgO, 5%; SiO2, 19%; and Al2O3, 22%. The sulfur partition coefficient for this slag is 18.4 (according to the equation proposed by Gaye et al. [3]). With this value of constant
Comparison of the variations of sulfur content of the liquid steel as a function of time predicted by the model and determined in the experiment.
The model predictions reproduce very well the experimental data. Based on these results, the model was validated, and the effects of different parameters were analyzed. The effects of argon flow rate, slag composition, and slag thickness are presented here. These results were compared to the predictions using the conditions specified in Table2 (reference case).
Figure 6 shows the effect of the total argon flow rate on the variation of the sulfur content in the liquid steel. Only the last 15 minutes of the simulations are presented. In the range tested, there is only a slight effect of the argon flow rate on the sulfur contents. A significant increase in the argon flow rate does not have an important impact on the desulfurization but increases the area of the “open eye” of liquid steel, which can have deleterious effects on the steel quality. This effect of the argon flow rate can be explained in terms of the increase of velocities of the steel at the metal–slag interface, which increases the mass transfer coefficient, and in terms of faster homogenization of the sulfur content of the steel inside the ladle.
Effect of the total argon flow rate on the desulfurization process.
Figure 7 illustrates the effect of slag composition. Slag 1 is the one considered in Figure 5. Slag 2 has a partition coefficient of 52. An increase in the partition coefficient leads to a pronounced increase in the desulfurization rate. The time to reach a sulfur content of 35 ppm is 15 minutes for slag 2 and 24 minutes for slag 1. This could lead to a significant increase in productivity of the steel plant.
Effect of the slag partition coefficient on the desulfurization process.
Finally, the effect of the thickness of the slag layer is presented in Figure 8.
Variation of the sulfur content for different thicknesses of the slag layer.
As shown, an increase in the slag thickness has a positive effect on the desulfurization rate. With more slag, the sulfur concentration in the slag phase is smaller, and this leads to an increase in the driving force for sulfur transfer from steel to slag. Another benefit of a thicker slag layer is the reduction of the area of the “open eye.”
The KR process is largely used to promote hot metal desulfurization. In the process, an impeller is used to stir the liquid metal and to enhance the contact between metal and slag. Among the several variables that affect the desulfurization rate, the penetration in the liquid metal and position along the radius and the rotation speed of the impeller were chosen to be investigated. The geometries of the ladle and of the impeller were specified according to the design currently being used in a Brazilian industry. The simulations followed the same steps described for the analysis of steel desulfurization in gas-stirred ladle.
The geometries of the ladle and of the impeller are schematically shown in Figure 9. Their main dimensions are given in Table 3.
Schematic view of the ladle and of the impeller.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ladle | \n\t\t\tHeight | \n\t\t\t5.10 m | \n\t\t
Diameter at the bottom | \n\t\t\t3.45 m | \n\t\t|
Diameter at the top | \n\t\t\t4.30 m | \n\t\t|
Nominal capacity | \n\t\t\t315 tons | \n\t\t|
Impeller | \n\t\t\tTop radius | \n\t\t\t1.50 m | \n\t\t
Bottom radius | \n\t\t\t1.35 m | \n\t\t|
Length | \n\t\t\t1.00 m | \n\t\t|
Radius of the axis | \n\t\t\t0.25 m | \n\t\t
Dimensions of the ladle and of the impeller.
The CFD model is similar to that for steel desulfurization described previously. Since there is no gas injection in the KR process, the conservation equations were solved only for the hot metal and for the slag. A free surface model was implemented to identify the interfaces between the phases. The commercial software Ansys-CFX was used in all the simulations.
Hot metal and slag were assumed as Newtonian fluids with constant density and viscosity. These two phases were in thermal equilibrium.
For boundary conditions, nonslip conditions were considered on all the solid walls, including the surface of the impeller. The rotation speed of the impeller was specified.
The equation for sulfur transfer between the hot metal and the slag is similar to that used for desulfurization. The partition coefficient was also calculated using the same method shown by Gaye et al. [3]. The mass transfer coefficient was estimated according to Equation (5), with a value of 1.45 × 10–3 for C.
Grid-independent solutions were attained dividing the domain in approximately 1.2 × 106 volume elements. Figure 10 shows the mesh configuration adopted in the simulations.
Mesh configuration considered in the simulations. Vertical plane passing the center of the ladle.
Nonuniform mesh was adopted, with smaller volume elements near the walls and in the metal–slag region.
The conditions adopted in the CFD simulations are presented in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Height of hot metal | \n\t\t\t4.20 m | \n\t\t
Mass of hot metal | \n\t\t\t315 tons | \n\t\t
Thickness of the slag layer | \n\t\t\t0.12 m | \n\t\t
Mass of liquid slag | \n\t\t\t3500 kg | \n\t\t
Viscosity of hot metal | \n\t\t\t6.5 x 10-3 Pa.s | \n\t\t
Viscosity of liquid slag | \n\t\t\t0.65 Pa.s | \n\t\t
Conditions considered in the CFD simulations of desulfurization of hot metal in the KR process.
The impeller was located at the center of the ladle. The rotation speed was 40 rpm. The distance between the bottoms of the impeller and of the ladle was 2.5 m. These conditions are assumed as a reference to analyze the effects of some process variables.
Velocity profiles of liquid hot metal in a vertical plane passing through the center of the ladle and in a horizontal plane passing through the impeller.
Figure 11 illustrates the velocity profile of liquid hot metal in a vertical plane passing through the center of the ladle and in a horizontal plane passing through the impeller. This profile is similar to those presented by Shao et al. [6]. There is an upward flow underneath the impeller. The rotation of the impeller also induces a rotation flow of hot metal. This rotation affects the pressure field and leads to a reduction of the level of hot metal in the center and an increase near the wall of the ladle, as seen in Figure 12, which shows the regions of liquid hot metal and slag for a vertical plane passing through the center of the ladle. This variation in the level of the hot metal significantly increases the interface area between metal and slag and increases the desulfurization rate.
Regions of liquid hot metal and slag in a vertical plane passing through the center of the ladle.
Figure 13 shows the results of the simulation of the desulfurization of the hot metal for the reference conditions. The reduction of sulfur content is much faster than that observed with steel. The main reason for that is the higher initial sulfur content of the hot metal, which gives a more significant driving for sulfur transfer to the slag. As seen, a 5-minute treatment is sufficient to reduce the sulfur content from 300 to approximately 50 ppm. This result is consistent with data available in the literature [7–9].
Variation of the sulfur content in the hot metal during the desulfurization. Reference conditions.
Using the mathematical model, the effects of some process variables were investigated. Figure 14 shows the effect of positioning the impeller with its axis of rotation 40 cm off center. Compared to the impeller located at the center of the ladle, there is a slight reduction in the desulfurization rate. Although it was not considered in the model, locating the impeller off center might also increase refractory wear due to higher velocities near the wall of the ladle.
Effect of the location of the impeller on the variation of sulfur content of the hot metal.
The effect of the immersion depth of the impeller is presented in Figure 15. In this case, the immersion depth was increased in 40 cm (the distance between the bottoms of the impeller and of the ladle was reduced to 2.1 m). Increasing the immersion depth reduces the velocities in the region close to the interface between the hot metal and the slag. This leads to a decrease in the sulfur mass transfer coefficient and has a negative effect on the desulfurization rate.
Variation of sulfur content of the hot metal for two immersion depths of the impeller.
Figure 16 illustrates the effect of an increase of 10 rpm in the rotation speed of the impeller (from 40 to 50 rpm). Among the variables analyzed, the rotation speed presented the most significant effect. With a rotation speed of 50 rpm, the velocities near the metal–slag interface increase and so does the mass transfer coefficient. Together with a faster homogenization of the sulfur of the hot metal, the consequence is a faster desulfurization. Considering a final content of sulfur of 50 ppm, it is observed that an increase in the rotation speed to 50 rpm can lead to approximately a 1-minute reduction in the treatment time, with possible increase of productivity.
Effect of the rotation speed of the impeller on the variation of sulfur content of the hot metal.
Based on factor analysis, an equation to predict the sulfur content after a treatment of five minutes was determined:
where
Mass transfer plays a significant role in the kinetics of steelmaking processes. In these processes, mass transfer is usually a multiphase phenomenon, and its rate is affected by the flow conditions of the phases involved.
In the production of high-quality steels, especially those with very low sulfur content, desulfurization must be implemented. The desulfurization of hot metal and liquid are both commonly used. In most processes, desulfurization is promoted by transferring sulfur from the metal to a refining slag.
In the present chapter, the desulfurization of steel in a gas-stirred ladle and of hot metal in the KR process was studied by mathematical modeling. The model developed involved the simulation of the flow field of the different phases involved, coupled with a mass conservation equation for sulfur, which included an expression for the rate of transfer of sulfur from the metal to the slag. The commercial software Ansys-CFX was used to solve the turbulent form of the Navier–Stokes equations for multiphase flows. The predictions of the model were validated using industrial data of steel desulfurization.
For the desulfurization of steel in a gas-stirred ladle, it was shown that increasing the sulfur partition coefficient and the thickness of the slag layer at the top of the ladle have both positive effects on the desulfurization rate. The gas flow rate, in the range tested, presented a minor effect, but very high gas flow rates lead to an increase in the “open eye” area of liquid steel at the top of the ladle, which can have deleterious effects on the steel quality.
For the desulfurization of hot metal in the KR process, the effects of variables related to the impeller position and rotation speed were investigated. The predictions of the model indicated that, in the ranges tested, the rotation of the impeller has the most significant effect. Increasing the penetration depth of the impeller and locating its axis of rotation off center in the ladle have slight negative effects on the desulfurization rate.
The financial support of FAPEMIG in the form of a research grant to R. P. Tavares (Process No. TEC-PPM-00118-13) is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also acknowledge the financial support of CAPES/PROEX to the graduate program. The scholarship from CNPq to the first author is also gratefully acknowledged.
The concepts of
In the current context of hybrid operations, there are, presently, three major dimensions of
Network power
AI power
Cooperation power
The first type of power is enabled by social networks and the ability to use cyberspace for propaganda, disinformation, and viral campaigns in what constitutes a form of information-based warfare as well as for implementing cyberattacks that can disrupt different sectors as well as stealing (and possibly leaking) of critical data.
The second type of power involves the use of AI, in particular ML tools, as support tools for different cyber operations that may, in turn, support hybrid strategies. The range of AI applications can go from operations that take advantage of network power to cyber disruption of key infrastructures.
The third type of power is specific of today’s defense and security environment, involving the cooperation of different state and non-state entities, the latter which include, for instance, organized criminal groups and terrorist groups that can cooperate with each other, supporting and enhancing each other’s operations.
In the present work, we address the relevance of cyberspace-based operations and AI for the implementation of hybrid strategies and reflect on what this cyber dimension of hybrid operations implies for the concept of what constitutes a cyberweapon, as well as strategies that take advantage of the weaponization of cyberspace. We also address the concept of human intelligence (HUMINT) operations and their role in hybrid operations, in particular, how HUMINT was used in the past to support hybrid operations and can play a key role in the present; this leads us to the conceptualization of
In Section 2, we review main concepts linked to hybrid operations and address the strategic profile of hybrid operations in its different dimensions.
In Section 3, we focus on
In Section 4, we address another dimension of hybrid operations and hybrid threats which is the role of HUMINT and the concept of
Hybrid operations can be defined as the use of military and nonmilitary means to achieve one’s strategic goals [1, 2, 3]. This means that rather than open battle, one may use intelligence activities, subterfuge, and subversion in order to gain an advantage over the adversary.
Hybrid operations find a deep tradition in strategic thinking that can be traced back to the classics of strategic studies, in particular, to two of the main military classics of Ancient China [1, 4]:
While there is a deep tradition for hybrid operations in both Chinese and Japanese classics on warfare and spying, it is also important to stress that a thinking that is convergent with the Asian classics is also found in European Philosophical thinking about strategy and war, in particular in Machiavelli’s
In
In what regards hybrid operations, the strategic action is not, thus, restricted to the battlefield but rather includes acting on the economic, financial, social, and political levels as a way to avoid open warfare or to weaken the adversary so that if open warfare does take place, one can easily win over that adversary [4, 5].
Specifically military hybrid operations are covered in the
One lesson that comes out of these classics of strategic studies and intelligence studies is the need for good governance and public policies as a way to guard against hybrid operations [4, 5], a point to which we will return in the last section of the present chapter. Disrupting governance goes to the key role of hybrid operations in classical strategy and intelligence thinking to undermine a country’s governance and to make the people turn against the policymakers.
This is a point that is recovered in today’s defense and security environment, present in different countries’ military thinking. On the Russian side, as stressed by Chekinov and Bogdanov [9], two Russian Defense specialists, information technologies make the new face of warfare to be dominated by information and psychological warfare.
The central driving forces behind the twenty-first century’s hybrid operations are
While deeply rooted in the past thinking of strategic studies and in past military practice, the above references [1, 2, 3, 9] show that the renewal of the concept of hybrid operations and the relevance of this concept in the twenty-first century strategic thinking and doctrine come from the fact that these operations now have an effectiveness amplified by the use of cyberspace, which is a determinant factor in the change of the profile of the defense and security threats coming from hybrid operations; more properly, as it is addressed in [1], the twenty-first century hybrid operations can be implemented by both state and non-state agents, and this implies a major shift in strategic power, where individuals and groups, which may not be state-sponsored, can use cyberspace and even AI-based systems to implement hybrid operations that can have significant impact on a given country’s governance [1, 2].
This adds a new dimension to hybrid threats, making the profile more complex from a defense and security standpoint, in the sense that we can have three types of hybrid operations’ profiles:
These three types of operations are key for the characterization of hybrid operations. The
However, the state-sponsored hybrid operations, implemented by a country’s armed forces, intelligence agencies, or even specific
The
The key to the issue is the fact that cyber tools and even AI systems are freely available and the exponential trend linked to AI and ML and the increased usage of connected devices and smart government solutions open up the way for an exponential increase in the ability and opportunities to attack a country’s governance with a low budget, this increases the disruptive potential of
Given the Fourth Industrial Revolution’s foreseeable trend, the
The Fourth Industrial Revolution has opened up the ability for weaker opponents, both state and non-state, to effectively engage opponents with stronger military forces, decreasing the comparative advantage of these stronger opponents. The network power and AI power allow for a non-state agents to launch a hybrid campaign on a targeted country from anywhere in the world, such that one may have difficulty in ascribing a given physical/national territory to the attacker and single out that attacker’s country for a targeted conventional military response. A sufficiently sophisticated group can remain anonymous and even be transnational in the composition of its members, transitioning the defense problem from the traditional military dimension to a more complex response nexus of defense, intelligence, and law enforcement.
While
The cooperation between state and non-state agents may become a main source of state-sponsored hybrid threats [10, 11]; rather than engaging in large-scale state-on-state conflict, different states can support non-state agents or act in a timing that is confluent with the actions of non-state agents, enhancing the ability of non-state agents to produce a large disruption on a targeted country’s governance.
We are reaching a strategic context where both state and non-state agents can engage any given country by means of cyber operations, sabotage, espionage, and subversion [11], a point that also circles back to
The imbalance of power is linked, in Sun Tzu’s thinking, to the concept of power as the ability to exercise one’s authority and deliberative autonomy toward effective action; in this case, hybrid operations directly target a state’s power by undermining its governance.
These operations can, in particular, take advantage of:
Internal challenges to a state’s governance by certain groups that wish to undermine a state’s authority
Failure of a state in adapting to society’s concerns and its people’s problems, being unable to respond to disruptions to the state’s finances, economic problems, environmental problems, and social and political problems
A view in a country’s society that a regime has lost its legitimacy to rule
The above three targeted state-level weaknesses match what Margolis in [11] identified, respectively, as sources of three types of crises:
These three types of crises can occur in a given country and be triggered by hybrid operations or amplified by well-timed hybrid operations, in particular, those that use information and cyberspace as a weapon.
Connecting the three profiles and crises, in Figure 1, we synthesize, in scheme, the links between the profiles of hybrid operations and the three types of crises identified by Margolis [11].
Hybrid operations profiles and crisis profiles.
The
Now, regarding the means and vulnerabilities, it is important to stress that the Fourth Industrial Revolution also opens up the way for cyber-physical attacks, including attacks using drones and drone swarms, as well as cyberattacks on automated systems and cyber-physical systems; all these are dimensions of the wider cyber-enhanced synergy of conventional and unconventional operations that constitute the strategic and tactical ground for hybrid operations and that may predictably characterize the new level of hybrid operations in years to come.
The other side, which we are already seeing today, is situated in the virtual space but still able to severely affect countries’ governance; as stated above, this is the weaponization of cyberspace, using social networks and AI for hybrid operations. In this case, the actions are situated only in the virtual space, but they can have severe social, (geo) political, and economic consequences.
Platforms, in particular social networks, the manipulation of contents, and the use of AI, ML, and data science to manipulate people’s behavior, online and offline, are a major component in these operations, and it is the subject of the next section.
The strategic level of hybrid operations involves the definition of the main objectives for hybrid operations, the targets, and possible collaboration networks. The choice of resources and ways to combine them to operationalize the hybrid strategy depends upon the strategic deliberation. On the other hand, the means also condition the set of available tactics that may allow one to operationalize a given strategy.
The strategic power of hybrid operations in allowing for a state or non-state agents to achieve their strategic objectives has increased due to the resources available that allow for high yield with low investment; these resources are linked to the network power and AI power, defined at the beginning of the present chapter.
In what regards hybrid operations, the network power and AI power cannot presently be considered separately, since it is precisely the synergy of cyberspace and AI, in particular through ML, that determine the present strategic and tactical momentum of hybrid operations and that allow one to anticipate the future of hybrid threats. We now address one of the major components of hybrid operations, namely, information warfare and psychological operations using cyberspace.
Psychological operations (
The use of cyberspace and hacking, including the defacement of a country’s websites, the online dispersal of sensitive and/or compromising data through social media platforms, the possibility of using the
As stated previously, in the present chapter,
Each of these tactics takes advantage of network power, AI power, and cooperation power. There are three drivers that have amplified the effectiveness of the above tactics:
The increased dispersal of connected devices, including
Search engines and online services that adapt to each user’s interaction pattern
The growing use of social media over traditional media
Added to this infrastructural accessibility to these devices is the high frequency use of these devices and sometimes addictive component associated with this use, an addictive component usually linked to social networks.
A specific pattern of usage favors the dispersal of sensitive data, news, and general contents in social media: the fact that the online reading of social media contents usually does not involve a high level of reflection but rather engages the users in a way that is meant to be appealing and to be shared quickly with as most people as possible, users seldom read or reflect deeply on the contents that they are sharing, usually skimming through them and sharing the most appealing ones.
This is a pattern that is particularly useful for dispersal of contents that are presented in the form of scandals, sensitive information that was not known, conspiracies’ denouncements, and so on. This point leaves a marker in data on fake content dispersal as shown in a study on the differential diffusion of verified (true) and false rumors on Twitter from 2006 to 2017, published in [12]. In the study,
The study concluded that rumors about politics, urban legends, and science spread to the most people, while politics and urban legends exhibited more intense viral patterns [12].
The study found a significant difference in the spread of fake contents vis-à-vis true contents, namely, true contents are
The result that fake contents
Another relevant point, for hybrid operations, was that fake political contents traveled deeper and are more broadly reaching more people and exhibiting a stronger viral pattern than any other categories and diffusing deeper more quickly. This dynamics is not however due to users who spread fake contents having a greater number of followers; the study found exactly the opposite with a high statistical significance. In inferential terms, users who spread fake contents tend to have fewer followers, to follow fewer people, to be less active on Twitter, are verified less often, and have been on Twitter for less time. However, fake contents were 70% more likely to be retweeted than true contents with a
The fact that user connectedness and network structure did not seem to play a relevant role in
However, there is a relevant point to take into account when looking at the study’s results, which can be expressed by the following extreme example: an account with no followers and not following anyone can still get a high number of retweets and exposure on a content if it uses
Moving beyond this specific study and considering social networks in general, working with the conceptual basis of strategic studies, we are led to introduce the concept of
The viral content design along with multiple accounts operated by
In general, fake contents can spread on hot topics by the use of
Returning to the study [12], the fact that the authors did not find strong evidence that algorithms were biased toward spreading of fake contents but rather that fake contents were being dispersed by people is favorable to the point of the way in which the message is built as the key factor in getting a fake content to gain traction. This point is echoed in [13] where it is argued that the belief in fake contents is driven by emotional responses amplified by macro social, political, and cultural trends.
Social media are particularly sensitive to the careful crafting of the message to fit viral conditions, in the sense that these media are managed by platform-based businesses, optimized for quick spread of information to reach target audiences and mass dispersal; in this sense, they are aimed by design at viral dynamics and addictive usage patterns that increase the interaction time with the platform and create value for these businesses.
The technology is thus an enabler of viral dynamics and, in that way, facilitates fake contents’ dispersal by the way in which these contents are produced, in terms of the message that they contain, the emotional responses which they are aimed to evoke, and their timing and their management of conditions of dispersal (for instance, the use of
Hybrid tactics can take advantage of multiple (
Another way to manipulate viral content dispersal is cyberattacks aimed at compromising search engines and recommendation engines in order to disperse fake content that fits the goals of an intended
Search engine poisoning or even a more sophisticated
There are various methods employed in this last context that can be highly effective for hybrid operations: the first is content injection in websites, online forums, and social media in the form of spam posts that can also point to specific websites used within a
A second level is the creation of networks of websites and social media accounts that spread alternate media messages and that reinforce
The sharing of these accounts can, in turn, become viral and link to different alternate media websites that can be used for
In this case, the hacker or hackers do not need to compromise the AI systems that manage a social media platform; rather, they are
Creating and financing tactical networks of social media accounts amplify this
Besides content injection in
While disinformation and propaganda, through online fake content and propaganda dispersal operations, have become highly impactful in terms of their strategic and tactical value [3, 17], there is another level of
If we replace the final task of
One should stress that this is a form of
This breaks with any traditional approach to engaging and handling terrorist organizations, since a
This is not a
The reason why
The
Empowered by
This is very different from the case of a terrorist network that has a hierarchical structure and that has cells and individuals that play different roles within an organization.
A
The
Platforms can function as means for the exercise of control, reward, and punishment and of manipulation of its users’ desires, fears, and sources of inclusion and exclusion, integration and segregation, connection and isolation, and friendship and bullying.
By increasingly sharing one’s life in platforms and by using integrated systems, in particular IoT devices, the new stage of the Internet revolution is such that any heavy user of these systems can be
According to data, reported in [20], Instagram ranks higher in posts than the Russian VK social network (which was where the game spread initially) and Twitter. On Twitter, the large majority number of posts related to the
Another pattern revealed in these authors’ research is a key common factor in online
The use of challenges like the
Returning to
The fact that
While the
In this case,
The concept of human intelligence involves a twofold dimension: to gather information from human sources that are not HUMINT operatives and to gather information from HUMINT operatives. In terms of operations, HUMINT involves [24]:
The clandestine acquisition of relevant data
The overt collection of relevant information by people overseas
The debriefing of foreign nationals and citizens who travel abroad
Official contacts with foreign governments
While budget restrictions, the cyberspace expansion, and the development of data science have fueled the interest in signals intelligence (SIGINT) and open-source intelligence (OSINT) and led to some divestment in HUMINT, considered, for instance, more expensive in terms of time and resources involved than OSINT, an approach that considers an opposition of HUMINT
In fact, one can robustly argue, from a technical and technological standpoint, that HUMINT is a major centerpiece driver of hybrid operations, a nexus around which SIGINT and OSINT can be leveraged, with the new agents on the ground being able to both gather strategic and tactical information, implement (cyber) subversive maneuvers, steal data, and even compromise critical systems of any organization.
In the new context of hybrid operations, a new breed of HUMINT operative is not only a spy but also a hacker and a hybrid operations specialist that can infiltrate an organization and bring it down from the inside. We call this the
From a
To fully realize the implications and measures of the concept of a
During the
Different regions and Samurai clans also had their trained spies. It is important to stress at this point that there coexisted two types of spies in Japan: warriors who were employed as spies but that were not trained spies and warriors who, besides their normal martial training, were trained as spies. Another division that arose was between the trained spies that were a part of a Daimyo’s army and thus served the Daimyo and the spies for hire, mercenary spies.
Due to their skills, Iga and Koka spies became mercenary spies, that is, spies for hire that also operated based on alliances of these regions with different groups. It is important to consider what constitutes the body of knowledge that the Japanese incorporated in what they considered to be the
The fact that traditional scrolls on this body of knowledge are hard to track down, being, in many instances, in private collections, in some way contributed to the misconception to be perpetuated and has produced a gap in the literature on intelligence which usually cites
Recently, thanks to the efforts of the historian Antony Cummins and Yoshie Minami, the major texts are now translated into modern English, and Cummins has tracked down scrolls beyond the main known texts and translated them to English, making them available to the wider audience.
These texts allow people, researching in intelligence studies, to find new references that deepen
The relevant point is that these works on
If one analyzes these different classical Japanese works on what are today called intelligence studies [5, 6, 7, 25], one finds that, in Japan, the
Military strategy and tactics
Scouting
Infiltration and tactical disruption
Unconventional warfare, including deep knowledge of subversive maneuvers and psychological operations
Deep knowledge of counterintelligence
Infiltration came in two ways [5]:
Undercover operatives (using
The Japanese knew of both works, and they are referenced in the different Japanese classical texts on
Local spies (employing of locals to gather information)
Internal spies (employing people who hold government positions)
Double agents (employing the enemy’s agents)
Expendable spies (employed to spread disinformation outside the state; in the Japanese case, they used these in conjunction with the highly trained undercover operatives, which, due to their training, were not considered expendable but were, rather, high-valued assets that were used for what are today considered the core of hybrid warfare: disinformation, psyops, fake content and rumor spreading, sowing discord and unconventional strategies and tactics, besides spying per se)
Living spies (who returned with their reports)
In [26] these five types of spies are explicitly addressed with an in-depth analysis on the strategies and tactics that are involved in their usage.
To these five types, one can add another type, which holds a key value for the new hybrid operations’ context: the unwitting agent, who is supplying information for the enemy but is unaware of this fact. One can already find this type of agent in some passages of the
Now, taking into account this historical context, let us consider what we called the twenty-first century
Mirroring the setting of fire and the compromising of the intelligence cycle used in Medieval Japan, we now have the possibility of a long-term undercover operative to physically install malware and cyberweapons and hack critical systems to corrupt key data and disrupt the organization’s normal functioning.
Business, banking, healthcare, and government are particularly vulnerable sectors that can be hacked in this way. The businesses’ use of ML-supported OSINT can be compromised by malware aimed at attacking the ML infrastructure and thus corrupt strategic decisions, business secrets, and strategically sensitive data which can be stolen to undermine a target country’s business (state-sponsored corporate espionage) either by using these data for gaining a negotiation leverage, an R&D and competitive advantage or, simply, to disclose it, bringing losses to these businesses.
Companies and banking that employ platforms, in the new 4.0 paradigm, can have their platforms compromised by a
If there are corruption practices or any key figures in key business, banking and/or political sectors fall prey to entrapment (even digital entrapment); then, this can be used to disrupt a country’s business, banking, and even political sectors, even to turn the people against these sectors in well-orchestrated hybrid campaigns that use social networks to amplify the disruption effect. The principles behind this
Our main point is that the new
Hacking an organization becomes exponentially more effective if it is done by someone who is undercover inside the organization, and this person can have direct access to an organization’s critical systems and compromise them by physically installing malware. Social engineering also becomes easier and more effective if combined with direct personal interaction with human targets that can be hacked. Hacking colleagues’ smartphones, for instance, and other IoT devices can lead to a new form of
With increasing sensorization of organizations, a successful
The trained
An expert in
An expert in
A hacker with strong skills in social engineering
From a CI standpoint this is a major threat on two fronts:
On the state-sponsored front: the
On the non-state-sponsored front: a very skillful hacker team or even an individual hacker, with strong social engineering skills, who have physically infiltrated a target and are supported by
The second front is a major problem, since it opens up the way for new
In this sense, there can be three operational profiles for
Type 1 hybrid agent: an agent that belongs to a given state’s intelligence agency and that is operating covertly
Type 2 hybrid agent: an agent not linked to any intelligence agency but highly skilled in hacking and social engineering that is not operating on behalf of any state but is either a lone wolf or operating on behalf of some non-state group
Type 3 hybrid agent: an agent not linked to any intelligence agency but that performs hybrid operations for hire
The three types of agents may coexist and constitute a major threat for countries’ national security and defense; on the other hand, one may also recognize that, while constituting a threat, any state may take advantage of these three types of agents in its own operations, with particular relevance to types 1 and 3 as well as the relevance of the tactical openings provided by the actions of type 2 agents. There is a fluid border between the three types, where agents can change their profile along the course of their activities.
The question that can be raised is:
Throughout the chapter we laid out the profile as well as the current and foreseeable evolution of hybrid operations and hybrid threats (Section 2). We also addressed the issue of weaponization of cyberspace, the use of AI and data science, and the threat patterns of
Some major points need to be highlighted, when dealing with
Operations on the virtual space can have physical consequences, even in the cases where the operation does not directly disrupt physical systems.
Related to the previous point, behavioral hacking is a major component of
A new form of operative, the
These are some major points that were addressed in detail in the previous sections. Now, as part of a final reflection, the question may be raised:
From the work developed throughout the sections, one thing becomes clear: there is an urgent need for the strategic integration in key state and private organizations, including the defense and security community, of a concept of
The concept of
Now, secondly, organizations should have training and a
Faced with the threat of economic, financial, and (geo) political hybrid warfare, any country’s major business and financial targets should have specialized training programs and people involved in
It is not enough to secure the technical side of cybersecurity, and one needs to address the social and human aspect of cyber intrusion, in which people’s behavior can be turned against them, including the behaviors and vulnerabilities that come from incorrect social network usage.
Campaigns in the standard media against fake contents need to be addressed, as well as large-scale educational programs that should start in schools, educating civil society on the correct usage of cyberspace, on both the positive and negative, on how people can protect themselves against cyberbullying and hybrid campaigns, and on how people should read and reflect on the contents that they read and share.
While these are some of the major changes needed to be implemented for any country’s successful
The three major crisis profiles that were addressed in [29] and recovered in Section 2 come out of bad governance that is unable to face crises that affect its country’s people (
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They are ideal produce for reducing poverty, improving human health and nutrition, and enhancing resilience of the ecosystem. Fermentation is a processing technique that has been used for decades to transform food produce with improved health, functional, and nutraceutical benefits. In tandem with the United Nations’ (UN’s) sustainable development goal Number 3, fermented food products from pulses with health benefits align with this initiative to end hunger, achieve food security, and improve nutrition. In solidarity with the celebration of International Year of Pulses 2016 (IYP2016) and considering the relative neglect of pulses as compared with other food groups, this chapter would be vital in positioning pulses and fermented products from them as readily available functional foods. With increased interest in fermentation, fermented pulse-based foods have been identified as excellent sources of bioactive and functional foods. Thus, fermented pulse-based products present a viable alternative, relatively available, affordable, and cheap source of foods with properties beyond that of basic nutrition.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo, Patrick Berka Njobeh, Janet Adeyinka\nAdebiyi, Sefater Gbashi, Judith Zanele Phoku and Eugenie Kayitesi",authors:[{id:"60387",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick Berka",middleName:null,surname:"Njobeh",slug:"patrick-berka-njobeh",fullName:"Patrick Berka Njobeh"},{id:"201370",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwafemi",middleName:"Ayodeji",surname:"Adebo",slug:"oluwafemi-adebo",fullName:"Oluwafemi Adebo"},{id:"201371",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenie",middleName:null,surname:"Kayitesi",slug:"eugenie-kayitesi",fullName:"Eugenie Kayitesi"},{id:"201372",title:"MSc.",name:"Janet",middleName:null,surname:"Adebiyi",slug:"janet-adebiyi",fullName:"Janet Adebiyi"},{id:"201373",title:"Dr.",name:"Sefater",middleName:null,surname:"Gbashi",slug:"sefater-gbashi",fullName:"Sefater Gbashi"},{id:"201376",title:"Dr.",name:"Judith",middleName:null,surname:"Phoku",slug:"judith-phoku",fullName:"Judith Phoku"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5436,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. 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Many gynecological and infectious diseases are predisposing factors for anemia during pregnancy. Anemia during pregnancy—especially the severe form—can lead to various maternal and perinatal adverse effects such as preterm labor, low birth weight, and intrauterine fetal death. It is one of the leading causes of maternal mortality. Therefore, preventive measures are needed if anemia and its adverse effects are to be prevented. Iron and folic acid supplements are the cornerstone for the prevention of anemia during pregnancy and one of the earliest preventive measures adopted in antenatal care. Other measures to prevent anemia during pregnancy include the fortification of principle foods with iron, increasing health and nutritional awareness, combating parasitic infections, and improvement in sanitation. There is a controversy concerning the benefit of other elements such as zinc, copper, and magnesium, so the use of these elements is not widely adopted for the prevention of anemia.",book:{id:"5176",slug:"nutritional-deficiency",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",fullTitle:"Nutritional Deficiency"},signatures:"Ishag Adam and Abdelaziem A. Ali",authors:[{id:"180747",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishag",middleName:null,surname:"Adam",slug:"ishag-adam",fullName:"Ishag Adam"}]},{id:"54920",title:"Physical Activity, Body Image, and Subjective Well‐Being",slug:"physical-activity-body-image-and-subjective-well-being",totalDownloads:2065,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The notion of well‐being is in tight relation and sometimes used intercheangebly, with quality of life, physical and mental health promotion, good living, or happyness. Physical appearance is one of the first individual characteristics noticed by others and has an important impact on social interactions and therefore has become very important construct in contemporary societies. The aim of this chapter is to discuss the influence of physical exercise on the subjective well‐being dimension related to better health and eventually happiness. In contrast, the physical inactivity determined by the increasing amount of time spent in sedentary activities is becoming an issue with serious consequences, being the cause of more than 5 million death/year globally. Physical activity favorably influences mental health, improves the emotional state and reduces the incidence and severity of diseases and pathological conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, and obesity. Promoting physical activity, physical and health education and sport as healthy lifestyle components in schools, universities and lifelong learning targets the enhacement of vigour, resilience, employement, and social outcomes for graduates and comunities. Motives of physical inactivity were discussed aiming to underpin possible remedial solution for better health, quality of life and well-being.",book:{id:"6013",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-life-medical-perspective",title:"Well-being and Quality of Life",fullTitle:"Well-being and Quality of Life - Medical Perspective"},signatures:"Cristiana Lucretia Pop",authors:[{id:"196213",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristiana Lucretia",middleName:null,surname:"Pop",slug:"cristiana-lucretia-pop",fullName:"Cristiana Lucretia Pop"}]},{id:"51044",title:"An Integrated Approach to Iron Deficiency Anemia",slug:"an-integrated-approach-to-iron-deficiency-anemia",totalDownloads:1584,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Iron deficiency is a common nutritional disorder in developing countries and contributes significantly to reduced work productivity and economic output as well as to increased morbidity and mortality. There are well-established biochemical tests for assessing iron status in developed countries. However, cost and interference from infectious conditions make it difficult to assess iron status in many developing country settings. Examination of the hemoglobin distribution in the population and assessment of the hemoglobin response to supplementation are alternative approaches to define iron status and the nature of anemia. Prevention and control of iron deficiency requires the combined approach of dietary improvement, fortification of a common staple food when feasible, and appropriate iron supplementation for infants and pregnant women. In all these intervention activities, operational research is needed to improve effectiveness. In addition, controlling iron deficiency requires coordination with other nutrition and primary health care programs as part of an integrated approach to improved health and nutrition of the population. A randomized, controlled double-blind clinical trial was conducted to compare the efficacy and safety of herbal medicinal treatment syrup Sharbat-a-Folad versus syrup Ferplex for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia (IDA).",book:{id:"5176",slug:"nutritional-deficiency",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",fullTitle:"Nutritional Deficiency"},signatures:"Halima Nazar and Khan Usmanghani",authors:[{id:"179274",title:"Dr.",name:"Halima",middleName:null,surname:"Nazar",slug:"halima-nazar",fullName:"Halima Nazar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1130",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11974,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRt8pQAC/Profile_Picture_1622531020756",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"176987",title:"Ph.D.",name:"María-José",middleName:"Carrascosa",surname:"Argente",slug:"maria-jose-argente",fullName:"María-José Argente",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9vOQAS/Profile_Picture_1630330499537",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"321396",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",middleName:null,surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/321396/images/system/321396.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"183723",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaojun-liu",fullName:"Xiaojun Liu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183723/images/system/183723.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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