\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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He joined University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences during 2003 as Assistant Professor where he was later selected and appointed as Associate Professor and Professor, in 2006 and 2011 respectively. His research focus is on selection and breeding of large and small ruminants. He also supervises and evaluates postgraduate research to ensure successful and timely completion of the projects focusing on genetic improvement, enhancing breeding efficiency and production enhancement of farm animals. In addition, he participates and conducts trainings, workshops, conferences and seminars, and writes scientific publications to disseminate knowledge and techniques to the researchers and livestock producers about various areas of animal husbandry for improving behaviour, health, growth, fertility and production of livestock. 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The year 1970 was the starting point of the theoretical work leading to the understanding of black hole quasinormal modes [5, 6, 7], and in the 1990s, higher-order post-Newtonian calculations [8] were performed and later the extensive analytical studies of relativistic two-body dynamics were realized [9, 10]. These advances, together with numerical relativity breaks through in the past decade [11, 12, 13]. Numerous black hole candidates have now been identified through electromagnetic observations [14, 15, 16]. The black hole binary and their rotation and mergers are open problem of the astrophysics, and it is the integral part of the binary black hole physics.
\nThe binary pulsar system PSR B1913+16 (also known as PSR J1915+1606) discovered by Hulse and Taylor [17] and subsequent observations of its energy loss by Taylor and Weisberg [18] demonstrated the existence of gravitational waves [19].
\nBy the early 2000s, a set of initial detectors was completed, including TAMA 300 in Japan, GEO600 in Germany, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) in the United States, and Virgo in Italy. In 2015, Advanced LIGO became the first of a significantly more sensitive network of advanced detectors (a second-generation interferometric gravitational wave detector) to begin observations [20].
\nTaylor and Hulse, working at the Arecibo Radiotelescope, discovered the radio pulsar PSR B1913+16 in a binary, in 1974, and this is now considered as the best general relativistic laboratory [21].
\nPulsar PSR B1913+16 is the massive body of the binary system where each of the rotating pairs is 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. These neutron stars rotate around each other in an orbit not much larger than the Sun’s diameter, with a period of 7.8 h. Every 59 ms, the pulsar emits a short signal that is so clear that the arrival time of a 5 min string of a set of such signals can be resolved within 15 \n
A pulsar model based on strongly magnetized, rapidly spinning neutron stars was soon established as consistent with most of the known facts [22]; its electrodynamical properties were studied theoretically [23] and shown to be plausibly capable of generating broadband radio noise detectable over interstellar distances. The binary pulsar PSR B1913+16 is now recognized as the harbinger of a new class of unusually short-period pulsars, with numerous important applications.
\nBecause the velocities and gravitational energies in a high-mass binary pulsar system can be significantly relativistic, strong-field and radiative effects come into play. The binary pulsar PSR B1913+16 provides significant tests of gravitation beyond the weak-field, slow-motion limit [24, 25].
\nWe do not repeat here the derivation of the Einstein quadrupole formula in the Schwinger gravity theory [26]. We show that just in the framework of the Schwinger gravity theory, it is easy to determine the spectral formula for emitted gravitons and the quantum energy loss formula of the binary system. The energy loss formula is general, including black hole binary, and it involves arbitrarily strong gravity.
\nSince the measurement of the motion of the black hole binaries goes on, we hope that sooner or later the confirmation of our formula will be established.
\nSource methods by Schwinger are adequate for the solution of the calculation of the spectral formula of gravitons and energy loss of binary. Source theory [27, 28] was initially constructed to describe the particle physics situations occurring in high-energy physics experiments. However, it was found that the original formulation simplifies the calculations in the electrodynamics and gravity, where the interactions are mediated by photon and graviton, respectively. The source theory of gravity forms the analogue of quantum electrodynamics because, while in QED the interaction is mediated by the photon, the gravitational interaction is mediated by the graviton [29]. The basic formula in the source theory is the vacuum-to-vacuum amplitude [30]:
\nwhere the minus and plus symbols refer to any time before and after the region of space–time with action of sources. The exponential form is postulated to express the physically independent experimental arrangements, with result that the associated probability amplitudes multiply and the corresponding \n
In the flat space-time, the field of gravitons is described by the amplitude (1) with the action (\n
where the dimensionality of \n
where \n
and the relativistic energy is defined by the known relation
\nwhere v is the three-velocity of the moving particle.
\nSymbol \n
It may be easy to show that the probability of the persistence of vacuum is given by the following formula [27]:
\nwhere the so-called power spectral function \n
where
\nwhich gives
\nNow, using Eqs. (2), (7), and (10), we get the power spectral formula in the following form:
\nIn the case of the binary system with masses \n
with
\nFor the tensor of energy and momentum of the binary, we have
\nwhere we have omitted the tensor \n
After the insertion of Eq. (15) into Eq. (11), we get [33]
\nwhere (\n
Using the following relations
\nwe get for \n
Using the definition of the Bessel function \n
from which the derivatives and their integrals follow, we get for \n
Using \n
with
\nSo, instead of Eq. (19), we get
\nNow, we can approach the evaluation of the energy loss formula for the binary from the power spectral of Eqs. (24) and (27). The energy loss is defined by the relation
\nFrom [34] we have Kapteyn’s formula:
\nAfter differentiating the last relation with respect to \n
From [34] we learn other Kapteyn’s formulae:
\nand
\nSo, after the application of Eqs. (30), (31) and (32) to Eqs. (24) and (28), we get
\nInstead of using Kapteyn’s formulae for the interference term, we will perform a direct evaluation of the energy loss of the interference term by the \n
with
\nUsing the definition of the \n
According to the Schwinger article [36], we express the delta function as follows:
\nThen
\nand it means that
\nNow, we can write Eq. (36) in the following form after some elementary operations:
\nwhere \n
After the application of the per partes method, we get from Eq. (40) the following mathematical object:
\nWe get after some elementary operations \n
and
\nwhere \n
So we get instead of Eq. (41) the following final form:
\nLet us remark that we can use simple approximation in Eq. (41) as follows: \n
and
\nSo, instead of Eq. (46), we have
\nWe here determine the electromagnetic shift of energy levels of H-atom electrons by calculating an electron coupling to the black hole thermal bath. The energy shift of electrons in H-atom is determined in the framework of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.
\nThe Gibbons-Hawking effect is the statement that a temperature can be associated to each solution of the Einstein field equations that contain a causal horizon.
\nSchwarzschild space-time involves an event horizon associated with temperature \n
The analogical problems are solved in the scientific respected journals. There is a general conviction of an analogy between the black hole and the hydrogen atom. Corda [37] used the model where Hawking radiation is a tunneling process. In his article the emission is expressed in terms of the black hole quantum levels. So, the Hawking radiation and black hole quasinormal modes by Corda [38] are analogical to hydrogen atom by Bohr.
\nIn this model [39] the corresponding wave function is written in terms of a unitary evolution matrix. So, the final state is a pure quantum state with no information loss. Black hole is defined as the quantum systems, with discrete quantum spectra, with Hooft’s assumption that Schrödinger equations are universal for all universe dynamics.
\nThermal photons by Gibbons and Hawking are blackbody photons, with the Planck photon distribution law [40, 41, 42], derived from the statistics of the oscillators inside of the blackbody. Later Einstein [43] derived the Planck formula from the Bohr model of atom where photons and electrons have the discrete energies related with the Bohr formula \n
Now, we determine the modification of the Coulomb potential due to blackbody photons. At the start, the energy shift in the H-atom is the potential \n
The average of the last equation in space enables the elimination of the so-called the effective potential:
\nwhere \n
The shift of the energy levels is given by the standard quantum formula [44]:
\nIn case of the Coulomb potential, which is the case of the H-atom, we have
\nThen for the H-atom we can write
\nwhere we used the following equation for the Coulomb potential
\nThe motion of electron in the electric field is evidently described by elementary equation:
\nwhich can be transformed by the Fourier transformation into the following equation
\nwhere the index \n
Using Bethe idea [46] of the influence of vacuum fluctuations on the energy shift of electron, the following elementary relations were applied by Welton [45], Akhiezer et al. [44] and Berestetzkii et al. [47]:
\nand in case of the thermal bath of the blackbody, the last equation is of the following form [48]:
\nbecause the Planck law in (60) was written as
\nwhere the term
\nis the average energy of photons in the blackbody and
\nis the number of electromagnetic modes in the interval \n
Then,
\nwhere \n
So, after some integration, we get
\nwhere \n
which is not elementary, and it is not in the tables of integrals.
\nFrequencies \n
where \n
The second frequency follows from the cutoff, determined by the neglection of the relativistic effect in our theory. So, we write
\nIf we express the thermal function in the form of the geometric series
\nand the first thermal contribution is
\nthen, with Eq. (55)
\nwhere according to Sokolov et al. [50]
\nwith
\nLet us only remark that the numerical form of Eq. (72) has deep experimental astrophysical meaning.
\nHaroche [51] and his group performed experiments with the Rydberg atoms in a cavity. We used here Gibbons-Hawking black hole for the determination of the energy shift of H-atom electrons in the black hole gas.
\nWe have seen that the black hole can be modeled by the blackbody, and it means that there is the velocity of sound in the Gibbons-Hawking black hole thermal bath. So, let us derive the sound velocity from the thermodynamics of photon gas and energy mass relation.
\nIn order to be pedagogically clear, we start with the derivation of the speed of sound in the real elastic rod.
\nLet \n
Now, we suppose that the force tension \n
where \n
The mass of \n
or
\nwhere
\nis the velocity of sound in the rod.
\nThe complete solution of Eq. (79) includes the initial and boundary conditions. We suppose that Eq. (80) is of the universal validity also for gas in the cylinder tube. If \n
The sound in ideal gas is the adiabatic thermodynamic process with no heat exchange. This is the model of the sound spreading in the gas of blackbody photons. Such process is described by the thermodynamic equation:
\nwhere \n
After differentiation of Eq. (82), we get the following equation:
\nor
\nAfter inserting Eq. (84) into Eq. (81), we get from Eq. (80) the so-called Newton-Laplace formula:
\nwith \n
The equilibrium radiation density has the Stefan-Boltzmann form:
\nThen, with regard to the thermodynamic definition of the specific heat,
\nSimilarly, with regard to the general thermodynamic theory,
\nbecause \n
So, after the insertion of formulae in Eq. (88) into Eq. (85), the final formula for the sound velocity in photon blackbody sea is the following:
\nwhich was derived by Partovi [52] using the QED theory of the photon gas. We correctly derived \n
So, we have performed the derivation of the velocity of sound in the relic photon sea. It is not excluded that the relic sound can be detected by the special microphones of Bell Laboratories. If we use van der Waals equation of state or the Kamerlingh Onnes virial equation, the obtained results will be modified with regard to the basic results.
\nOur derivation of the light velocity in the blackbody photon gas was based on the classical thermodynamic model with the adiabatic process (\n
where \n
There is the Boltzmann statistical theory of transport of sound energy in a gas [53]. After the application of this theory to the photon gas or relic photon gas, we can obtain results involving the cross-section of the photon-photon interaction [47]:
\nand
\nwhere \n
We have derived the spectral density of gravitons and the total quantum loss of energy of the black hole binary. The energy loss is caused by the emission of gravitons during the motion of the two black hole binaries around each other under their gravitational interaction. The energy loss formulae of the production of gravitons are derived here by the Schwinger method. Because the general relativity and theory of gravity do not necessarily contain the last valid words to be written about the nature of gravity and it is not, of course, a quantum theory [21], they cannot give the answer on the production of gravitons and the quantum energy loss, respectively. So, this article is the original text that discusses the quantum energy loss caused by the production of gravitons by the black hole binary system. It is evident that the production of gravitons by the binary system forms a specific physical situation, where a general relativity can be seriously confronted with the source theory of gravity.
\nThis article is an extended version of an older article by the present author [33], in which only the spectral formulae were derived. Here we have derived the quantum energy loss formulae, with no specific assumption concerning the strength of the gravitational field. We hope that future astrophysical observations will confirm the quantum version of the energy loss of the binary black hole.
\nIn the next part of the chapter, the electromagnetic shift of energy levels of H-atom electrons was determined by calculating an electron coupling to the Gibbons-Hawking electromagnetic field thermal bath of the black hole. The energy shift of electrons in H-atom is determined in the framework of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.
\nIn the last section, we have determined the velocity of sound in the blackbody gas of photons inside of the black hole. Derivation was based on the thermodynamic theory of the photon gas and the Einstein relation between energy and mass. The spectral form for the n-dimensional blackbody was not here considered. The text is based mainly on the author articles published in the international journals of physics [33, 54, 55].
\nThere is the fundamental problem concerning the maximal mass of the black hole. The theory of the space–time with maximal acceleration constant was derived by authors [56, 57]. In this theory the maximal acceleration constant is the analogue of the maximal velocity in special theory of relativity. Maximal acceleration determines the maximal black hole mass where the mass of the black hole is restricted by maximal acceleration of a body falling in the gravity field of the black hole.
\nAnother question is what is the relation of our formulae to the results obtained by LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory)? LIGO is the largest and most sensitive interferometer facility ever built. It has been periodically upgraded to increase its sensitivity. The most recent upgrade, Advanced LIGO (2015), detected for the first time the gravitational wave, with sensitivity far above the background noise. The event with number GW150914 was identified with the result of a merger of two black holes at a distance of about 400 Mpc from Earth [58]. Two additional significant detections, GW151226 and GW170104, were reported later. We can say that at this time it is not clear if the LIGO results involve information on the spectrum of gravitons calculated in this chapter.
\nEchinococcus granulosus is one of cestodes that caused cystic hydatid disease (Echinococcosis), and this parasite is transmitted from carnivores (dogs, foxes, leopards, lions, and hyenas), which are the definitive hosts of E. granulosus and the parasite (the adult stages) lives in their intestines, to herbivores (sheep, goats, camels, cows, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, pigs, rabbits, and humans), which are intermediate hosts of the parasite where the larvae (hydatid cyst) live [1].
E. granulosus has three different stages of development: eggs, larvae, and adult worms, which are small and do not exceed 7 mm in length as shown in Figure 1 and live adjacent to the mucous layer of the small intestine of the definitive hosts until they reach the adult phases of sexual maturity in about 5–4 weeks [2, 3]. The adult worm has a spherical head of 0.3 mm diameter with a short neck and three types of connected segments, and the head contains a sucker surrounded by two rows of spines ranging from 50 to 28 forks, with four side suckers. The segment that follows the head is immature and contains immature genitals, while the middle segment is mature and contains the testes and ovaries and is located in the middle of the genital opening [4, 5]. The third segment is called gravid segment and contains a branched uterus and has 15–12 branches containing 1000–500 eggs [6].
E. granulosus adult.
The eggs are spherical in shape (Figure 2) and have a diameter of about 40–30 μm and are similar in appearance to the eggs of other tapeworms, containing a hexacanth or oncosphere embryo because the embryo has sixth-hooks lets. The eggs are surrounded by clear coatings [8] and the eggs contain a sticky layer that adheres to the fur of animals and other things, which helps them to spread, as well as insects such as flies, beetles, and birds that play the role of mechanical carrier of eggs, in case of optimal conditions, the eggs remain viable for weeks or months in pastures and gardens as well as they remain viable with the right humidity and moderate temperatures, and the eggs are found in water and wet sand for 3 weeks at 30°C and 225 days at 6°C and 32 days at 10–21°C, also the eggs remain for a short time when exposed to sunlight and dry conditions and kill eggs when exposed to 3.75% of sodium hypochlorite for 10 minutes as well as killed when frozen at −70°C for 4 days or −80°C for 2 days or by heat larger from 60°C for 3 minutes [9].
E. granulosus egg in feces [7].
When intermediate hosts (farm animals) or humans (accidental host) ingest the eggs, the embryo (oncospheres) hatches and becomes active, transmitted by the bloodstream to the liver or any other organ. As soon as the hexacanth embryo reaches its definitive position, it develops into unilocular hydatid cyst that enlarges and produces daughter cysts or protoscoleces inside the inner layer of the hydatid cyst [10, 11].
Transmission to humans is caused by fecal-oral route while eating food and water contaminated with parasite eggs, and these eggs are thrown out with feces of the definitive hosts such as dogs or through contamination of hands with eggs found in contaminated soil or sand or in the hair of infected dogs. The definitive hosts become infected with the adult worm when they feed on the hydatid cysts, which are found in the organs of the intermediate host, such as infected sheep [9, 11].
Species of E. granulosus is divided into several strains such as G1–G10 and these strains have a high degree of adaptation to their hosts, as these strains are named according to the names of their intermediate hosts that play an important role in the continuity of the life cycle of these strains. These strains vary in shape, rate of development, pathogenicity, and geographical extent of their presence: G1 is found in sheep, G2 in Tasmania sheep, and G3 in buffalo. These strains all fall within the E. granulosus species, and G4 strain in equine is therefore called E. equinus; G5 in cows is called E. ortleppi; G6 in camels; G7 in pigs; G9, which is characterized weak, has been isolated from cystic disease in human cases in Poland; G7, G8, and G9 may fall into E. canadensis, and some researchers consider the G9 strain a type of G7 strain in pigs [12].
The classification of Echinococcus genus has been controversial for a long time, and 16 species and 13 subspecies of this genus have been described, based on the difference in the structural and phenotypic properties of the parasite and the characteristics of the host and its type, but only 4 of them are taxonomically adopted: E. granulosus, E. multilocularis, E. oligarthrus, and E. vogeli [13]. According to [14], the classification system of granulocytic parasitic parasite is as follows:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Superclass: Eucestoda
Class: Cestoda
Subclass: Cestoda
Order: Cyclophyllidea (Ben; Braun, 1900)
Family: Taeniidae (Ludwig, 1886)
Genus: Echinococcus (Rud, 1801)
Species: granulosus (Batsch, 1786)
The adult phases of the E. granulosus lives in the mucous layer of the definitive host’s small intestine, and the eggs are highly resistant to harsh environmental conditions for several months or even a year depending on environmental conditions [15]. Therefore, it remains a source of infection to the intermediate hosts during drinking contaminated water and food, including humans that may also be infected by contact with infected dogs, especially in children, whereas eggs adhere to dog hair around the anus [16, 17].
The eggs reach the stomach of the intermediate host and then decompose the chitinous cortex by digestive juices and release the embryo (oncospheres) of the sixth-hooks, and the oncospheres penetrate the intestine and reach the liver, lungs, and other organs including the brain and muscles to develop into hydatid cysts at the end of about 5 months [18].
When the definitive host feeds on infected organs of the intermediate host, the parasite will reach its small intestine, where the primary heads grow into adult worms within 7–4 weeks, and each worm produces thousands of eggs per day, starting the cycle again [15] (Figure 3).
The adult E. granulosus (sensu lato) (2–7 mm long) resides in the small intestine of the definitive host. Gravid proglottids release eggs that are passed in the feces and are immediately infectious. After ingestion by a suitable intermediate host, eggs hatch in the small intestine and release six-hooked oncospheres that penetrate the intestinal wall and migrate through the circulatory system into various organs, especially the liver and lungs. In these organs, the oncosphere develops into a thick-walled hydatid cyst that enlarges gradually, producing protoscolices and daughter cysts that fill the cyst interior. The definitive host becomes infected by ingesting the cyst-containing organs of the infected intermediate host. After ingestion, the protoscolices evaginate, attach to the intestinal mucosa, and develop into adult stages in 32–80 days. Humans are aberrant intermediate hosts and become infected by ingesting eggs . Oncospheres are released in the intestine , and hydatid cysts develop in a variety of organs . If cysts rupture, the liberated protoscolices may create secondary cysts in other sites within the body (secondary echinococcosis) [19].
The hydatid cysts (Figure 4) of E. granulosus are often spherical or semispherical if not compressed by adjacent organs. The size of the hydatid cysts varies with age, approximately 15–1 cm3 [21].
Cross section in the hydatid cyst [20].
The outer layer is also called adventitia or ectocyst that encases the hydatid cyst, and this layer is produced by the host cells (modified dense fibrous protective tissue) as the host’s response to the infection. There is a close interaction between the host tissue and the parasite, and this layer plays an important role in the development and survival of the cyst. Any degradation of the outer layer leads to the degeneration or explosion of the hydatid cyst; the diameters of a pericyst layer vary depending on the host organ where the hydatid is present, but in general, the diameters are about a few millimeters [22].
It is a solid, noncellular chitinous layer, white in color, consisting of microfibers fibers and dense granules rich in amino carbohydrates observed under electron microscopy [23]. It plays a role in protecting the parasite from the immune response of host and providing the suitable environment for its continued growth in addition to its role in reducing the effect of drugs used in the treatment of the disease [6].
This is the inner layer of hydatid cyst, a cellular living layer containing nuclei and associated with the lamellar layer by fingerprints formed by the germinal layer [20, 24]. It acts to protect components of the cyst and controls the osmotic pressure of the cyst wall [25]. The buds are formed from the germinal layer and grow toward the cavity of the cyst, and after the buds become vacuolated and stalked, the process of forming buds from the inner layer of cells begins from those cavities that lead to the formation of protoscolices [26]. The fertility of the aqueous cyst is determined by the presence of protoscolices, their increasing growth, and their association with the germinal layer, as well as other criteria for determining the cyst fertility through the white color and thickness of the germinal layer [27].
These capsules consist of the generated layer by several endogenous budding, which are small buds formed from the germinal layer toward the cavity of the cyst [15]. These buds enlarge, and each capsule is connected to the germinal layer of the parental cyst by the stem. The process of budding is repeated, and each capsule contains large numbers of protoscolices, which have about 30–10 heads per capsule [28]; capsules are gradually separated from the germinal layer and float in the cyst fluid. These capsules are similar in their structure to the parental cyst [29].
The capsules may rupture and protoscolices may be released together with the free capsules, and this is the so-called hydatid sand. Occasionally, cysts are free from brood capsules when they grow in an inappropriate medium or due to bacterial invasion or calcification. The capsules are formed but do not produce protoscolices, and these are called sterile cysts, whereas capsules that produce protoscolices are called fertile cysts [14].
A term of hydatid sand refers to the contents of the hydatid cyst, which includes the daughter cysts, brood capsules, and protoscolices that present in the hydatid fluid of the E. granulosus [30].
It is a clear colorless or yellowish liquid with a specific weight of 1.005–1.009, a pH of 7.2–6.7, and inorganic substances such as iron, chlorine, magnesium, sodium, calcium, cadmium, nickel, chromium, copper, and some enzymes such as glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GTP), glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT), Acid phosphatase with lipase, oxidase, phosphatase, and dehydrate enzymes. They vary in quantity and quality depending on the source of the parasite and the location of the cyst and metabolism of parasites such as ammonia, bilirubin, and creatinine [31].
The E. granulosus parasite spreads almost all over the world, but it is more common in rural areas with large pastoral areas, where there are large numbers of animals that are hosts of the parasite, such as cattle, sheep, and others, with the presence of definitive hosts in these areas especially dogs [32]. Echinococcosis is a health and economic problem in most parts of the world and some studies have recorded more than 50 cases per 100,000 people annually in high endemic areas, where the prevalence of the disease in China, Argentina, and East Africa was about 5–10%. The disease also kills about 1 million people a year around the world and also causes a loss of about $3 billion, including treatment and livestock expenses [15, 33].
It is also highly endemic in parts of Africa, Europe, Australia, Asia, and the Mediterranean countries [34], as well as Middle Eastern countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq [35]. The epidemiology of the disease depends on the economic and agricultural factors and the level of learning and health and social culture in the human society where the parasite is spread, and what helps to spread the disease is the mixing with pets, especially dogs, in the absence of appropriate health conditions [36].
Iraq is a highly endemic country for the disease, due to the spread of loose parasite-infected dogs [37]. Although there are many recent studies of the epidemic of this disease, it is still a major health problem and is still endemic in Iraq, where there were not enough attempts to combat it despite the availability of modern conditions and equipment for diagnosis and treatment [38].
Epidemiology of hydatosis and cystic type (CE) is still on the rise due to its global distribution and high regional prevalence, and alveolar type (AE) has been observed during the past two decades and a decrease in the rate of morbidity and mortality, especially in Asia, as a result of intensive studies of epidemiology in all countries of the world [39].
Hydatidosis is one of the oldest known diseases of the human being. This disease was described by the Egyptians in a document dating back to 1534 BC, as mentioned by the Babylonians in the Bible Talmud. It described the cyst as a bladder filled with fluid [40]. This disease arises from the formation of hydatid cysts of different sizes in different locations such as the liver and lungs in both animals and humans, and the severity of the disease depends on the number of cysts, size, and location. These cysts may lead to loss of human life in addition to economic losses in the field of livestock; the incidence of this disease is high in humans because its risk is that it is detected only by chance during radiological examinations or various surgical operations, but in animals, it is discovered during routine detection in massacres [1].
The cause of hydatidosis disease is due to two important factors. The first is that it is not possible to know the infection in the early stages since the onset of the disease because it does not show symptoms until the cyst has increased in size of the cyst, which puts pressure on the adjacent tissues [41]. The second factor is the loss of therapeutic means, and the disease is very similar to the severity of its metastasis in the metastasis stage [42]. These cysts are found in all parts of the body except hair and nails [43].
This disease is one of the endemic diseases in Iraq and it has an economic, social and health impact on the human, so conducted many studies and research to investigate methods of treatment, which surgical intervention is the most important of these methods, although the patient is exposed to many problems during surgery which may be difficult to perform at times and cannot be performed at other times [44, 45], or the patient is not surgically qualified or as a result of other serious diseases such as immune compromised patients or because of age or anesthesia or the occurrence of the cyst in places difficult for the surgeon to deal with, such as in the cysts of the heart, brain or spine, so the importance of the use of extracts of a different chemical nature treatment of aquatic cyst disease [46].
Hydatis cyst disease (HCD) is slow at the onset of infection and unseen due to slow growth and development of the cyst, which reaches a diameter of about 10–1 mm per year [33]. The appearance of clinical signs depends on the location of the affected organ, the size of the cyst, its location within the affected organ, the stages of its development, and the fertility of its components with the interaction between the related cysts between adjacent organs, especially between the hepatic vessels and bile ducts [47]. In humans, the symptoms are dependent on the affected organ, and the liver is the most exposed organ, with a rate of about 70–60%, followed by lungs 22–20%, spleen, heart, muscles, eye, and thyroid gland 6%, and the kidneys, brain, and bones 1% and don’t hardly any organ of body free from hydatid cyst except teeth, nails and hair [48].
Symptoms in the liver are: an enlarged, and it becomes sensitive when palpated with liver abscesses, in addition abdominal pain, vomiting and nausea, as well as an increase in hepatic blood pressure and in cavity of the lower vena cava also there secondary fibrosis in the ducts bile, the hydatid cyst causes significant pressure on the diaphragm when adhesion to it and leads to a breach and exit of the contents of the cyst in the chest [49]. In the lung, clinical symptoms depend on the size of the cyst and its condition whether it is healthy or torn, causing the presence of pressure of cyst inside the lobes of the lung [50] with varying severity of chest pain and coughing, hemoptysis, shortness of breath, and hemorrhage, and in the lungs, these symptoms do not appear at the first sight of the disease [51, 52, 53]. When the cyst penetrates into the pulmonary vesicles, it is a suitable environment for fungal and bacterial infections, leading to pneumonia after infection and thus destroying the lung [54].
The explosion of the hydatid cyst inside the abdominal cavity leads to a shock known as anaphylactic shock due to acute allergic reactions, and this shock leads to the severe spread of secondary cysts in the affected organ and adjacent organs, and is sometimes followed by the explosion of the cyst at any site within the body leaking its contents into the blood circulation that leads to headaches and other complications that may lead to sudden death [28].
The symptoms develop even when the cyst is small, and most cases of cerebral cyst disease were diagnosed in children [11]. This infection is serious that sometimes it leads to death; cysts in the eye are rare and cause an external tumor of the eye, dysfunction of vision, exophthalmoses, and sometimes blindness around the eyelid [17].
In the bones, cystic hydatid disease often leads to fracture because of the gradual erosion of the cortex and shows symptoms in the form of pain in the upper and lower extremities, and bone bags are abnormal in the form where the laminar layer does not form [55].
In animals, the infection is hidden, and they may be slaughtered sometimes before the onset of symptoms [56]. The severity of the symptoms varies depending on the severity of the disease and the location of the hydatid cyst. Clinical signs generally appear in the affected animal such as decrease in milk production, poor wool, and organ damage in the affected area [57, 58].
The current review included the identification of the E. granulosus worm and its intermediate and final hosts. The canine family represents the final host, while the human and farm animals represent the intermediate hosts. Several strains of E. granulosus were also observed such as G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8, G9, and G10.
The authors thank the Central Library, Library College of Science/University of Al-Qadisiyah, for providing them with the references adopted in this chapter.
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