\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2991",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Probiotic in Animals",title:"Probiotic in Animals",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Over the last few decades the prevalence of studies about probiotics strains has dramatically grown in most regions of the world. 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Empathy is not a binary variable that can be reduced to “yes” or “no”. What one person experiences as a moment of empathy another might not. Hence, empathy cannot be defined
An approach based on conversation and its analysis represents a departure from other important studies which examine empathy as an individual “ability” [1]. Tests have already been developed [2] which have proved useful for studying autism for instance. “Empathy” and “evil” are often perceived as a continuum; lack of empathy is connected to violence, while empathy prevents it.
\nThe social scientist Randall Collins [3] has developed a different approach; he focuses on “situations”, both of violence [4] and of empathy [5, 6]; the rhythms of the linguistic and the physical [7] are “on the same track”. In his extensive analysis, which cannot be sketched in here, violence occurs in situations the dynamics of which can be precisely described by microanalysis. Collins’ point of departure was not violence however, but the linking of interactive practices via which violence is virtually avoided through empathetic rhythmisation.
\nThese two approaches are methodologically quite different; one seeks to examine individual skills or their absence, while the other employs microanalysis of situations. However, both recognise a continuum of empathy and violence. “Situations” are “objects at border” [8]—they are as much a part of conversation as they are of cognition and experience. The question of which side “counts” is negotiated during the conversation and does not have to be decided in advance. Thus, a question emerges: If violence can be described as a property of mutually co-constructed situations, is this possible for empathy, too?
\nEmpathy is considered a mysterious achievement of gifted therapists. Its origins are sought in happy circumstances in childhood, or successful self-experience shaping therapeutic work. An intelligent survey [9] shows how the psychoanalytical understanding of empathy has developed. She provides a knowledgeable summary of a long discussion within the field:
\n(E)mpathy will here be viewed from an epistemological perspective, as a way of knowing, a way of arriving at an understanding of another’s feeling state, potentially generating a bidirectional interactive field of considerable power ([9], p. 713).
\nThis is similar to what Ed Tronick has called a “dyadic state of consciousness”:
\n“This dyadic state organization has more components—the infant and the mother—than the infant’s (or mother’s) own self-organized state. Thus, this dyadic system contains more information and is more complex and coherent than either the infant’s (or the mother’s) endogenous state of consciousness alone. When infant and mother mutually create this dyadic state — when they become components of a dyadic system — both fulfill the first principle of systems theory of gaining greater complexity and coherence. The gesturing mother-held-infant performs an action — gesturing- that is an emergent property of the dyadic system that would not and could not occur unless the infant and mother were related to each other as components of a single dyadic system”. [10]
\nIf an individual’s consciousness is unable to solve certain problems, it has to couple with another’s consciousness (mind) so that both can take on a “dyadic state” and find a solution. They can then uncouple in order to recouple at a later opportunity.
\n“Theory of mind” research long assumed that children do not develop these skills until the age of three—in experimental situations. Significantly, observation of natural situations [11] has identified these skills at a much earlier stage; they are documented in children as young as 12 months [12, 13]. What was conceptually difficult in some experimental approaches to studying empathy becomes clear: in investigations into mirror neurons [14], one monkey is conceived of as the “observer” of an “object” (another monkey); the idea that the observer creates a propositional hypothesis, in analogy to science, was soon dropped [15] and developed into a theory of intersubjectivity [16].
\nIn contrast to experimental situations, in natural situations we have not only an epistemological perspective, but also a shared existential situation. For children, it is not only important that their fathers play with them “correctly”, but they also want to feel that their fathers enjoy playing with them. It is not just epistemologically important to the observer to be a mirror correctly reflecting an observation; rather it is of
This conception takes a critical view of the influential, still entirely individualistic idea of an empathiser who due to special sensory organs and fine sensitivity is able to look into or even penetrate the internal worlds of others. It is claimed that this can be achieved not only due to such personal abilities, but also with the help of psychoanalysis. To cite just one example:
\n[We] can compare our theories to an optical device that enables us to perceive the innermost core of the latent content of the patient’s discourse. [19]
Here, countertransference is conceived as a kind of monitor on which the therapist can read the unconscious and suppressed sides of the patient. Interestingly, Kleinian [20] warned of this overestimation of theory and a renaissance of the “x-ray” vision theory of empathy when she criticised a “certain tendency” among psychoanalysts.
\n“…to be wrapped up in checking their own feelings as the crucial reference point for the session’s events; this occurs at the cost of immediate contact with the patient’s material” [20].
\nThe empathetic field must thus overcome two risks: either contact is lost, or we have to believe, if we follow Paul Denis, that theory already knows everything. This too would entail a loss of contact; a patient who feels treated merely as a “case” in a general theory must feel permanently overlooked as an individual [21]. Therapy is then unable to do what it is capable of.
\nHere we can only point to the heterogeneous discussion of empathy [22–27] and provide specific analyses of therapeutic sequences, in line with a research strategy suggested elsewhere [28, 29]. Using the “empiricism of conversation” (in the form of transcriptions of genuine therapeutic conversations), we expect to be able to provide a clearer description of how empathy is created. This forms part of an attempt to re-establish psychoanalysis as an observational science [30]. Psychoanalysis can look back on an “empiricism of conversation” without recourse to other methods and empiricisms that might be considered quite foreign. The empiricism of conversation would be able to compare psychoanalysis with other therapies; such contrasts would then bring its own potential into sharper focus.
\nThe key questions posed by our study are thus: how can we describe “preconditions of empathy”, in which “sites of empathy” develop and how are “empathy achievements” generated in cooperation? What are the conversational practices realised in each fashion to create the preconditions, to recognise the sites and to acknowledge empathy achievements? Which conversation tools do the participants use to these ends and to signal to each other that the empathetic field is developing and deepening?
\nIn order to get a grip on these questions, we decided to use conversation analysis (CA) as the most nuanced tools originating from the work of Goffman [31, 32] and Garfinkel [33]. About recent developments in CA readers are best informed in Ref. [34]. CA has a keen eye for the microanalytic subtleties of therapeutic discourse creating atmospheres—or not. This is best understood by some illustrative examples.
\nConversation analysis (CA) has long been concerned with empathy, without using the term, however. In the early days of the discipline, Harvey Sacks (1992, Lecture I from the winter of 1970) [35] stressed that CA had to consider one aspect of conversation he termed “my mind is with you”; in other words, we always consider the cognitive + emotional information available to another person. When we speak of “my brother Peter”, this is a common designation for a member of our family—for the benefit of someone who does not yet know Peter. We tailor the content and form of our utterances to the “knowledge” (epistemic state) of the other person; conversation analysis calls this “recipient design” (more on this later). If we were to use the same phrase when speaking to our sister, such a designation would seem strange. We implicitly provide the exact balance of contextual knowledge required to continue the conversation [36, 37]. It is not a matter of establishing consensus of world views, as “knowledge” would suggest, rather it is a question of the small particles of “knowing” necessary to allow the other person to be part of and make useful contributions to the “project” of a shared conversation. Collins [38] describes this weighing up of “epistemic states” as an example of the above process of “entrainment”—if such differences are not compensated for, strong feelings of aversion quickly develop. If on the other hand the correct balance is struck, warm and friendly feelings emerge. Although we speak of “knowledge”, precisely these more affectively relevant consequences that are part of conversation analysis; it would be wrong to assume a focus solely on the “rational”. Rather, it is a question of “situated knowledge practices”. If this is achieved, knowledge is shared, combined with the feeling of being in a (small) world shared with a conversation partner. If situated knowledge can be shared, this sharing has emotional consequences.
\nInfluenced by the empathy boom following the discovery of mirror neurons, some authors have begun to investigate empathy in conversations [39, 40]. Only recently, these studies have been extended to prosody and melody of the voice [29, 41, 42]. The obvious premise is that empathy on the human level must be studied not only in the neuroscientific context, but above all as an interactive social practice. All of these authors express their surprise, however, at how little empathy is valued and how little it is used during conversation.
\nCA has established a firm place in the social sciences by the assumption that social structures are not only “at hand”, not “just a given”, but social realities are constructed, better co-constructed by participants in local circumstances. Participants use “practices” to contribute from moment to moment to the course of interaction, thus generating a trajectory of conversation while drawing back to cultural and common knowledge of many kinds. The medium of such practices is to a large part talk-in-interaction; thus, CA does not reduce talking to “exchange-of-information”. It includes all kinds of bodily movements participants display mutually to each other. Everything hearable and viewable can become part of conversation. CA has studied in microanalytic detail the formal practices of turn-taking, the production of “trouble” (when participants, e.g. interrupt each other) and the practices of repair, how a topic-shift is arranged, the organisation of laughter, how questions are posed and how they are responded (in court, police interrogation and in medical practice), how storytelling changes in dependence from the recipient (recipient design) and a lot of many other things occurring in human conversation; an overview is available [34]. Psychotherapy process research has attracted CA-authors because they are attentive to the “sweet little nothings” during conversation mostly overlooked by more generic “coding and counting” approaches [43–48]. The advantage of observing many highly relevant details of voice and prosody [42] or eye movement for coordination [49] is accompanied by the disadvantage that only small numbers of cases can become studied. Up to now, there is no generally accepted solution for this problem.
\nWe want to present an exploratory design of a psychotherapy process research study. The type of process research described here entails language unfamiliar to clinicians. However, without expanding our terminology, we cannot do justice to our observations. We hope to find a language for the main therapeutic tools here: treatment through speaking (a “talking cure”, in the words of “Anna O.”). Our work is based on constructive collaboration at the International Psychoanalytic University (IPU) in Berlin and is a comparative, exploratory study of three therapeutic procedures (psychoanalysis = PA, depth psychology = DP and cognitive behavioural therapy = CBT). Treatment by five therapists in every procedure is examined at three stages: in an initial, a mid-term and a late session (from the final stage of treatment). We thus have, overall, a corpus of 45 transcribed sessions (3 therapeutic orientations × 5 therapies × 3 sessions). In this way, processes within the procedure can be monitored, opening or closing situations can be compared across therapeutic orientations and the influence of therapeutic personalities can be compared within one and the same orientation. All treatments involve patients diagnosed with depression. Almost all of the patients were judged to have had a positive “outcome” by independent assessors in the Munich study; adherence to specific procedures was checked: cases labelled PA (or DP or CBT) did indeed relate to PA (or DP or CBT) [50]. Differences can be ascribed to the therapeutic procedures. Here, the process is constructed with regard to empathy.
\nIn order to reduce the enormous complexity of empathy in therapeutic discourse, we found it useful to erect conceptual “pillars” that might help to present some of our data in an organised fashion. We start with what CA-authors have observed as empathic practice in everyday conversations.
\nHeritage [37] calls verbalised participation in everyday conversations via common phrases such as “The same thing happened to me recently …” “parallel assessment” (“I’m-like-you experiences”). In professional contexts however, this type of empathetic participation hardly ever takes place. In an extensive set of records of conversations with general practitioners and homoeopathic therapists, Ruusuvuori [51] finds just one single example of such “parallel assessment”. In professional context, the sentiment “I feel the same way as you” is hardly ever expressed. There are conversation practices that promote or prevent empathy on the everyday colloquial level. Hence therapeutic empathy clearly requires conversational preparation. CA has developed “tiered” list of practices through which people communicate empathy with each other in everyday life [39, 40, 52–55], that is, the way they realise the “silent” but continual communicative dimension of “my mind is with you”. These practices can be listed as “everyday empathy” [37] as follows:
“Response cries” [56]: exclamations such as “Aah”, “Oh dear”, “Oh no”, used to convey emotional sympathy. For Goffmann, “response cries” are not signs of sympathy, but apparently involuntary expressions in reaction to unexpected events.
“Pre-announcements” can announce a narrative: “A wonderful/crazy/funny thing happened to me yesterday”. Listeners are informed in advance what sort of reaction is expected of them. More than just creating expectations, such “pre-announcements” provide the other person with a key to interpreting the ensuing utterances.
“Ancillary questions”: these everyday questions invite the listener to recreate the imagined scenery and to explore the necessary details.
“Parallel assessments” denote the utterances one produces when a conversation partner relates stories, for instance about visiting the dentist, or attending a wedding or a funeral. The “parallel” moment is articulated in utterances such as “I feel the same way”, “I’ve had that too” (e.g. an illness).
“Subjunctive assessments”: by way of illustration, Heritage [57] presents scenes in which two friends talk in the kitchen and imagine the ingredients they will use next time they cook something. And then make noises of enjoyment and pleasure to convey to each other how at this very moment they are imagining very similar sensations of taste on their tongues. Subjective assessments are tantamount to anticipation sensed together empathetically although they have yet to be experienced.
“Observer responses”: Heritage uses this term for those comments used to directly mention an external characteristic or a situation to someone, such as “You’re speaking so quietly” or “You look exhausted”. Such utterances are vulnerable to nonempathetic interpretations on the part of the recipient. In the therapeutic context, “observer responses” include phrases like “I’ve noticed that you …”
Heritage provides several illustrations for this list in the form of excerpts from transcripts. They are too extensive to consider here, but they are very persuasive. We could observe practices of everyday empathy in our material, but there is more of relevant empathic practices in therapeutic conversation.
\nIn test runs, we sought to encode the “student’s” transcripts with Heritage’s list and found it to be insufficient. One initial and important (re-)discovery was that therapists construct motivation in various ways [58]; they suggest motivations to their patients using expressions such as “because …” [59]. An “in order to” construction is also frequently used: “Then they went there again, in order not to be alone”. In everyday life, motive constructions are very rare when addressed to others; only in very exceptional circumstances, one can ascribe motivations to other people without them feeling violated in their personal autonomy and going on the defensive. Thus, a therapeutic situation opens up for different types of empathic practice that are more or less tabooed in everyday life. The permission to use practices that were not tolerated in everyday life can be viewed as a specialty of psychotherapy as a form of institutional talk, permitting other forms of conduct. Such a permission must be granted by the patient which is done by conversational preparations for the emergence of an empathic field. If this fails, patients will tend to hear motive constructions as attacks, accusations and so on. Empathic achievements by therapists need active preparation.
\nAnother empathic achievement is not to make motive constructions until such active preparation is agreed by the patient in order to make the difference transparent between everyday situations and therapeutic contexts. Such conversation practices secretly convey “my mind is with you”.
\nIn order for this “silent” dimension of conversation to unfold, conversation partners must develop practices establishing “common ground”. For “talk-in-interaction” to emerge, it is essential that people convey that they have something or other to do with one another; for instance, one of them takes on the role of the speaker (commander, narrator) and the other adopts the position of the recipient of a command or the listener—and does not permanently “butt in”. Analysis of the beginnings of telephone conversations [60, 61] shows how tiny particles (“Hi!”) articulate an expectation that the listener will perceive the speaker as someone with a certain identity. Such expectations are a relevant but silent dimension of patient’s talk in therapy. To open one’s ears for this hidden conversations is a relevant dimension of preconditions of empathy in therapeutic situations. To find answers that make expectations transparent and go over their restraints is a part of empathic achievement.
\nWhen people meet each other for the first time, however, such an implicit suggestion of familiarity cannot be expected. They must first establish the cooperation that gives rise to reciprocal “commitments”. Conversation analysis describes this as “adjacency pairs”: a greeting is followed by its return; a question is followed by an answer. This is “conditionally relevant”. Violations of such rules require good reason, and under normal circumstances accounts are presented; or they result in severe social rejection.
\nThe concept of “adjacency pairs” has also given rise to “projective pairs” [62]. This term has nothing to do with “projection” in a clinical sense; rather it is derived from the idea of a “project”; participants demonstrate to each other that they are engaged in a common project. Someone who is moving house and wants to put together a cupboard with someone can say, for example, “We have to screw it together here”, and without speaking the other person passes the screws within his or her reach—the project requires cooperative actions and at the same time forms a semantic frame. Clark (p. 129) speaks of “collateral communication”. How a common ground is enacted by both participants is analysed in detail in Ref. [43]. To have an open ear to how common ground is achieved is a precondition for empathy, the response will be assessed by the feeling of being understood—or not.
\nThe founder of speech act theory, John Searle, proposes a most useful distinction [63, 64]. For the skill that arises “when the words fit the world” he coined the term “epistemic authority”. Those in a position to aptly express the conditions of the world using words have epistemic authority. Distinct from this, we also have “deontic authority”, “where the world fits the words”. Those who can determine “what is going on (in the world)” through words possess the kind of authority Searle terms “deontic”. This distinction has already been applied fruitfully in CA [65]. A priest, for instance, can suggest to the choirmaster which hymns might be sung on Sunday, but his deontic authority requires agreement, he cannot force the choirmaster to make any particular choices. Agreement can be withheld or rejection can be concealed.
\nSome of the early literature on conversation analysis is concerned with “repairs” [66]. This focus extends to a variety of phenomena [67]. In psychotherapy research, detailed studies of transcribed therapy material [68] in particular have demonstrated where therapeutic working relationships fail to develop and how they can be “repaired”. These authors describe two possible developments: the patient either withdraws or becomes aggressive and accusatory. The decisive element is whether or not the therapist notices or blithely carries on. If a “rupture” is noticed, “repair activities” can be employed. However, it is not precisely clear, what “rupture” means: rupture of what? Of the conversational tissue? In clinical language, rupture can be used metaphorically in some helpful ways; however, if you want to study conversation, a metaphoric use is insufficient. Here CA has developed a rich register of rupture and repair activities.
\nRepair activities are also used in everyday conversations [69], for instance, when someone restarts a sentence [70] or is corrected on a statement regarding time or place [71]. Repair activities are employed very frequently and are regarded by many authors [72–74] as the basis of survival from infancy onwards. Thus, the detection of a rupture is a precondition of empathy, to find a helpful answer is a therapeutic achievement.
\nSome clinicians assume that a given treatment’s chances of success depend on how “problematic situations” are handled. Such situations are accusations made by patients, postponed appointments, cancellation fees, late arrival, applications to extend health insurance claims and expert reviews and other “performance defects” [75].
\nBut there are also difficult situations that can only be detected by microanalysis: a patient after having told a dream asks the therapist “Did my dream help me?” and the therapist responds with some confusion [76]. A patient does not finish a story, but breaks off mid-sentence with rising intonation—such a “border tone” gives the therapist a clear signal that the patient wants to continue speaking but has paused for thought. But if this pause lasts more than 3 s and stretches to 27 s [77], it becomes difficult. In an example published elsewhere [43], the therapist felt the need to finish the patient’s sentence for him. In this case, the intention to help the patient get over a “stumbling block” resulted in the escalation of a fight for the right to speak.
\nMore complex TPSs arise when patients seem to communicate “I urgently need your help, but nobody can help me, not even you” or “I urgently need your help, but on
To detect a TPS is a precondition for empathy, and to find a suitable answer is an empathic achievement.
\nLet us begin with an initial interview in which the “student”, who has already undergone various examinations, is in conversation with the therapist but whose description of his symptoms makes it particularly difficult for the latter to form even the slightest impression of what he is talking about.
\nFirst example (brief psychoanalytic therapy):
\n\n \n | \n
\n \n | \n
\n \n | \n
\n \n | \n
\n \n | \n
\n
Reading transcripts requires some practice, just like reading statistical tables or diagrams. Here is a key to the symbols used:
Words in
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Words in
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(.) under 0.25 s
(-) 0.25–50 s
(–) 0.50–75 s and
(—) 0.75–0.99 s pause.
It would seem quite clear that he is explaining how when he goes into his house he feels a compulsion to turn around and look for something on the floor [78]. When the transcript was used as the basis for various methodological evaluation strategies at the Second Berlin Workshop on Qualitative Research in 2013, this passage was the cause of some confusion. About half of the participants had understood the opposite: that the patient developed the symptoms when leaving his house. The ideas about what was being discussed, the attentive comprehension of the listeners, as it were, was not homogenous across the group. The therapist clearly had the same problem, as demonstrated by the same passage when shown in the fuller context of the conversation:
\nThe precise transcript provides a helpful explanation of what happens here. The arrows show the sections to which our commentary refers. Before the patient reacts with a quickly spoken “>dann net<” (“>not then<”), he pauses ever so slightly. The effect of this micropause is that it is impossible to distinguish whether “dann net” is a negation of the content or whether the “net” is a small Swabian tag. A “tag” is a signal often added to the end of sentences to seek agreement, commonly encountered as German “ne”, Hessian “gell?” or English “isn’t it?”. Initially, the localisation of the compulsion is obvious, but then we recognise that the therapist is having difficulties coming to a clear interpretation. He checks (second arrows) and receives another answer that makes it unclear whether the patient’s answer is to be understood as agreement or whether the “yes” is merely a particle used to introduce the next statement. A further difficulty is encountered in the negation in the patient’s reply. The utterance “When you go in the door of your house”, seeking clarification, is ignored not directly, but indirectly (via a description of what he does not do). The therapist senses this irritation too when he asks the patient again (third arrow) if he checks (from outside). Now he receives the answer “no from inside”. Here an asynchronic dance develops in which it is not clear who is supposed to take the lead. A further difficulty is added by the patient’s delayed explanation of his direction of movement. Despite this imprecision, they continue with the conversation and thus mix up the new question regarding the patient’s location when the compulsion occurs with the previous question regarding his direction of movement, a clear answer to which has yet to be provided.
\nOne of the practices attempted by the therapist in this example is known as “ancillary questions” [53]. Such questions are designed to form a picture of when and where the patient’s compulsion arises—but in this case this is precisely what they do not do. It is not empathy that fails here, but one of its precursors. Actively but unconsciously, the patient paralyses the therapist’s hermeneutic abilities—we speak of “communicative stun grenades” [79]. Of course, there are much more severe examples. Clinicians might be reminded here of Bion’s descriptions such as “attacks on linking”; unfortunately, to our knowledge, transcripts have yet to be made available. We hold that this brief example gives rise to a number of issues: the idea that patients want to be understood does not do justice to the whole picture. Nor is the complementary idea that therapists can understand empathetically without the active contribution by the patient is the whole story—yet this is exactly the description we repeatedly find in theories of empathy.
\nBy way of illustration, let us further differentiate the concept of the interactive field using a small diagram (see \nFigure 1\n).
\nThe interactive field of empathy.
There are preconditions of empathy (E-P). The minimum requirement is seeing or hearing (e.g. on the telephone), that is, the co-presence of the parties involved. Here it becomes clear that there is a productive and a receptive aspect; one person speaks, the other hears that person’s voice. “Talking to each other” is another prerequisite, but this alone does not constitute empathy. It is possible for two people to talk to each other and understand each other only on the linguistic level; there are also many situations (with waiters, at counters, etc.) in which people talk to each other and empathy is practically neglected. The therapeutic situation, on the other hand, specialises in coproducing “sites of empathy” (SE) in order to observe them. In particular, this includes irritations in everyday communication and physical and other sensations that arise. As the process itself develops, these aspects are in turn produced by speech; the act of talking to each other becomes increasingly self-reflexive and produces new irritations and ruptures and difficult situations. The findings described allow us to categorise our expansion of conversation practices in the diagram above.
\nWe can now apply the above considerations to the beginning of a depth-psychological (DP) therapy. The patient has received prior instruction that her treatment will be recorded; at once, this part of the project becomes an opportunity to create “common ground” with which to begin a conversation:
\nSecond example: DP, initial session
\nThe therapist states the date of the session for the tape; the recording is turned off (we do not know for how long), and the patient makes a first °quietly° spoken comment about something “visible”: “°Oh I see you have already (.) got the microphone set up;°”.
\nOpening in this fashion with “joined attention”, discussing a little thing that is present and perceptible to both people, is a common tool with which “common ground” in sensory perception to the zone of conversation can be transformed. P sees something, sees that the other person sees something, and addresses it, an example of “silently” communicating that “my mind is with you”. This is part of the patient’s empathy for the therapist, delivered as searching for opportunities for common affective regulation, for instance overcoming initial awkwardness. The patient displays a memory of what was agreed (audio-recording the session) and displays an expectation a) that her pointing to the sensual object (microphone) is confirmed by the therapist and b) that the therapist remembers the agreement, too. Answers to both expectations would share the experience of a common ground. The therapist reacts with a loud “YES!” and loudly breathes in and out.
\nThis minimalist utterance acts as a context marker. In an everyday situation, one would expect a complementary reply, commenting on the preparatory setting up of the microphone. The brief, loud and accentuated “YES!” marks a different, professional, or, to be even more precise, procedure-specific context. A note on communicative markers:
\nWhile doctors communicate directly and consistently via a white coat and a stethoscope, for instance, that they are doctors, a therapist has no such material context markers. She has to accentuate the project known as “therapy” using
The therapist’s “YES!” is recognisably short and hence can be interpreted in many different ways by the patient. It contains the briefest possible confirmation of her first comment; “YES!” could mean that she has been “heard”, but it might also mean more and it might convey acknowledgement of and agreement with the content, that is, the comment about the microphone. Since both interpretations are left open, her response communicates that a particular kind of conversation is going to develop it points forward. The common project of “therapy” has been opened.
\nThe patient now reacts by talking to herself; she expresses that she has “forgotten again”. The rhetorical figure of ellipsis1 in line 8 can be employed because it is clear what she has forgotten: that there would be a microphone. She knows that the therapist knows what the unspoken part of her utterance refers to: “My mind is with you” is the therapist’s tight response. But the patient offers to pay a price for the “common ground”: she diagnoses a momentary failure of her memory. In her first utterance, however, she had recognised the microphone as something that reminded her of the agreement for being audiotaped.
\nA small sliver of “common ground” is beginning to develop, although it is still quite fragile. It is not yet clear to the patient whether the converse is true or not: “Is your mind with me?” As in her opening remark in line 8 her attributing to herself some little weaknesses—forgetting—brings something to the communication that is already visible to both parties. At the same time, it communicates something new, more than just having forgotten something: the patient positions herself [83] as nondominant in relation to the previous sharp and markedly loud “YES!” The therapist quickly concludes with “Yes”; she acknowledges what the patient has said about her forgetfulness.
\nTo conclude: the “common ground” is sufficiently established for ellipsis to be used, but the question of who is in charge or how the relationship will otherwise be defined has yet to be answered. The patient falls in pauses. By raising her voice slightly, the therapist tries to restart the “interaction engine” [84] and says her “Yes” (line 11), which, when one listens to the tape, is reminiscent of many utterances therapists use to prompt their patients to speak. Now, the patient says:
\nThird example: DP, initial session, continuation:
\nAgain, the first remark takes up something that has already been spoken about. Again the therapist responds in the minimalistic way possible. The patient now takes the initiative (line 13), makes sure that the therapist knows what she is talking about and concludes this clear series of articulations of “my mind is with you” with a final “=Okay:.”, drawn out and with falling intonation.
\nIn clinical terms, one would speak of “clarifying the referral context”. However, something else occurs here to allow empathy to be established. Besides the referral context, the question of whether and to what extent the therapist knows why a recording is being made is negotiated. Once this has been established, the patient knows that the therapist knows, but again she does not yet know whether the therapist will also realise an attitude of “my mind is with
At this point, we do not wish to present any more material from this conversation; it suffices to establish that here we have a special realisation of the therapeutic concept of neutrality—in contrast to a “silent” response to the question “is your mind with me?” We can recognise some problems pertaining to this particular realisation, but also to the concept
By way of comparison, we will now turn to an opening scene from a second CBT session. We are not privy to the first session. We have a male patient and a female therapist:
\nFourth example, CBT, second session
\n1 | \n((Recording begins, silence, someone can be heard slowly turning pages)) | \n
2 | \n\n \n | \n
3 | \n(-) | \n
4 | \n\n \n | \n
5 | \n(7) | \n
6 | \n\n \n | \n
7 | \n(2.6) | \n
8 | \n\n \n | \n
9 | \n\n \n | \n
10 | \n(--) | \n
11 | \n\n \n | \n
12 | \n\n \n | \n
13 | \n\n \n | \n
14 | \n\n \n | \n
15 | \n\n \n | \n
16 | \n\n \n | \n
17 | \n\n \n | \n
18 | \n\n \n | \n
19 | \n\n \n | \n
20 | \n\n \n | \n
21 | \n\n \n | \n
22 | \n\n \n | \n
23 | \n(--) | \n
24 | \n\n \n | \n
25 | \n\n \n | \n
26 | \n\n \n | \n
27 | \n\n \n | \n
28 | \n(1.2) | \n
29 | \n\n \n | \n
30 | \n\n \n | \n
31 | \n(1.4) | \n
32 | \n(-) | \n
33 | \n\n .hhh yes now [ho:w] have you been this week. \n . | \n
34 | \n\n | \n
35 | \n(1.9) | \n
36 | \n\n \n | \n
37 | \n(-) | \n
We can immediately recognise an entirely different structure to the conversation. The speakers shift rapidly (shown by =). It is the patient who makes the first pressing remark (line 4). It is the therapist who speaks much more than the patient; the subject is the completion of a questionnaire which “saves us a lot of time” (line 13)—here too the focus is on being pressed for time. In quick succession, the patient gives off signals that he is listening, which seems to spur on the therapists’ fast talking. The therapist plays down the questionnaire on his life story in two ways: they will then have a “condensed” version and can “get into it much quicker”—into the project of common therapeutic work.
\n“Deontic” is derived from the Greek “deon” and means the cohesive force, the binding effect of utterances, and is thus an apt term for the topic of “commitment”. This effect must be expressed, employed and articulated via conversation, and then, in a second stage, it must be answered by the listener, with either agreement or resistance or disagreement. The archetypical deontic modal verbs come into play here: “must”, “should”, “may”. Deontic authority can look backwards, if it is a question of what one should have done, but it has greater significance when it comes to decisions concerning shared future activities. Then, the implicit question arises as to who has the right to announce or suggest decisions and ultimately to make them. The second speaker’s answers become significant in steering further interaction. This second turn can entail agreement or disagreement and can conceal it or delay it.
\nWe have already seen an example of this in the first DP session we examined, when the therapist (line 12) expressed her loud “YES!” with its emphasis and the patient did not follow, but asked another question (line 13). In response to the next attempt to begin with the project (line 23), when the patient receives the invitation to “simply talk about” what “is most important” to her, she reacts by saying that Doctor Innerst recommended the therapist to her.
\nA similar constellation illustrating the significance of deontic authority can be observed in the opening sequence of the “student” case:
\nFifth example: opening of the “The Student”, initial interview
\n1 | \n\n \n | \n
2 | \n(4) | \n
3 | \n?: °hhhhh..° \n | \n
4 | \n(5) | \n
5 | \n(Footsteps are heard) | \n
6 | \n\n \n | \n
7 | \n(2.4) | \n
8 | \n\n \n \n | \n
9 | \n\n \n | \n
10 | \n\n \n \n | \n
11 | \n\n \n | \n
12 | \n\n \n | \n
13 | \n\n \n | \n
The German “so” with which the therapist begins here is a somewhat prototypical particle of deontic authority [85]. It performs a variety of social functions. One of them is ending one sequence and opening the next—in this case the act of both people entering, which we clearly recognise from the footsteps on the tape, comes to an end and something else begins. The therapist is entitled to use “so”; this marker of completion/opening requires agreement however. A patient could respond entirely differently. The therapist’s second, louder “SO!” firmly reinforces the impulse to begin the therapeutic conversation; he then makes a suggestion, the introductory “perhaps”, which suggests implicit knowledge that this form of authority is dependent on the listener; he can suggest something, but will it be accepted?
\nWith the words “perhaps (2) >>let’s talk about what=brings<< (1.2) you=here?” the therapist initiates the project of therapy, and given our discussion of conditional relevance, the patient would now have to obey the friendly command. But he reacts with a question that forces the therapist into the complementary role of the respondent: he cannot avoid answering. Deontic authority’s potential to make decisions relating to the (social) world is dependent on cooperation, confirmation and collaboration and is thus constantly attempting to negotiate. In clinical terms, we can speak of the first signs of a power struggle.
\nWe can observe similar patterns in the CBT session, since here the patient takes the initiative through his first remark (line 4) “
Just as mothers cannot always respond with complete empathy to the demands of their children, but make a number of adaptations, therapists too adapt when they notice that they have got things wrong. Repair activity is explicitly oriented around something that has already occurred between the participants and has been perceived by both of them; it is an attempt to develop a level of conversation about these events. If repair is successful, the patient can have a multi-dimensional experience that goes a long way to promoting empathy: he notices
\n\n
that this person shows he is prepared to reset himself and his contributions;
further,
whether that person’s activities are helpful and clear something up.
This is of great importance for the development of cooperative trust. Often, the patient cannot know whether or not the therapist is actually trustworthy; at the same time, everything hinges on this question. However, if the patient can recognise that the therapist has not missed something that was bothering him, and that the therapist has introduced repair activities, then he can begin to form a positive impression of the therapist’s “mindfulness” [86].
\nThe term “rupture” describes a situation in which the cooperation described above fails, in which the participants cannot anticipate which local role functions their counterpart will adopt, which “pair” they will become. Of course, “ruptures” can also occur at later stages of therapy, for instance, if a patient recognises disloyalty or similar violations on the part of the therapist. “Ruptures” are not connected to opening situations. If therapy starts with difficulties that does not mean that the entire treatment is doomed to failure. Rather, repaired ruptures can often lead to a better relationship between the patient and the therapist.
\nLet us examine an example of depth-psychological treatment from the same initial session. The patient had somewhat hesitantly embraced her therapist’s attempts to start the session and had told her something about her life. She concludes this narration with a brief coda:
\nSixth example: the same DP as in the third example, initial session
\n146 | \n\n yes (1,7) that has come to I am \n \n \n | \n
147 | \n\n \n | \n
148 | \n(1.6) (noises) | \n
149 | \n\n \n | \n
150 | \n\n \n \n \n | \n
151 | \n(---) | \n
152 | \n\n \n | \n
153 | \n(1.3) ((Crackling)) | \n
154 | \n\n ((Sound like something being pushed back and forth on the table)) \n \n | \n
155 | \n\n \n | \n
156 | \n\n \n | \n
157 | \n\n ((sound of a packet of tissues being opened)) in this initial situation (--) ((rustling noise dies down)) \n \n \n | \n
158 | \n\n \n | \n
159 | \n\n \n | \n
160 | \n((Sound of clapping and crackling stops)) | \n
161 | \n\n \n | \n
162 | \n\n \n | \n
163 | \n\n (--).h already had a fe:w (--) points of contact, then it’s basically \n \n | \n
164 | \n\n \n | \n
165 | \n\n \n | \n
To use Heritage’s terminology, the therapist makes several “observer responses” (“that you really pulled yourself together”, “that you tried to be very controlled”). In both form and content, these responses are much more extensive than they would be in the everyday setting. The specificity of the professional conversation is being constructed. It is introduced by softening expressions such as “I get the impression” (line 150), which are used in “portioned” fashion. The therapist waits for the patient’s ratification, sometimes expressed hesitantly as “yes well” (line 152), sometimes as a decisive “su::re” (line 155). Ultimately, the therapist discovers another reason for her patient’s reticence: the transfer mode, “always (.) starting to >re:l
Here the important thing is not only the information about the reasons for this understandable discomfort, but the fact that something can be “cleared up” which the patient would otherwise have left unmentioned—and thus unheard—throughout the rest of the conversation.
\nHere too we can see the difference between the clinical description and what can be observed via microanalysis. For more details, see [43]. Let us examine an example from the middle stages of the above DP treatment. We hold that it is instructive to study such examples in this level of detail, since insights can be gained that can then be applied to similar situations. The example in question is a disagreement caused by a potential error regarding a cancellation fee.
\nSeventh example: same DP, 50th session, opening.
\n1 | \n(5) ((Rustling, loud banging)) | \n
2 | \n\n \n | \n
3 | \n\n \n | \n
4 | \n\n \n | \n
5 | \n(-) | \n
6 | \n\n \n | \n
7 | \n(1.2) | \n
8 | \n\n \n | \n
9 | \n(---) | \n
10 | \n\n \n | \n
11 | \n\n \n | \n
12 | \n\n \n \n | \n
13 | \n\n \n | \n
14 | \n(---) | \n
15 | \n\n \n | \n
16 | \n(-) | \n
17 | \n\n \n | \n
18 | \n\n \n | \n
19 | \n\n \n \n | \n
20 | \n\n \n | \n
21 | \n\n \n | \n
22 | \n\n \n | \n
23 | \n\n \n | \n
24 | \n\n \n | \n
25 | \n\n \n | \n
We have what appears to be a trivial difference. The invoice was for a session, but the therapist had made a mistake and readily admits to it. The patient for her part wants to inform her that she has made a kind of discovery. If we take a close look at this opening to the 50th session, we can observe various small relevance markers. The patient “just” (line 2) wants to come back to it, she plays down the matter and wants to talk about her discovery; the therapist makes it highly relevant (line 6), culminating in self-flagellation: “Especially as you had drawn my attention to it as well. (---) in the previous session”. She then says she hopes that the patient is not angry and finally stresses in a much louder voice with strong emphasis that she is sorry and that it is “not a problem!” Only once she has been “absolved” by the patient the latter can proceed with what she has to say.
\nEighth example: continuation of the above
\n25 | \n\n \n | \n
26 | \n\n \n | \n
27 | \n\n \n | \n
28 | \n\n \n | \n
29 | \n\n \n | \n
30 | \n\n \n | \n
31 | \n\n \n | \n
32 | \n\n \n | \n
33 | \n\n \n | \n
34 | \n\n \n | \n
35 | \n\n \n | \n
36 | \n\n \n | \n
37 | \n\n \n | \n
38 | \n\n \n | \n
39 | \n\n \n | \n
40 | \n\n \n | \n
41 | \n\n \n | \n
42 | \n\n \n | \n
43 | \n\n \n | \n
44 | \n\n \n | \n
45 | \n(---) | \n
46 | \n\n \n | \n
47 | \n\n \n | \n
48 | \n\n \n | \n
49 | \n(1.1) | \n
50 | \n\n \n \n \n | \n
51 | \n\n \n | \n
52 | \n\n \n | \n
53 | \n\n \n | \n
54 | \n\n \n | \n
55 | \n\n \n | \n
56 | \n\n \n | \n
We can clearly recognise how the patient speaks of finding “a kind of trust”, but this trust is then badly damaged; it further shows how she associated that with an earlier experience (“destroyed what I had built up as it were”) and how she noticed that she does not have to constantly justify herself. This piece of productive therapeutic work shows that even a TPS that appears to have set in early on in the treatment can be dealt with in such a fashion that the patient is able to experience self-enlightenment. This example can be understood as a meeting of two “troubles tellers”, each of whom find the complementary position unoccupied. The therapist is seeking exoneration, the patient is seeking an “ear” for her discovery. However, two “troubles tellers” cannot form a conversational pair—but it was possible to “re-pair” this local irritation.
\nThere are moments of profound reciprocal merging which give voice to physical processes of “limbic resonances” [87, 88] and in which people’s knowledge about each other becomes transparent—although usually described as “unspoken”—and which would not have been considered possible without this experience. Most people, be they therapists or not, would describe such moments using the word “empathy”. In fact, however, clinical experience tells us that the path to such “sites of empathy” is stony and full of obstacles. Does empathy not occur via these routes?
\nHere, we could show how sites of empathy can be recognised and responded to. We could describe preconditions of empathy, e.g. repairing activities, not to early motive construction and how empathic achievements are generated in cooperation of therapist and patient. A TPS seems to be a most relevant precondition for empathy, therapists should be trained in recognising and responding to them.
\nThere are situations in conversations in which empathy is clearly strived for, while at other times it is directly impeded—but people continue or begin to talk with each other nevertheless. As long as one is “in conversation”, empathy has a chance. Conversation consolidates empathy, which can only be created “in conversation”—the coproduction of empathy. Accordingly, one can distinguish the conversational preconditions of empathy from its actual realisation. Further, there are certain “sites” in which empathy must prevail in a particular fashion. Ultimately, the conversation partners must work together if their conversation is to be deepened and their relationship is to develop.
\nLet us now represent and in doing so summarise our project of an “architecture of empathy” by use of a diagram (see \nFigure 2\n).
\nEmpathy, its conceptual “pillars”, its assumptions, its sites and its performances.
Empathy needs preconditions (E-P), as simple as, e.g. being in a conversation in contextual circumstances as therapeutic or mother–infant situations. Such preconditions can result in an empathetic “path” or, on the other hand, in its termination. We posit further “sites of empathy” (SE), in particular TPSs and RRCs (rupture-repair cycles). Such “sites” outline a special opportunity where empathy can be performed. This is bidirectional.
\nFinally, we have “empathy achievements” (E-As) that are by no means the work of the therapist alone. They are based on sites, on preconditions arranged by the institutional rules of conduct and by the patient’s offers. Insufficient research has been conducted on patients’ achievements of empathy for their therapists and their mistakes [89]. Sites, preconditions and empathetic achievements constitute the “empathic field” that is communicated to the participants via the growing security of significant “common ground”. Common ground goes beyond the empathic field into the domains of language, culture and societal discourse. This field is represented as an oval surrounding the above diagram. The empathetic achievements are communicated in the form of motivation constructions, individualised recipient design and RRCs. We must emphasise once again that this is by no means a one-way affair communicated by the therapist to the patient, but a reciprocal process.
\nWe hope to have made it clear that this research into the psychotherapeutic process has the capacity to examine empathy as an aspect of therapy consisting of many different parts. The whole we term the architecture of empathy as it is realised via conversation.
\nMany authors quite rightly stress that in inquiries into empathy it is the tone that makes the music, and thus, prosody must also be examined. To date, our own studies have proven unusually complex [42]. Our methodological objective will be to use the CA approach described here to identify some striking passages in which something seems to be “happening”. Those passages will later be examined through the prism of prosody in order to explore whether something is indeed happening and what that might be.
\nWe hold that this type of process research is of benefit to clinicians. While we have used unusual terminology, it is necessary if the study is to be useful. Clinical readers may consider this use of terminology to be unreasonable—the benefit is that one day we will have a better understanding of our main therapeutic tool, treatment via talk-in-interaction. Clinicians should merely recognise that there is a supplementary set of conceptual tools which, we hope, can help provide comprehensive analysis of the complex conversations that take place in everyday clinical practice.
\nThe project (under the leadership of Prof Dr Michael B. Buchholz and Prof Dr Horst Kächele) is funded by the Köhler Foundation, Germany, to which we extend our warm thanks. We are also indebted to Prof Dr Dorothea Huber, Munich/Berlin, for providing this material from the
Industrialization and sophisticated agricultural techniques discharge many chlorinated compounds into the environment as primary organic pollutants [1]. Chlorophenols (CP) is designated as the most toxic organic pollutants in the list of hazardous wastes since these have a strong resistance to physical, chemical, or biological treatments [2, 3]. CPs have been used in agriculture, industry, and public health since 1920s [2]. Uses of malathion introduce 2-chlorophenol (2-CP) to the environment as one of the main toxic organic pollutant [4, 5].
\n2-CP is toxic, resistant to microbial attack, and accumulates in the food chain even from chlorophenol treated materials [6]. Accidental spillage, misuse, and improper disposal have resulted in ground water pollution [6, 7].
\n2-CP is lethal to a variety of organisms at the level of 1 mg dm−3 [8]. Direct exposure of 2-CP is fatal, and the long term exposure of 2-CP may cause cancers and affect the function of the liver and immune system [3].
\nAlthough the production and the use of these are banned in some countries, chlorophenols are found in many parts of the world due to abundant usage and their environmental transportation. Owing to the toxicity and persistence of chlorophenol the controlling its levels and reducing the diffusion in the environment is necessary. In literature, the standard concentration levels for chlorophenols in industrial effluent and waters is set to 2 and 0.1 μg L−1, respectively [9].
\nThe fate and the diffusion of CPs depend on the neutral and ionic forms (speciation) of them. pH value of the aqueous phase governs the partition of the CP between different environments. Neutral form of CPs exhibit low solubility in water and high sorption capacity in soils, whereas the ionic form of CPs enhances the solubility in water and mobility in aqueous phase [10].
\nAdsorption is the major technique used for the removal or reduction of chlorinated compounds. Clays have been widely used as adsorbent due to their high specific surface area [10]. There are several reports appeared in the literature on the usage of different clay minerals as an absorbent for the removal of chlorinated pollutants [11]. These studies have proven to be very useful in describing the macroscopic nature of adsorption and adsorption kinetics.
Surface properties of the adsorbents play central role in the adsorption process. The porosity of the surface and functional groups present on the surface are the main factors that govern the adsorption process [14, 15]. The efficiency of the clay mineral in the adsorption has been thoroughly investigated by several researchers [16]. Functional groups present in the organic compounds or the charge of the metal ions interest favorably with the specific properties of the mineral to enhance the adsorption. The adsorption process is influenced by many factors such as the chemical form of the adsorbate, solution pH, time of contact, adsorbate concentration, the amount of adsorbent, particle size, presence of competing adsorbates and others [17, 18].
\nAdsorption is one complex process involves in clay minerals with the association of contaminants. It is a mass transfer process from the aqueous phase to the solid phase accompanied by chemical and physical forces [19]. Physical characteristics of clay minerals are the governing factors in the adsorption process. Silica is reported as popular model adsorbent in the adsorption studies as it is the major constituent of natural clays by restricting the adsorption on one component. Low cost, non-toxicity, and the structural arrangements of them favor the adsorption of toxic contaminants. Silica is used as a model of soil adsorbent due to prevalence in the environment and well-characterized surface properties. The surface area of silica is an essential factor because the extent of the available surface is correlated with the surface reactivity [20].
\nThe objective of this research is to investigate the adsorption behavior and configurations of 2-CP with silica surface using UV-visible and FT-IR spectroscopic methods.
\nColloidal silica was obtained from Fluka (Switzerland). All the other chemicals were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Stock solutions of 2-CP and 20 g dm−3 suspension of silica were prepared in deionized water. The suspension was stirred for 12 hours for equilibrating. The ionic strength of the suspensions was varied in the range of 0.0001–0.01 mol dm−3 using 0.10 mol dm−3 NaNO3 solutions. All experiments were repeated for silicate suspensions with different ionic strength conditions.
\nAn aliquot of silica suspensions was pipetted out to Duran 100 mL sealed type laboratory glass bottle and initial solution pH values were adjusted in the pH range from 2 to 12. Known amount of 2-CP was added to silicate suspensions. Then the system was sealed and was stirred for 1 hour. The final concentration of 2-CP was determined. The effect of the initial concentration of 2-CP and effect of contact time was studied.
\nThe treated solid silica sample was recovered after the centrifugation and used for the FT-IR measurements after subsequent dying for appropriate times to eliminate water from samples. FT-IR measurements were carried out using JASCO FT-IR 410 spectrometer.
\nVariation of the adsorption density with pH is shown in the Figure 1. Similar pattern was observed at different ionic strength conditions.
\nAdsorption density of 2-CP as a function of initial pH with different background ionic strength conditions with NaNO3.
When examining the values of initial and final pH, initial pH was higher than the final pH after adsorption under acidic condition and vice-versa under basic condition. Therefore, it will predict the different types of surface interactions between 2-CP and hydroxyl groups present on silica which are responsible for the changing in solution pH due to the adsorption process [20, 21, 22].
\nUnder the acidic conditions, 2-CP interacts with surface silanol groups releasing −H2O molecule to the medium resulting increase the final pH [20]. Surface interactions between 2-CP and silanol groups in the acidic condition are shown in Figure 2.
\nProposed surface complexation of 2-CP with silica surface at acidic conditions.
The surface interactions between silanols and 2-CP under basic conditions are shown in Figure 3. Decrease of final solution pH is due to the releasing of −HCl molecule to the medium by forming a bi-dentate diphenolate complex. This observation further conformed by spectroscopic studies.
\nProposed surface complexation of 2-CP with silica surface at basic conditions.
According to Figure 1, the adsorption density increased significantly from pH 2 to 7 and then decreased gradually solution pH up to 12. The maximum adsorption capacity was observed around pH 7.
\nExperimental results revealed that surface charge of the species present in the system at different pH conditions governs the surface interactions between the silica and adsorbate, resulting in variation in adsorption densities [23]. Further, the important parameters such as dissociation constant and the point of zero charges of adsorbent affect the adsorption amount [18]. Point of zero charge (pHZPC) of silica is 3.5 [24]. Surface charge of silica is positive below the pHZPC and negative above the pHZPC. Dissociation constant (pKa) of 2-CP is 8.10 [25, 26, 27].
\nAccording to the pKa value, 2-CP dissociated into negative charge ions over the pH range of 9–12, and it remains as neutral molecule in the pH range of 2–7.8. Further, most of the silanol groups were neutral around pH 6. Dominant silanol groups were positively charged in the pH range of 2–3 and negatively charged in the pH range of 8–12.
\nThe dissociation of 2-CP showed a negative effect on the adsorption mechanism due to the repulsive forces between negatively charged silanol groups and 2-CP ion. Therefore, the adsorption amount was low in the pH range of 10–12. Surface interactions between the less number of undissociated 2-CP and silica molecules showed a significant amount of adsorption even under the extreme acidic and basic conditions. However, the adsorption density was higher in the acidic region than in the alkaline area because the surface interactions were feasible due to the absence of molecules. Favorable surface interactions between neutral 2-CP and silanol groups showed a higher amount of adsorption density around pH 6 [28].
\nFurthermore, according to Figure 1, it shows that adsorption density was inversely proportional to the ionic strength of the medium. Effect of ionic strength on the adsorption process indicated that adsorption on to variable charge mineral surfaces could form outer-sphere complexes via electrostatic interactions [20, 29]. Outer-sphere complexation is sensitive to the changes of ionic strength due to the competition with counter ions in the background electrolytes [30]. Competition between counter ions and adsorbate was more significant at higher ionic strength conditions than at lower ionic strength conditions. These facts prove the formation of outer-sphere complexes upon the adsorption of 2-CP on silica [30].
\nAdsorption configuration between surface silanols groups and 2-CP at different pH conditions further confirmed by FT-IR spectral studies. Figure 4(a) shows the FT-IR spectra of untreated silica along with the adsorbed 2-CP at different solution pH conditions. Spectrum is divided into two parts of 500–1800 cm−1, and 2800–4000 cm−1 for simplicity as no bands were observed between 1800 and 2800 cm−1. The spectrum of untreated silica is shown in line (A).
\n(a) FTIR spectra of (A) bare silica, (B) silica treated with 2-CP at pH 5 and (C) silica treated with 2-CP at pH 9. The bare silica samples prepare at pH 5 and 9 gave coincident spectra. All the spectra are plotted in the same scale for direct comparison. Scale is broken between 1800 and 2750 cm−1 as no bands were observed in the region. (b) Difference spectrum at pH 9. The positive bands are characteristic for 2-CP on the surface while negative bands indicate the loss of surface sites due to chemisorption of 2-CP.
In the spectrum A, the bands for Si-OH bending modes at ~1080–1270 cm−1, Si-OH deformation mode at ~811 cm−1 and Si-O stretching mode at ~915 cm−1 were observed. In addition to these characteristic bands, a band appeared at ~1637 cm−1 could be attributed to the H-O-H bending vibration of physically adsorbed water as the broad band further supports this at ~3475 cm−1 [21, 31]. The band at 3743 cm−1 is typical for isolated O-H stretching vibration, and it indicates that the presence of isolated OH groups on the surface [32]. It was observed that the adsorption of 2-CP onto silica surface influence the IR spectrum of the untreated silica. For better comparison, IR spectra of silica surface treated with 2-CP at pH 5 and 9 are shown in lines (B) and (C), respectively, in Figure 4(a). These spectra were measured after 3 hour equilibration time of the silica with 2-CP at respective pH. Upon adsorption of 2-CP, new bands appeared at 1280, 1482 and ~3030–3070 cm−1 with an observation of complete disappearance of the isolated O-H groups at 3743 cm−1 while all the other bands of untreated silica showed significant losses in their intensities. These observations suggest that the 2-CP chemisorbed on the surface [33, 34]. This behavior of chemisorption is further explained in Figure 4(b) where the difference spectrum (2-CP adsorbed—bare silica) is depicted. Negative bands at ~811, 915, 1270, 1637, 3475 and 3743 cm−1 suggest the loss of original nature of Si-O(H) moieties upon adsorption of 2-CP while the positive bands appeared at ~1280, 1482 and 3070 cm−1 clearly shows the presence of 2-CP on the surface [21]. The disappearance of 3743 cm−1 bands indicated that the isolated hydroxyl groups are one of the major adsorption sites for 2-CP. Reduced intensities of other characteristic bands of silica further suggest the interaction of 2-CP with the surface. The new bands appeared at 1280, 1482 and 3050 cm−1 are assigned to the C-O stretching, C〓C stretching of the benzene ring, and aromatic C-H stretching modes, respectively, of 2-CP [31]. It should note here that the 1280 cm−1 band appeared at pH 9 is more intense compared to that observed at pH 5 even though the amount adsorbed (64%) was lesser than that observed at pH 5 (74%) [33, 34].
\nThe IR observations can further explain the variation of solution pH with the adsorption. Figure 5(a) shows the results in the 1400–1800 cm−1 region for the untreated (bare: dash-dot line) silica, and silica treated with 2-CP at pH 5 (line A) and 9 (line B).
\nFTIR spectra in 1400–1800 cm−1 region (a) 2-CP and (b) 4-CP, bare silica: dashed-dot line, (A) silica treated with 2 and 4 CP at pH 5 and (B) silica treated with 2 and 4 CPs at pH 9. The bare silica samples prepare at pH 5 and 9 gave coincident spectra. All the spectra are plotted in the same scale for direct comparison.
As described earlier, the intensity of the band due to H-O-H bending mode of silica at 1637 cm−1 decreased in intensity and shifted to around 1630 cm−1 upon adsorption of 2-CP in both cases. When the pH of the medium was 9, the band at 1637 cm−1 lost its intensity with the appearance of a new band at 1607 cm−1. Also, a clear change was observed in the band at ~1482 cm−1. A new band appeared at 1495 cm−1 with a remaining shoulder at ~1477 cm−1 and a second shoulder at ~1452 cm−1 was observed. These observations suggest that different type of bonding species are involved in these two pH conditions. The new band appeared at 1495 cm−1 along with the shift in the band at 1637–1607 cm−1 reveal the formation of catechol type intermediate [35, 36]. The bands at 1495 cm−1 can be attributed to the C-C stretch of the above catechol type intermediate and that the appearance of strong band at 1280 cm−1(Figure 4, line C) might indicate the presence of more-oriented C-O bonding in the same species of the above. The shift in 1482 cm−1 band to 1477 cm−1 and another shoulder peak at ~455 cm−1 indicate the changes in the electronic environment of the benzene ring due to the formation of catechol intermediate in which that can be in bi-dentate or bridging configuration to the silica surface. The experiments done with 4-CP further confirmed the formation of this intermediate and the results are shown in Figure 5(b). The adsorption of 4-CPon silica at different pHs showed quite similar spectra and the bands at 1607 and 1495 cm−1 did not appear. Further, the band shift at 1637 cm−1 was negligible. 4-CP cannot form catechol type intermediate upon adsorption hence giving no bands around the above frequencies. Study on the adsorption of 2-CP vapor on fused silica at high temperature revealed that the formation of catechol type intermediate species by the bonding of 2-CP via Cl atom and phenolic oxygen and formation of such species are proved by the observation of a band at ~1600 and 1494 cm−1 [25, 35, 37].
\nThough the pH 9 of the medium is higher than pKa of 2-CP (8.52) the above observations clearly show the supportive information for the proposed adsorbed species. When the pH is higher than pKa, anionic species formed may have a high tendency towards interacting with silica by the elimination of H2O and HCl molecules [33]. However, previous studies on the adsorption of 2-CP on fly ash and Ca-montmorillonite showed the reduction in the adsorption capacity when the pH was higher than pKa where the dissociated organic molecules experience the repulsion from the negatively charged surface [38]. In the present study, the amount adsorbed at pH 5 was ~74% while that at pH 9 was 64%. Despite that repulsion and ~10% reduction in the adsorption, the step of the elimination of Cl atom may make some favorable path for the remaining (or dissociated) 2-CP to interact with the Si-O sites [39].
\nAdsorption of 2-CP on silica surface was examined under different pH conditions. The maximum adsorption capacity of 1.5 × 10−8 mol m−2 on silica surface was observed at pH 7. There are different adsorbed species were predicted in different pH conditions. The interaction between colloidal silica (SiO2) and 2-CP was investigated in an aqueous medium with the emphasis of Fourier Transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy.
\nEffect of ionic strength on the adsorption was significant as the adsorption capacity was inversely proportional to the ionic strength of the medium. Experimental results confirmed the formation of outer-sphere complexes during the adsorption process. FTIR spectroscopic studies revealed the direct interaction between 2CP and silica via catechol type bidentate complex by eliminating HCl while the experiments with 4CP further confirmed the formation of such an adsorbate configuration. In the future, these observations can also apply to identify degradation pathways of 2-CP in natural soil system in different environmental conditions.
\nAll the authors declare that there are no potential conflicts of interest in any financial or nonfinancial.
This study was funded by National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hanthana road, Kandy.
\n2-chlorophenol
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"55323",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68873",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]},{id:"55349",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68596",title:"The Development of a Human Well-Being Index for the United States",slug:"the-development-of-a-human-well-being-index-for-the-united-states",totalDownloads:2055,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a human well-being index (HWBI) that assesses the over-all well-being of its population at the county level. The HWBI contains eight domains representing social, economic and environmental well-being. These domains include 25 indicators comprised of 80 metrics and 22 social, economic and environmental services. The application of the HWBI has been made for the nation as a whole at the county level and two alternative applications have been made to represent key populations within the overall US population—Native Americans and children. A number of advances have been made to estimate the values of metrics for counties where no data is available and one such estimator—MERLIN—is discussed. Finally, efforts to make the index into an interactive web site are described.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"J. Kevin Summers, Lisa M. Smith, Linda C. Harwell and Kyle D. Buck",authors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"},{id:"197486",title:"Ms.",name:"Lisa",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"lisa-smith",fullName:"Lisa Smith"},{id:"197487",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Harwell",slug:"linda-harwell",fullName:"Linda Harwell"},{id:"197488",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyle",middleName:null,surname:"Buck",slug:"kyle-buck",fullName:"Kyle Buck"}]},{id:"56529",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70237",title:"Well-being and Quality of Working Life of University Professors in Brazil",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-working-life-of-university-professors-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1685,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a study about the perceptions on quality of working life (QWL) regarding factors and indicator in two public universities in Brazil. It aimed also to analyze their perceptions about university working conditions. This exploratory study is based on quantitative and qualitative analyses. A sample of 715 university professors participated on the research. Data collection was carried out in two steps: online survey and focus groups. There is a moderate negative correlation between psychological well-being and work-related stress. Emotional charge also presents a moderate positive correlation with work-related stress, as well as physical charge and psychological distress. Work-life balance is negatively correlated with physical charge, emotional charge, work-related stress, psychological distress, and burnout. We observed also that 43.6% of the professors reported high levels of work-related stress in their everyday work. The precariousness of university teaching is associated with three main elements, which we defined as the tripod of the precarization of university teaching work. It consists of academic productivism, excess of administrative work and bureaucratic activities, and inadequate working conditions. The operating dynamics of this tripod effect professors’ well-being, their QWL, and even the quality of the work they develop in public universities.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Alessandro Vinicius de Paula and Ana Alice Vilas Boas",authors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas"},{id:"196534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula",slug:"alessandro-vinicius-de-paula",fullName:"Alessandro Vinicius De Paula"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2339,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"76968",title:"In the Darkness of This Time: Wittgenstein and Freud on Uncertainty",slug:"in-the-darkness-of-this-time-wittgenstein-and-freud-on-uncertainty",totalDownloads:466,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Both Wittgenstein and Freud experienced the crisis of humanism resulting from the first and second world wars. Although they were both considered to be influential figures, they hardly investigated the ways in which people could cope with the consequences of these crises. However, Wittgenstein and Freud did suggest ways of understanding uncertainties caused by real life events, as well as by the nature of human thought processes. This article will explore the therapeutic ways of dealing with uncertainties common to both thinkers and the different concepts facilitating their methodologies. The central contention of this article is that both Wittgenstein and Freud developed a complex methodology, acknowledging the constant and unexpected changes humans have deal with, whilst also offering the possibility of defining “hinge propositions” and “language-games” which can stabilize our consciousness.",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Dorit Lemberger",authors:[{id:"325725",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorit",middleName:null,surname:"Lemberger",slug:"dorit-lemberger",fullName:"Dorit Lemberger"}]},{id:"76565",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Transition from Distress to Acceptance of Human Frailty - Anthropology and Psychology of the Pandemic Era",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-transition-from-distress-to-acceptance-of-human-frailty-anthropology-and-ps",totalDownloads:398,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Fabio Gabrielli and Floriana Irtelli",authors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",middleName:null,surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"},{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli"}]},{id:"77214",title:"The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Dentists",slug:"the-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-the-mental-health-of-dentists",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Since March 2020, the COVID-19 disease has declared a pandemic producing a worldwide containment. For months, many people were subjected to strict social isolation away from family and loved ones to prevent disease transmission, leading to anxiety, fear, and depression. On the other hand, many had to close down their businesses and stop working, resulting in financial issues. Previous studies have reported that pandemics, epidemics, and some diseases can lead to mental disorders such as fear, anxiety, stress, and depression. Among those most affected, healthcare workers (HCWs), especially those on the front line, often develop mental health problems. Although there is data available on the management and care of HCWs, little attention has been paid to the mental health and well-being of dentists during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this chapter aims to review the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on dentists’ mental health and mental health-related symptoms. Finally, to recommend specific measures to avoid consequent potential implications for dentists, dental students, and dental patients.",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Andrea Vergara-Buenaventura and Carmen Castro-Ruiz",authors:[{id:"346660",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Vergara-Buenaventura",slug:"andrea-vergara-buenaventura",fullName:"Andrea Vergara-Buenaventura"},{id:"419814",title:"MSc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Ruiz",slug:"carmen-castro-ruiz",fullName:"Carmen Castro-Ruiz"}]},{id:"55323",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"278",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. 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