Novel room temperature liquid DESs derived from renewable sources [119].
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8580",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Rapid population growth, high standards of living, and technological development are constantly increasing the diversity and quantity of solid waste. The production of solid municipal waste associated with the high proportion of organic waste and its improper disposal lead to considerable environmental pollution due to the emission of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, etc. In such a challenging environment, municipal authorities need to develop more effective solutions to manage the growing urban solid waste. Most of the municipal solid waste mainly constitutes degradable materials, which represent a significant role in greenhouse gas emissions in urban localities. Integrated solid waste management approaches must be developed and improved to manage the increasing organic fractions of municipal solid waste, which helps to reduce greenhouse emissions with potential economic benefits. A sustainable management of municipal solid waste systems constitutes a promising and attractive trend to study current consumption behaviors responsible for waste generation, and to protect the global ecosystem. This book presents the management of municipal of solid waste, including recycling and landfill technologies. Moreover, composition and types of waste will be investigated. As a result, the most appropriate and feasible scenarios for the management of municipal solid waste are presented to provide the respected readership with the scientific background for sustainable development in these processes, which are increasingly supported by innovative methodologies for holistic assessment of process sustainability.",isbn:"978-1-78923-832-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-831-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-632-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79020",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",numberOfPages:214,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e3554c02569fe3ac8afa79cb02daae97",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8580.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16492,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:93,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam M. Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management in the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University, Egypt. He has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environmentally friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He has authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He was selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"15",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"15",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"891",title:"Solid Waste",slug:"solid-waste"}],chapters:[{id:"67974",title:"Introductory Chapter: Municipal Solid Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84757",slug:"introductory-chapter-municipal-solid-waste",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hosam M. Saleh and Martin Koller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67974",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"65329",title:"Towards the Recycling of Bio-Waste: The Case of Pontevedra, Spain (REVITALIZA)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83576",slug:"towards-the-recycling-of-bio-waste-the-case-of-pontevedra-spain-revitaliza-",totalDownloads:1005,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Waste management is one of the main environmental problems that municipalities have to address. The fulfilment of the recycling objectives imposed by the European Community requires the segregation and treatment of the municipal bio-waste. Pontevedra Provincial Council started in 2015 an innovative plan, called REVITALIZA, for the recycling of bio-waste through the promotion of composting in municipalities. REVITALIZA, which is developed in different phases, advocates the implementation of local composting (home and community composting) and small composting facilities, so that the generation of waste and the economic and environmental costs of its collection and transport are reduced. The plan is a pioneer in the training of technical personnel in the area of bio-waste management. Currently, 36 municipalities are participating in REVITALIZA in different phases of the plan, committed to locally managing bio-waste.",signatures:"Salustiano Mato, Carlos Pérez-Losada, María Martínez-Abraldes and Iria Villar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65329",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65329",authors:[{id:"202091",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Iria",surname:"Villar",slug:"iria-villar",fullName:"Iria Villar"},{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato"}],corrections:null},{id:"65097",title:"The Use of Composted Municipal Solid Waste under the Concept of Circular Economy and as a Source of Plant Nutrients and Pollutants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83386",slug:"the-use-of-composted-municipal-solid-waste-under-the-concept-of-circular-economy-and-as-a-source-of-",totalDownloads:1461,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The European Union (EU) is one of the major producers of municipal solid wastes and has a common policy based on circular economy to reuse the wastes. However, there are differences between countries and the methods for disposal and treatments. Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be composted and recycled as a source of plant nutrients and improves soil properties. This chapter analyzed the production in the EU and the effects on plant nutrients and environmental pollutants when MSW is added to the soil. The origin of the waste and the compost-like output (CLO) derived is important to determine the expectative of nutrient availability and other possible risks. MSW is so heterogeneous, but after a good pretreatment, an organic-rich matter mix can be composted giving a stabilized organic matter. The addition of the CLO to the soils can improve the nutrient status and favor the bioavailability of nutrients (macronutrients and micronutrients). In general, an increment of N and P was found in the soils. Moreover, important micronutrient availability (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn) has been described. However, the presence of pollutants and their mobility should be considered as an environmental risk.",signatures:"María Belén Almendro-Candel, Jose Navarro-Pedreño, Ignacio Gómez Lucas, Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Pantelitsa Loizia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65097",authors:[{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño"},{id:"137041",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Gómez Lucas",slug:"ignacio-gomez-lucas",fullName:"Ignacio Gómez Lucas"},{id:"246299",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Belén",surname:"Almendro-Candel",slug:"maria-belen-almendro-candel",fullName:"Maria Belén Almendro-Candel"},{id:"246300",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonis",surname:"Zorpas",slug:"antonis-zorpas",fullName:"Antonis Zorpas"},{id:"276761",title:"MSc.",name:"Irene",surname:"Voukkali",slug:"irene-voukkali",fullName:"Irene Voukkali"},{id:"284321",title:"MSc.",name:"Pantelitsa",surname:"Loizia",slug:"pantelitsa-loizia",fullName:"Pantelitsa Loizia"}],corrections:null},{id:"65789",title:"Management of Organic Solid Waste in Meal Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83535",slug:"management-of-organic-solid-waste-in-meal-production",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Brazil, 31% of household food expenses are spent on meals eaten outside of the home. The food service sector is a major consumer of resources (water, energy, food, and other materials), and generator of solid waste (SW) food, being a focus of concern of national and international organizations, given their potential economic, social, and environmental impacts caused by the final disposal of solid waste. This work problematizes the generation of solid waste during the production of meals for collectivities and presents the study carried out in three community restaurants located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The solid waste generated in all stages of the meal production process was weighed. Food leftovers and food scraps were the solid waste generated in greater quantity in the three restaurants studied, showing the need for better planning of the menus and the quantities of preparations produced, since these residues are closely related to the acceptance of the menu and to the waste of food. An organic solid waste management plan has been proposed based on environmental performance evaluation during large-scale meal production.",signatures:"Luciléia Granhen Tavares Colares, Gizene Luciana Pereira de Sales, Aline Gomes de Mello de Oliveira and Verônica Oliveira Figueiredo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65789",authors:[{id:"203294",title:"Prof.",name:"Luciléia",surname:"Granhen Tavares Colares",slug:"lucileia-granhen-tavares-colares",fullName:"Luciléia Granhen Tavares Colares"},{id:"276706",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",surname:"Gomes de Mello de Oliveira",slug:"aline-gomes-de-mello-de-oliveira",fullName:"Aline Gomes de Mello de Oliveira"},{id:"276707",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizene Luciana",surname:"Pereira de Sales",slug:"gizene-luciana-pereira-de-sales",fullName:"Gizene Luciana Pereira de Sales"},{id:"276708",title:"Dr.",name:"Verônica",surname:"Oliveira Figueiredo",slug:"veronica-oliveira-figueiredo",fullName:"Verônica Oliveira Figueiredo"}],corrections:null},{id:"66950",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84921",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management-and-the-inland-water-bodies-nigerian-perspectives",totalDownloads:1707,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Municipal solid waste (MSW) composition, natural transformation, dynamics and impacts on inland water bodies in Nigeria were examined, using dumpsites and landfills as the common markers. Nigeria is estimated to have over 178.5 million people and kg/capita/day of 0.26–1.02 MSW, projected to increase with the expansion of the economy which is in need of better articulated MSW management strategies. The enormous natural inland surface and groundwater resources are daily challenged directly and indirectly, through decline in physical, chemical and biological quality. Solid waste disposal along the waterways and leachates from natural activities on materials at dumpsites and landfills was strongly identified and recognized as the source of pollutant inputs. The immediate and projected public health consequences in changes in inland waters were provided for resident aquatic organisms, some of which serves as food for resident human populations that are largely dependent on these water bodies for their daily water requirements.",signatures:"Akindayo A. Sowunmi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66950",authors:[{id:"277197",title:"Dr.",name:"Akindayo",surname:"Sowunmi",slug:"akindayo-sowunmi",fullName:"Akindayo Sowunmi"}],corrections:null},{id:"65542",title:"Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Modeling of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management Systems in Kosodrza, Community of Ostrów, Poland: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84347",slug:"life-cycle-inventory-lci-modeling-of-municipal-solid-waste-msw-management-systems-in-kosodrza-commun",totalDownloads:1172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this study is to perform the life cycle assessment (LCA) limited to life cycle inventory (LCI) related to municipal solid waste operating in Kosodrza, community of Ostrów, in Poland. The current LCI is a representative for year 2015 by application of PN-EN ISO 14040. The system boundary was labeled as gate-to-gate. The data used in this study, involving consumption of energy and fuels, water, materials, and waste, is obtained from (i) site-specific measured or calculated data and (ii) secondary data taken from integrated permit issued by Marshal of the Podkarpackie region in Rzeszów for the establishment of municipal services in Ostrów by entering the records concerning the waste landfill in Kosodrza. This study is based on the deterministic approach to LCI. Hence, uncertainty analysis is not carried out. The LCI model can be used in full LCA study.",signatures:"Dariusz Sala and Bogusław Bieda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65542",authors:[{id:"115411",title:"Dr.",name:"Boguslaw",surname:"Bieda",slug:"boguslaw-bieda",fullName:"Boguslaw Bieda"},{id:"258743",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Sala",slug:"dariusz-sala",fullName:"Dariusz Sala"}],corrections:null},{id:"65485",title:"Urban Management Model: Municipal Solid Waste for City Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82839",slug:"urban-management-model-municipal-solid-waste-for-city-sustainability",totalDownloads:2120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The population growth arises the increase of municipal solid waste production in urban areas causing daily hundreds of tons of waste. Moreover, its composition characteristics comprise toxic and polluting elements that require infrastructure and enormous local resources for its treatment. The final disposition of this waste is an important issue; it is the key element to control the environmental contamination of soil and pollution of local water sources. Urban Management Model: municipal solid waste for city sustainability, it is based on the Government-Society-Academia alliance. Through a social and technological approach, this model holds the importance of knowledge transfer and its connection with key social actors. The study opens several future alternative solutions such as: biotechnology, technological development, marketing and trading materials to be reused and recycled, special studies for the final disposition destinations, and studies of companies’ organization. Essential elements to provide a solution for the high production of waste problem in cities were conducted.",signatures:"Claudia E. Saldaña Durán and Sarah Messina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65485",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65485",authors:[{id:"272666",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Saldaña",slug:"claudia-saldana",fullName:"Claudia Saldaña"}],corrections:null},{id:"64270",title:"Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana: Moving beyond the Status Quo",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81894",slug:"decentralization-and-solid-waste-management-in-urbanizing-ghana-moving-beyond-the-status-quo",totalDownloads:2156,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Waste management is competing with more pressing economic and social issues such as social protection programs, education, and health. The government of Ghana has therefore decentralized the waste management system in the country. With this development, local government authorities and private sector actors are now playing key roles in waste management in the country. This study sought to examine decentralized solid waste management in the Berekum and Dormaa Municipalities in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Specifically, it analyzed the involvement of the private sector in solid waste management, and the quality of waste management services in the two selected municipalities. Through a survey of 312 households, the study analyzed the performance improvement, regulatory policy, and sustainable service delivery of solid waste management in the municipalities. The study found that there were no mechanisms for full cost recovery to include majority of the residents, who patronize communal collection service. The study therefore recommends the adherence to normative standards and agreed rules, adoption, and use of appropriate cost recovery strategies for low-income groups as well as the restructuring of institutional arrangements to ensure user involvement and enforcement of legislation to improve municipal solid waste management in Ghana.",signatures:"Richard Kyere, Michael Addaney and Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64270",authors:[{id:"273978",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Michael",surname:"Addaney",slug:"michael-addaney",fullName:"Michael Addaney"},{id:"273981",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Kyere",slug:"richard-kyere",fullName:"Richard Kyere"},{id:"273982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas Ayaribilla",surname:"Akudugu",slug:"jonas-ayaribilla-akudugu",fullName:"Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu"}],corrections:null},{id:"65405",title:"Household Willingness to Pay for Improved Solid Waste Management Services: Using Contingent Valuation Analysis in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83598",slug:"household-willingness-to-pay-for-improved-solid-waste-management-services-using-contingent-valuation",totalDownloads:1281,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Solid waste management is one of the crucial problems in India. An increasing population, industrialization and urbanization have major sources for increasing solid waste in India. The per capita waste generation in India is between 0.6 and 1 kg per day also expected to increase in future. This chapter has discussed two important aspects first; there is lack of study on economic analysis India, second most of the studies have focused on urban solid waste management in India. The present study has used household willingness to pay through the contingent valuation method for improved solid waste management of 150 household in semi-urban areas in Madurai, India. The study has found that the household respondents are willingness to pay Rs 24 (US$ 0.34) for clean environment in the semi-urban area. This study has also found more than 95% of household respondents are willing to pay for solid waste management in Madurai. Most of the household respondents are felt improper solid waste management has one of the important reasons for health issue particularly for children and elderly people in the study area. The main policy implication of the study is to design proper solid waste management plan for collection, transportation, disposal and segregation of solid waste in semi-urban areas in India.",signatures:"Muniyandi Balasubramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65405",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65405",authors:[{id:"275432",title:"Dr.",name:"Muniyandi",surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"muniyandi-balasubramanian",fullName:"Muniyandi Balasubramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"65314",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication and Management Strategies in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83809",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-disposal-in-mangrove-forest-environmental-implication-and-management-strategie",totalDownloads:1085,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Niger Delta is an oil rich region situated in the southern part of Nigeria. It is made up of nine states which hosts oil industries. There are a handful of businesses (super market, manufacturing companies, etc.) that service the over 40 million people living in the cities. This situation had led to the increase in solid waste in the city. Because of the problem of over population, and poor waste management strategies (e.g., lack of recycling habit and lack of equipment) the mangrove forest had become a dumping ground for waste. This action has impacted the health of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and has created a public health disaster for citizens because of increase in heavy metal concentration up the food chain. This chapter therefore, identifies poverty, lack of planning, poor behavior and poor technology as key factors affecting effective waste management in the Niger Delta. It suggests that good waste management system can be worked out if there is coordination between research institution and government in the implementation of recommendation by research institutes. Attitudinal change is also necessary on the part of citizens and government to enable a healthy interaction for the purpose of managing waste effectively.",signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65314",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65314",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}],corrections:null},{id:"64364",title:"Improper Disposal of Household Hazardous Waste: Landfill/Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81845",slug:"improper-disposal-of-household-hazardous-waste-landfill-municipal-wastewater-treatment-plant",totalDownloads:1818,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Household hazardous waste (HHW) is not always separated for proper handling before disposal. When disposed improperly to landfills and municipal treatment plants, these products can have significant impact on the environment. Although HHW is a small portion of municipal solid waste, the presence of HHW in solid management facilities that are not equipped to handle them can have problematic effects, resulting in environmental pollution, damage to facilities, and even injury to workers. In many countries, HHW is not subject to legislation unless separated from other household waste because of its small percentage and the challenge in enforcement. In addition, there is no standard definition of HHW globally; therefore, what constitutes to HHW in one country may not be in another. Government legislation and schemes such as Extended Producer Responsibility play a vital role in encouraging proper disposal among consumers, especially when they are convenient and accessible. In this chapter, hazardous household products in different countries are considered along with common improper and acceptable disposal methods. Furthermore, the impacts of improper disposal on the environment are explored with an emphasis on landfill leachate and wastewater treatment plant effluent. Finally, current legislation and programs that encourage proper disposal are discussed.",signatures:"Elsayed Elbeshbishy and Frances Okoye",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64364",authors:[{id:"187816",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsayed",surname:"Elbeshbishy",slug:"elsayed-elbeshbishy",fullName:"Elsayed Elbeshbishy"},{id:"189802",title:"Ms.",name:"Frances",surname:"Okoye",slug:"frances-okoye",fullName:"Frances Okoye"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9873",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59b5ceeeedaf7449a30629923569388c",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9873.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6534",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7573426a162c18f39acc575c1e69f67",slug:"heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Refaat F. Aglan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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\r\n\tIn this book, the technological and functional properties of barley will be highlighted comprehensively. Moreover, Nutritional and bioactive profiles and barley utilization in different baking products will also be in the limelight of this book. This depiction will be valuable for all consumers from health points of view.
\r\n\r\n\tFood security is an alarming issue in developing countries as the population is increasing day by day. So, researchers have to think about alternative sources of staple diet(wheat) that should have the same nutritional composition as compared to wheat. Among cereals, barley is an alternative source because of its nutritional and functional properties, despite all the functional ingredients it is rarely used in the food industry. From different researches, it is revealed that it contains 24 % dietary fiber, so it is beneficial for CVDs and other health-related disorders. Now a day, barley consumption is very rare. There are many barley products in the food market such as malt flour, grits, flakes, pot, and pearled barley. Bread formulations also involve the usage of barley flour and cracked barley. The possibility of high fiber barley utilization in breakfast cereals production through blending with other grains, flaking, puffing, and extrusion is becoming common. So, there is a dire need to do value addition of barley into various products. Furthermore, the most important reason for wheat replacement with barley is its allergy-causing nature in some cases. Keeping in view all of the above facts, the present book has been designed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-924-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-923-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-925-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"996125d4599193b3b6b749f5d8aa3cb2",bookSignature:"Dr. Farhan Saeed and Dr. Muhammad Afzaal",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11793.jpg",keywords:"Cereal, Barley, Dietary Fibers, Nutritional Composition, Grains, Technology, Processing, Milling, Flour, Rheology, Bioactive Profile, Utilization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Farhan is an Assistant Professor at Government College University Faisalabad-Pakistan where he finished his Ph.D. at the age of 28 years. He has an h index of 16 and has published more than 70 papers in reputed journals with an impact factor of more than 140. His research focus is on finding innovative and effective practices to improve food production, quality, and safety, keeping in view the betterment of human health.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Muhammad Afzaal is working as an Assistant professor in the Department of Food Science. Government College University Faisalabad. He has 10 years of teaching and research experience. He has more than 40 publications in well-reputed journals and 5 book chapters published. His research interests are food science and technology, food microbiology and biotechnology, microencapsulation, probiotics, prebiotics & synbiotics, biopreservation, and waste value addition.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"192244",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhan",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"farhan-saeed",fullName:"Farhan Saeed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192244/images/system/192244.jpg",biography:"PERSONAL STATEMENT\r\nMy name is Farhan Saeed. During Master study, I received an Indigenous Fellowship from Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan. The selection process was a rigorous process starting from a GRE-based test. After being short listed by HEC, part of the Fellowship was the opportunity to complete doctorate degree mainly within Food Science and Technology field. I did my Doctorate thesis entitled 'Biochemical characterization of non-starch polysaccharides in relation to end-use quality of spring wheats” under the supervision of Dr. Imran Pasha. The doctorate research was focused on value addition of bioactive components extracted from spring wheats. The addition of extracted non-starch polysaccharides enhances the quality of baked products as well as important in nutraceutical point of view. The products under proposed study were thoroughly investigated for assessment of nutritional and end use quality of bread. The output of the proposed research work was highly beneficial to the consumers as well as Government of Pakistan for their intended purposes. The awareness about nutritional significance of non-starch polysaccharides enriched bread was really set the new horizons in product development in Pakistan. In 2012, I joined Institute of Home & Food Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad as Assistant Professor. In 2014, I became HEC Approved Supervisor. During 2015, I have visited Massachusetts, Amherst, USA under Pakistan Program for Collaborative Research (PPCR), HEC Pakistan for two months training program for the development of innovative project. After that, I have been selected to receive a 2016 'Endeavour Research Fellowship” to undertake proposed program in Australia. I did work in Centre for Nutrition & Food Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia under the supervision of Professor Mike Gidley. The commencing date of current program is May 17, 2016 and the expiry is on November 15, 2016. In October, 2018. I was promoted to Tenured Associate Professor. I have published more than 70 papers in reputed journals with impact factor more than 140. I have 20 book chapters in international books. I presented research works in international level at Huazhong University Wuhan, China and Conference on Food Properties in Sharjah. I also got two research projects funds from Higher Education Commission Islamabad, Pakistan. I would like to be granted the KGSP because it will offer me with the opportunity to partake in Post-Doctoral program of Food Science and Biotechnology at Kyungpook National University (KNU) among the best universities in Korea. In my home country, vital issues stressed in this particular degree program are quite overlooked, and this scholarship program will bring me a great chance to come within reach of them. By taking this course, I am optimistic for finding innovative and effective practices to improve food production, quality and safety, keeping in view the betterment of human health; and moreover, to improve the end-product quality for maintenance of customer’s health. To sum up, winning the KGSP will enable me not only to broaden my knowledge, but also to gain experience from people and culture of both countries Korea and Pakistan. In the longer term, I sturdily desire to contribute to the cause of assuring food security and safety initially in my country and laterally worldwide. The main objective of applying here to get international exposure while working with world class food experts especially those working in the area of functional foods and nutraceuticals. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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As such, many efforts are being made to reduce the use of hazardous substances (particularly volatile organic solvents (VOCs)) and to eliminate or minimize waste generation in chemical processes. Switching from the currently widely used fossil-based solvents to greener ones derived from renewable resources constitutes a key strategy to drive sustainability as well as clean and safer chemical procedures in both industry and academia [1, 2].
\nSolvents are central to many chemical processes as they dissolve reagents and ensure sufficient interactions, at a molecular level, for chemical transformations to take place. For instance, the pharmaceutical industry is heavily reliant on solvents for drug discovery, process development and drug manufacturing processes [3]. They are also used to extract and separate compounds from mixtures or natural products. Solvents are also important for performing compound purifications and form part of many manufacturing protocols as well as consumer products including fragrances, cleaning agents, cosmetics, paints, flavors, adhesives and inks, to name a few [1].
\nMany organic solvents are volatile, flammable and toxic; therefore, their use poses safety and health risks and impacts negatively on the environment. In order to address these issues, ‘solvent-free’ chemistry has been proposed, to mitigate against solvent exposure risks, and for chemical manipulations and formulations that absolutely require solvents, a system of ranking them by their environmental, safety and health (ESH) attributes has been introduced. This system aims to aid in selecting and using those solvents with minimum ESH risks and good green profiles [4, 5, 6].
\nMaking use of renewable resources in producing solvents is a promising and important strategy to move towards sustainable chemical processing and to replace organic solvents derived from fossil raw materials. To this end, bio-based feedstocks such as carbohydrates, carbohydrate polymers, proteins, alkaloids, plant oils and animal fats have been used to produce bio-based solvents (Figure 1). This often requires prior processing of the raw materials (typical by thermochemical and biochemical conversion methods) to give familiar solvents or to provide completely new and innovative solvent entries [7, 8]. There are some, such as essential oils extracted from citrus peels (which are rich in terpenes), that are used directly.
\nThe various sustainable solvents derived from biomass.
The main processing methods include biochemical and thermochemical conversion [7]. Using one or a combination of these processing techniques, several classes of bio-based solvents (including alcohols [9, 10, 11], esters [12, 13], ethers [14], alkanes [15], aromatics [16] and neoterics [17, 18]) can be manufactured (Figure 1).
\nBio-based ethanol is currently the most produced of all bio-solvents and is produced through biological transformation of sugars. These processes use either edible (sugarcane and corn) or nonedible (cellulose) feedstocks [19]. However, due to concerns over edible feedstock causing the rise of food prices, there has been a move towards optimizing processes that produce cellulosic ethanol [20, 21], and indeed the world’s first cellulosic ethanol commercial-scale production plant was commissioned in 2013 by Beta Renewable. This plant is situated in Milan, Italy, and uses Proesa™ technology for the pretreatment of agricultural waste (such as rice straw, giant cane (
Ethanol’s most common uses are as a biofuel and solvent in consumer products such as perfumes, food coloring and flavoring, alcoholic drinks and in certain mediation. The latter can be in both synthetic medicines and natural products. For example, highly efficient ethanol-assisted extraction of artemisinin, an active antimalarial drug, from
The presence of the hydroxyl group in ethanol makes it capable of hydrogen bonding, and it is therefore miscible with water and other solvents such as toluene, pentane and acetone.
\nLarge-scale production of methanol is currently achieved using fossil-derived sources, by hydrogenation of carbon monoxide in the presence of a catalyst such as ZnO/Cr2O3 and Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 [23]. It can be obtained in small amounts in fermentation broths and from the gasification of biomass to produce bio-based syngas for subsequent conversion to methanol. The commercial viability of the latter is still under investigation [24].
\nDue to the structural similarity of methanol to ethanol, the former is often used in place of ethanol in synthetic procedures. However, its toxicity has limited its widespread application as a solvent in consumer products. Still, other useful applications where methanol features not only as a solvent but as a reagent and fuel do exist. For instance, methanol is used in methanol fuel cells and is a key reagent in the manufacture of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) (biodiesel) through transesterification of triglycerides and in dimethyl ether (DME) (diesel substitute) production [24]. It is also used in acid-catalyzed formation of methyl levulinate from bio-derived furfural alcohol (FA) and 2,5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) [25].
\nThermochemical synthesis of alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and propanol (1-propanol and 2-propanol) from glycerol raw materials (Figure 2) is also known. This process is often promoted by a catalyst through a hydrogenolysis reaction [26, 27, 28].
\nBio-based solvents derived from glycerol.
The production of furfuryl alcohol involves two stages: (1) the pentosan is first hydrolysed to pentoses, e.g. xylose, and (2) cyclohydration of the pentoses into furfuryl alcohol. The reaction is catalysed by acids such as dilute sulfuric or phosphoric acid, and the furfuryl alcohol is recovered by steam distillation and fractionation. Yields are generally between 30 and 50% [32].
\nFurfuryl alcohol is a solvent used in the refining of lubricating oils [33]. During the production of butadiene, an extractive distillation step is required to remove impurities [34]. Furfuryl alcohol is one of the extractive solvents that have been used for this purpose on a commercial scale, for example, at TransFuran Chemicals, USA. Furfuryl alcohol is also used as a solvent during crystallization of anthracene oils and during the modification of high phenolic molding resins to improve the corrosion resistance of the cured resin [35].
\nGlobal biodiesel production has increased from 0.78 billion (in 2000) to 32.6 billion liters by 2016 [36]. This has made large quantities of glycerol widely available, since biodiesel production generates 10,000 liters of glycerol for every 100,000 liters of fuel produced. This oversupply of glycerol, and its low toxicity, has driven many efforts to increase the portfolio of glycerol applications both directly and indirectly (by using it as a raw material to access value-added products). Because of its sweet taste, it can be used directly as a sweetener in processed foods. It is also used as a thickener and stabilizer for foods containing water and oil. Glycerol functions well as a solvent for processing cosmetics (this is where most glycerol is used) and forms part of pharmaceutical formulations to name a few [37].
\nMore recently, glycerol has been used as a sustainable replacement for fossil-derived monoethylene glycol in purification of bioethanol by extractive distillation. Using glycerol, up to 99% purity of bioethanol is recovered [38]. Although its high viscosity and boiling point complicate reaction workups, several examples of successful Aza-Michael addition and Suzuki-Miyaura and Mizoroki-Heck reactions in glycerol have been reported [38, 39].
\nThe conversion of glycerol leads to a variety of other products with solvent properties such as solketal, glycerol formal, glycerol carbonate, glycerol oligomers and polymers, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as well as diols (Figure 1) [37, 40].
\nSolketal and glycerol formal are the products of acid-catalyzed acetone and formaldehyde reactions with glycerol, respectively [41], and currently solketal is sold commercially under the name Augeo™ SL 191. It is used as a solvent in interior-scenting products and household cleaners [42]. Another route to solketal is by metal-catalyzed condensation of glycidol with acetone [43].
\nSolketal is polar and has a very high boiling point (188°C), which makes it useful as a coalescent solvent in paints and inks and in controlled release systems (where gradual release of species like pesticides and drugs is required). It is a good heat transfer fluid and fuel additive, especially in gasoline and biodiesel where it favorably reduces the latter’s viscosity [41]. Its high sensitivity to acid has limited its use as a solvent for reactions.
\nThe main route for preparing di-, tri-, tetra- and polyglycerol is by direct oligomerization or polymerization of glycerol using acid or base catalysts, such as potassium carbonate or sulfuric acid. The base catalyst is usually more efficient due to its better solubility in glycerol, albeit with poor selectivity [44]. Glycerol oligomers and polymers have hydrophilic heads which makes them useful for surfactant applications. By careful control of their length and branching during syntheses, desirable physiochemical properties can be built into them such that they can be used as lubricants, polymers and solvents. They have also been earmarked as replacement solvents for fossil-derived glycol ethers in paints, inks and cleaning agents [45].
\nIn addition to methanol, ethanol and propanol [46], the hydrogenolysis of glycerol can lead to formation of ethylene glycol (EG) and propylene glycol (PG, 1,2-propanediol and 1,3-propanediol) (Figure 1) [47]. It is worth mentioning that diols can also be obtained from thermochemical conversion of fructose in the presence of homogeneous osmium and ruthenium catalysts [48] and from cellulose using a nickel-tungsten carbide catalyst [49]. Recently, Sappi Ltd. acquired Plaxica’s Xylex® technology which they plan to utilize in valorizing the hemicellulose component of their pulp processing waste, in producing, furfural and xylitol [50]. Changchun Dacheng Industrial Group operates a commercial integrated biological and thermochemical process that manufactures EG, PG and 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BDO) from starch. Ten thousand tons of 2,3-BDO are produced annually [51].
\nDiols serve as dehumidifying and antifreeze agents. They have important applications as monomers (in polyester production) and work as solvents in the cosmetic and coating (varnishes and waxes) industries [46, 49].
\nLactates are a class of non-toxic and green solvents obtained from treating lactic acid with various alcohols, such as ethanol, propanol and butanol. Lactic acid feedstock for making these solvents can be obtained
Ethyl lactate is the most common of the lactate esters, and Archer Daniels Midland Company, USA, operates a commercial production plant. Ethyl lactate has excellent physical properties, including a low vapor pressure and high boiling point (151–155°C) and solvent power (Kauri-butanol value > 1000). This makes it a good replacement for halogenated solvents, acetone and toluene and an excellent solvent for solubilizing resins and polymers. As such, it is used to dissolve plastics and to remove salts from circuit boards. Ethyl lactate also dissolves grease, inks and solder paste and strips paint [52].
\nFatty acid methyl esters are produced by the transesterification of triglycerides, from vegetable oils or animal fats, with methanol for biodiesel applications. However, FAMEs can also be used as bio-based solvents and have been found to possess high solvent power. When mixed with ethyl lactate, evaporation is aided post utilization in dissolution or in cleaning industrial parts [53].
\nGlycerol carbonate can be synthesized via direct or indirect routes. With direct routes, carbon monoxide and oxygen [54] or carbon dioxide [55] is treated with glycerol in the presence of metal catalysts such as Pd and Sn, respectively. The use of CO2 is more desirable due to its abundance and lower toxicity in comparison to CO; however, this route is low yielding (7–35%). The indirect route involves carbonation of glycerol with an activated carbonation source such as urea, dimethyl carbonate or phosgene, and among these dimethyl carbonate is preferred from an industrial production perspective [56].
\nDue to its favorable properties which include high polarity, boiling point (110–115°C) and flash point (109°C) and low vapor pressure, glycerol carbonate has interesting applications as a polar protic solvent, electrolyte liquid carrier, detergent solvent, humectant and nail polish/gel stripper [57]. It has also been demonstrated to serve as a promising solvent in pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse [13].
\nγ-Valerolactone (GVL) can be produced from 5-hydroxymethylfurfural or furfural alcohol via their dehydration and hydrolysis, respectively [58]. The resultant levulinic acid can then be converted to GVL in the presence of hydrogen and a suitable catalyst [59, 60]. This therefore links the cost of GVL production to the production of hydrogen. This has resulted in the limited widespread production and use commercially. The increased number of hydrogen production plants by water electrolysis (or use of transfer hydrogenation techniques) should aid in improving the process and economics to favor GVL commercial-scale production in the near future.
\nThe physical and chemical properties of GVL favor its application as a solvent and illuminating fuel. It has a low melting point, high boiling and flash point and low toxicity and has a characteristic herbal smell that can be used to identify leaks or spills [61]. GVL has been used as a solvent in many biomass conversion reactions. For example, it was used as a solvent in the pretreatment of lignocellulose, hydrolysis of lignocellulose and dehydration of carbohydrates to furans [61, 62]. It has also been used as solvent in cross-coupling reactions such as Sonogashira [63], Hiyama [64] and Mizoroki-Heck [65].
\nCyrene (dihydrolevoglucosenone or 6,8-dioxabicyclo[3.2.1]octanone) is a ketone functionality containing solvent that can be prepared in a two-step process from cellulose [66]. The common starting point in its synthesis is from levoglucosenone (LGO), which can be obtained from a variety of cellulosic starting feedstocks such as Bilberry presscake [67], corn cob [68], poplar wood [69] or bagasse [70]. LGO has been successfully obtained from cellulose [71, 72, 73], by the patented Furacell™ process discovered by Circa Group Ltd., Australia. The process gives 40% yield of LGO and has consequently been scaled up to a 50 ton/year production [74]. The next step after the production of LGO is its hydrogenation to afford Cyrene™ (Figure 3). The hydrogenation of levoglucosenone to Cyrene has been largely dominated by heterogeneous Pd catalysts [75, 76].
\nSynthetic steps of Cyrene™ from cellulose.
Concerns over the use of toxic solvents (such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), dimethylformamide (DMF) and
Furfural and hydroxymethylfuran can react with acetone (derived from fermentative processes) resulting in aldol-condensed products with longer carbon chain lengths. Subsequent hydrodeoxygenation of the aldol condensation products using a supported Pd catalyst, H2 (plus acetic and/or Lewis acid cocatalysts), produces alkanes as shown in Figure 4 [80, 81, 82, 83].
\nSynthetic steps for straight-chain alkanes from bio-derived furan compounds.
Alkanes are useful for reactions requiring nonpolar medium because they are generally unreactive. Consequently, they have been used as reaction medium during the synthesis of drugs, pesticides and other chemicals. Their use as fuels varies depending on the length of the carbon chains. Generally C3 and C4 alkanes are used as liquefied petroleum gas for cooking and in cigarette lighters, respectively, while C5–C18 alkanes are used in gasoline, diesel and aviation fuel.
\nBenzene, toluene and xylene (BTX) can be derived from wood and agricultural waste [84]. Anellotech, a US-based company, has scaled up a process that converts biomass, using their Bio-TCat™ technology, into BTX mixtures. Benzene, toluene and xylene have identical properties as their fossil-derived counterparts [85]. Benzene is used in the manufacture of resins, rubber lubricants, synthetic fibers, detergents, pesticides, drugs and plastics. Toluene is used in printing and leather tanning processes and as a solvent in paint, a nail polish remover, thinners and glues, while xylene finds use as a cleaning agent, ingredient in pesticide manufacturing, disinfectants, paints, paint thinners, polishes, waxes and adhesives.
\nAn elegant multistep route to renewable
Terpenes are a class of natural solvents obtained from essential oils found in plants. They have C5H8 isoprene units and can be acyclic, bicyclic or monocyclic; therefore, they have varying physical and chemical properties. Extraction using water hetero-azeotropic distillation at low temperatures affords terpenes, and they in turn have been utilized as green alternative solvents for the extraction of oils from microalgae [87].
\nD-Limonene is extracted from citrus peels and pulp by steam distillation and alkali treatment [88]. Industrially, limonene is used as a solvent in place of various halogenated hydrocarbons. By 2023, the demand of D-limonene is expected to be 65 kilotons/year [88]. It is also used as solvent to degrease and grease wool and cotton wool and in the dissolution of cholesterol stone, where its performance is better than chloroform and diethyl ether (DEE) in the latter. The catalytic isomerization and dehydrogenation of D-limonene give
α-Pinene is the most widely available terpenoid and is mostly found in essential oils of coniferous trees, or it can be recovered from paper pulping by-products, i.e. from crude sulphate turpentine [90]. Alpha-pinene is used as a household cleaning solvent and repellent for insects and in the production of perfumes. It also have medicinal properties as an anti-inflammatory and antibiotic agent.
\nBio-derived ethers are produced by the dehydration of bio-alcohols, mainly ethanol and methanol to form diethyl ether and dimethyl ether, respectively. These ethers are usually used as fuel additives to improve its octane rating and reduce emissions (NOx and ozone) and engine wear.
\n2-Methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MeTHF) is a biodegradable, non-toxic, non-ozone-depleting, easy-to-recycle ether solvent with a good preliminary toxicology report [91]. It is produced from either furfural or levulinic acid
The successive hydrogenation of furfural to 2-methyltetrahydrofuran.
The first two hydrogenations have been reported to quantitatively convert furfural alcohol to 2-methylfuran using Ni-based catalysts followed by 2-methylfuran conversion over a Cu-Zn catalyst. 2-MeTHF can also be prepared from levulinic acid
Pfizer, USA, has reported the application of 2-MeTHF as a solvent in two-phase reactions due to the poor solubility of water in 2-MeTHF [94]. This bio-derived solvent has also been used in place of dichloromethane (that has unfavourable environmental effects) because of its low boiling point, which makes it difficult to contain on a large scale. Using 2-MeTHF, high yields of product were afforded for amidations, alkylations and nucleophilic aromatic substitutions reactions.
\nAnother pharmaceutical company, Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd. in Switzerland, uses 2-MeTHF as solvent in the synthesis of 5-phenylbicyclo-[2.2.2]oct-5-en-2-one [95], an intermediate during the preparation of an important preclinical candidate. Furthermore, the reaction was successfully upscaled to kilogram scale, and the reaction still gave excellent yields (98%) in 2-MeTHF.
\nIonic liquids (ILs), defined here as materials that are made up of cations and anions (salts) which melt at or below 100°C, evolved from the nineteenth century. This field started with a report by Paul Walden, in which he studied the physical properties of ethylammonium nitrate ([EtNH3][NO3]), a salt which melted at around 14°C [96]. Ionic liquids are commonly formed through the combination of an organic cation (usually heterocyclic), such as dialkylimidazolium, and either an inorganic or organic anion (such as halides or methanesulfonate) [97]. The advantage with ionic liquids is their low vapor pressure, meaning the risk of atmospheric contamination and related health issues are reduced by using these solvents. It is for this particular reason that they are viewed as green solvents [98]; however, low volatility alone is not the only property that makes ionic liquids green. For instance, toxic and non-biodegradable ionic liquids will not be referred to as a green solvent even though they have negligible volatility [97]. In this regard, ionic liquids composed of bio-derived components have the added advantage and are outstanding candidates as sustainable and green solvents.
\nSince the depolymerization of hard-to-dissolve carbohydrate polymers can be achieved using ILs, it would be beneficial to develop sugar-based ILs with the aim of employing these in a ‘closed-loop’ carbohydrate polymer depolymerization process [99]. Some sugar-based ionic liquids which have potential in this regard have already been synthesized, even though they have been used for various other processes. The glucose-linked 1,2,3-triazolium ionic liquids were synthesized by copper(I)-catalysed regioselective cycloaddition of a glucose azide to a glucose alkyne, followed by quaternization with methyl iodide (Figure 6) [100]. The ILs were used as reusable chiral solvents and ligands in copper(I)-catalysed amination of aryl halides with aqueous ammonia. The triazolium salt affords the compound in its liquid state at room temperature, and hence the compound can be used as a solvent, while the free hydroxyl groups of the glucose moiety aids in stabilizing the copper(I) species during the reaction.
\nGlucose-based ionic liquids [(A and B) glucose-tagged triazolium ILs; (C) glucopyranoside-based IL].
Methyl-D-glucopyranoside has also been used to synthesize an ionic liquid with promising solvent potential [101]. The synthetic sequence involved uses thexyldimethylsilyl chloride (TDSCl) to protect the hydroxyl at the primary position. The other secondary hydroxyl groups were converted to methyl ethers followed by reduction of the anomeric position and further deprotection of the primary hydroxyl. After deprotection of the primary hydroxyl group, it was then converted to a triflate to form an intermediate. This triflate intermediate finally underwent a nucleophilic substitution reaction using diethyl sulphide to afford an ionic liquid, with a triflate anion and a sulfonium cation, which was a liquid at room temperature (Figure 6).
\nHandy et al. have used fructose to synthesize room temperature ionic liquids [102]. In their synthetic protocol, copper carbonate, ammonia and formaldehyde were used to ring-close fructose and form hydroxymethylene imidazole. This imidazole was then taken through a series of alkylation steps (with 1-bromobutane followed by iodomethane) to form an imidazolium cation. Anion metathesis was performed to give a series of room temperature ionic liquids (Figure 7), which were used as recyclable solvents for Mizoroki-Heck cross-coupling of aryl iodides with alkenes.
\nILs based on pentoses [(A) fructose-based ILs; (B) arabinose-based ILs].
An arabinose-based imidazolium IL was synthesized in 2018 starting with 2,3,5-tri-
Ionic liquids which contain ampicillin as active pharmaceutical ingredients were developed by Ferraz et al., by neutralizing basic ammonia solutions of ampicillin with different organic cation hydroxides. These ampicillin-based ILs may be useful in the development of bioactive materials [104]. A chiral IL derived from ephedrine was synthesized by Wasserscheid et al. N-methylephedrine was synthesized from ephedrine and alkylated with dimethyl sulphate followed by ion exchange to form the IL, with a melting point of 54°C [105]. Heckel et al. reported the synthesis of ionic liquids derived from nicotine by the quaternization of the pyridine ring of nicotine with methyl iodide and ethyl bromide. The resulting chiral nicotine-based ILs were examined as chiral solvating agents (Figure 8) [106].
\nAlkaloid-based ILs [(A) ampicillin-based ILs; (B) ephedrine-based IL; (C) nicotine-based ILs].
Linoleate and oleate were used in the syntheses of four ILs with melting points below −21°C (Figure 9). Unsaturated fatty acids were initially taken through neutralization reactions with NaOH followed by ion exchange with either tetraoctylammonium or methyltrioctylammonium chloride. The ILs were then successfully used as solvents in the extraction of metal ions from aqueous solutions [107].
\nAnions and cations used in the syntheses of lipid-based ILs.
Kwan et al. also synthesized ILs using lipids through alkylating a tertiary amine (Figure 10). The lipids used in this instance were methyl oleate and methyl stearate. In a third instance, cyclopropanated oleic acid methyl ester synthesized the reaction of the double bond of the oleate with diiodomethane, and diethylzinc was used to alkylate the tertiary amine. After reacting the obtained alkyl iodide with the imidazoles, anion exchange of the iodide with bistriflimide gave imidazolium bistriflimide ILs [108].
\nLipid-based imidazolyl ILs.
Deep eutectic solvents are analogous to ILs in the sense that they possess similar properties of low melting point and non-volatility, but they are, however, two different types of solvent systems. Unlike ILs, which are made up of one type of discrete cation and anion [17], DESs are formed from an eutectic mixture of a hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA), mostly quaternary ammonium salts, and a metal salt or hydrogen bond donor (HBD). The mixture forms a eutectic phase which has a lower melting point than the individual components [109]. There is a charge delocalization created through hydrogen bonding between, for example, a halide anion of the HBA and the HBD which causes the decrease in the melting point [18]. DESs are usually formed from relatively inexpensive bio-based components which makes them biodegradable and affordable [17]. Abbott et al. initially developed DESs based on choline chloride and zinc chloride as cheaper alternatives to imidazolium-based ionic liquids, which would make them readily accessible for bulk applications in syntheses. These new solvents were made by heating mixtures of the choline chloride and zinc chloride in molar ratios of 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 until clear colorless liquids were obtained, with the 1:2 mixture giving the lowest freezing point of 25°C [110]. Choline is a provitamin which is derived from lecithin, found in plants and animal organs [111]. As such, choline-derived DESs are bio-based solvents, particularly where it is paired up with bio-sourced HBDs such as lactic acid, levulinic acid, glycerol and sugars. On a large scale, choline is produced by a single-step reaction between HCl, ethylene oxide and trimethylamine [17].
\nDESs based on urea (Figure 11) were prepared by mixing choline chloride (m.p. 302°C) and urea (m.p. 133°C) in different molar ratios. This showed that a eutectic phase occurs at a choline to urea ratio of 2. This DES has a very low freezing point of 12°C, which was significantly lower than its constituents, thus giving a room temperature solvent [112]. The choline chloride-urea DES has been used as both a catalyst and solvent for the selective
DES based on choline chloride and urea.
DESs based on choline chloride and glycerol or ethylene glycol have also been used as extraction solvents to remove excess glycerol from biodiesel [116, 117, 118]. Also, new choline chloride-based DESs with levulinic acid and sugar-based polyols as renewable hydrogen bond donors were synthesized. The best ratios of choline chloride (ChCl) and HBD which gave liquid DESs at room temperature are shown in Table 1 [119]. DESs based on different bio-based HBD (oxalic, lactic and malic acids) and HBA (choline chloride, betaine, alanine, glycine, histidine, proline and nicotinic acid) have also been prepared and tested as solvents for the dissolution of lignin, cellulose and starch. Majority of the resulting solvents exhibited high lignin solubility but poor cellulose solubility.
\nNovel room temperature liquid DESs derived from renewable sources [119].
This was advantageous since DESs can be used in separating lignin from cellulose [120]. DESs can be viewed as a more environmentally friendly alternative to volatile organic solvents—they are affordable, easily prepared and scalable, inflammable and also biodegradable [121].
\nRising concerns over depletion of fossil reserves and the drive towards sustainable and responsible consumption of resources have presented a challenge and opportunity for scientist and engineers to work together in developing methods, technologies and processes for producing of bio-based products. These include commodity chemicals, fuels and materials of which many of the chemicals have solvent properties. As such, they have been widely used in extractions and in solvating a range of physiochemical processes and numerous consumer goods (by either dissolving, stabilizing or modifying the latter’s properties) across the manufacturing research and development landscapes. This review has contextualized and discussed some existing and emerging approaches in these areas.
\nEven though most bio-solvents are still volatile like their petroleum counterparts, the bio-solvents have the advantage of being biodegradable, derived from renewable resources, and their production often results in CO2 emission savings. A novel array of ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents based on inexpensive bio-derived components has been developed, and because these solvents have low volatility, it presents a solution to the volatile organic solvent concern. Additionally, they are usually recyclable after use, with the benefit of tunability to bring about smart solvents for tailored applications.
\nThis work was supported by the Royal Society and African Academy of Sciences, the Future Leaders—African Independent Researchers (FLAIR) Scheme (Fellowship ref.: 191779), the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (Grant numbers: 105559, 112809 and 117989) and the University of Johannesburg’s Centre for Synthesis and Catalysis.
\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.
The first account of giant cell arteritis (GCA) can be traced back to tenth-century Baghdad by Arab ophthalmologist of medieval Islam Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal. It was then more precisely described by Sir Jonathan Hutchinson in 1890, who noted the peculiar thrombotic appearance of the temporal artery (TA), a defining feature of the course of GCA. With the progression of the discovery of this disease and various case studies exploring its nature, ophthalmologists have additionally attempted to view how GCA could affect certain populations. During the second half of the twentieth century and the course of the twenty-first century, facilities across continents have published their findings on the tendencies of GCA to affect certain individuals more than others. In this chapter, we describe the epidemiology of GCA across continents and countries from individual reports and studies presenting the incidence rate of this vasculitis in their respective locations or populations.
Europe remains the continent with the most abundant publications pertaining to the epidemiology of GCA. One of the longest studies on the epidemiology of GCA was conducted in Western Norway, a retrospective study encompassing cases from 1972 to 2012 [1]. This study was one among many that noted how changing the criteria for the identification of GCA could greatly alter its incidence, especially due to the rarity of this vasculitis. For instance, the incidence rate of patients potentially affected by GCA satisfying the ACR 1990 criteria was 16.7 per 100,000 persons over 50 years of age. The incidence of patients clinically diagnosed as having GCA was 18.4 per 100,000 persons aged 50 years or more. Meanwhile, the incidence of biopsy-proven GCA was 11.2 per 100,000 persons over 50 years of age. The extended period of this study additionally contributed to the lowering of the mean annual incidence. When solely evaluating cases during a certain 5-year period (from 1992 to 1996), the incidence rate was found to be 26.7 per 100,000 persons over 50 years of age. Regardless of this, the prevalence remained among the highest recorded globally. This study also describes the increasing GCA incidence with age, where an older individual has a greater susceptibility to acquiring this vasculitis, as well as a greater ratio of women having this disease. Similarly, in the southern region of Norway, comparisons with past records from the same set of population were provided [24]. In a study spanning a period of 14 years (2000–2013), the Hospital of Southern Norway presented a GCA occurrence rate of 16.8 per 100,000 persons over the age of 50 years, one of the highest recorded globally and in line with other epidemiological findings from the Scandinavian region. As previously noted, one must consider that a small study sample and a short study period both have the potential of overestimating the incidence of a disease, as demonstrated by this study. In the same vicinity, the rate of giant cell arteritis in Western Nyland, Finland was examined [2]. From 1984 and 1988, 54 patients were diagnosed with GCA, among which 16 patients had a positive biopsy. The retrospective annual incidence of GCA was 69.8 for every 100,000 individuals older than 50 years. From 1984 to 1990, 133 patients in Iceland fulfilling the ACR criteria for GCA were identified, rendering an incidence rate of 27 in 100,000 people older than 50 years [3]. This study also suggests that the clinicians’ greater tendency to suspect GCA and perform TA biopsies (TABs) may have contributed to a higher statistical incidence. The results of these studies and their reported high mean annual incidence rates go on to highlight the possibility of a greater susceptibility to GCA among Scandinavian population. These are among the highest globally, supporting the claim that the Scandinavian population is most considerably afflicted by this inflammatory disease.
When gauging the incidence of GCA cases in other parts of Europe, we witness a lowering in the number of cases. For instance, in Italy, 285 cases of biopsy-proven GCA were observed in the Reggio Emilia area from 1986 to 2012 [4]. The adjusted incidence rate was 5.8 per 100,000 people older than 50 years of age and was significantly greater in women. In Lugo, Spain, a retrospective study was conducted from 1986 to 1995 to identify the occurrence rate of biopsy-proven GCA [5]. The mean annual incidence was computed for each 5-year period, rendering a rate of 8.26 and 10.49 per 100,000 people older than 50 years, respectively. Nearby countries and regions in the southern part of Europe presented similar incidence rates, demonstrating the moderate tendency of individuals from this area of the continent of being acquiring GCA. Namely, the incidence rate in France was concluded to be between 7 and 10 individuals out of 100,000 older than 50 years [6]. Likewise, in Slovenia, the estimated annual incidence rates of GCA were overall 8.7 per 100,000 aged greater than 50 years. This lowered rate suggests a different ethnical make up in the region that is perhaps less susceptible to acquiring this vasculitis, suggesting a genetic factor, while the geographical location in a lower latitude than the Scandinavian region may imply an environmental etiology. The exact etiology remains unknown.
Epidemiological studies from 2002 to 2008 in Southern Europe and Northwestern Turkey aimed to assess the epidemiology of GCA by following patients at Trakya University Medical Faculty [7]. During this period, the incidence of GCA was found to be 1.13 patients per 100,000 persons 50 years of age or older. The incidence of GCA for females was slightly greater than that for males. The fact that this study relied on a single center presents the possibility of missing individuals who sought care in a different location or simply neglected their condition. Regardless of this, the contribution of this report is crucial due to the paucity of epidemiological outlook on GCA in this space.
A retrospective study of patients with giant cell arteritis in China was performed from August 1992 to May 2014 at the Peking Union Medical College Hospital [8]. A total of 70 patients were diagnosed with GCA. The demographic data of these patients differed from that in the previously discussed epidemiological studies in Europe. First, the average age of Chinese GCA patients was 65.2 years. This age at onset is lower than the mean reported age in other populations, which hovered between 70 and 80 years. In addition, male patients with GCA predominated the study, which differed from most reports globally. Chinese male may be more susceptible to GCA than female or they may present greater health-seeking behavior. It is important to note that patients in this study were identified from a single healthcare center, which may substantially underestimate the occurrence of this vasculitis despite its current rare occurrence. On a similar note, statistical records, pathology records, and case records from university hospitals were gathered to estimate an annual incidence of one out of 100,000 people aged older than 50 years in Hong Kong [9]. These findings suggest the particularly lower frequency of GCA among the Chinese population. In 1998, a nationwide survey was performed in Japan, revealing 690 patients treated for GCA in the previous year [10]. An incidence rate of the population was calculated to be 1.47 per 100,000 people older than 50 years of age. In conclusion, the epidemiological reports of GCA from East Asian countries reveal extremely low prevalence of GCA among this population.
From 2008 to 2014, a total of 17 patients fulfilling the classification criteria for GCA in India were identified [11]. Comparably to a previously discussed study in China, the mean age of GCA patients in the Indian population was 67 years, lower than the mean age from European reports. In addition, individuals with GCA in India were predominately male. The reasoning behind a lower mean age and a male predominant patient status is unknown and was hypothesized to be due to the greater likelihood of individuals with these characteristics to seek healthcare.
The rarity of GCA among the Indian population was demonstrated at Moorfields Eye Hospital, a center in London, UK [12]. From 2006 to 2014, patients of Indian descendance were significantly less likely to have a biopsy-positive GCA. Perhaps, some ethnicities are less likely to present a positive result to the TA biopsy or clinicians may simply be more likely to diagnose these individuals with GCA. A study of this nature, in which ethnicities are compared in a population, could provide important findings on the vulnerability of certain individuals to present with this vasculitis Figures 1 and 2.
A temporal artery biopsy involves acquiring a small section of the artery, which can potentially appear thrombotic. The length of the segment can vary across studies and may influence the results of the biopsy [
Graphical representation of incidence rates of GCA among some of the populations described in the literature. The highest incidence rates appear to be among the Scandinavian countries, regardless of the criteria utilized to diagnosis the incidence of GCA.
The true incidence of GCA in the Arab population is difficult to assess due to the absence of a more nationwide perspective as well as a lack of population-based study in Arab countries. In a 22-year study, the epidemiology of GCA in Saudi Arabia was investigated [13]. From 1983 to 2004, 102 patients at King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital underwent TAB, as seen in Figure 1, and seven patients were identified with biopsy-proven GCA. They noted that the incidence of GCA increases with age. Regardless of this, many aspects of the healthcare system in Saudi Arabia closely resemble that of the United States, with a similar life expectancy and a ratio of ophthalmologists relative to the size of the population.
In 1980, the incidence of giant cell arteritis in Jerusalem over a 25-year period was evaluated in a study involving four general hospitals in Jerusalem [14]. Among them, 170 patients with GCA had a positive TA biopsy. Furthermore, 36 biopsy-negative cases were also considered as they fulfilled the 1990 ACR criteria for GCA classification and responded adequately to steroid therapy. The age-adjusted incidence rate was computed to be 11.3 per 100,000 people ≥50 years of age for all incorporated GCA cases, but lower at 9.5 for the biopsy-proven cases. Moreover, this study observed seasonal patterns with a statistically insignificant rise in GCA diagnosis during the summer. The incidence rate of GCA in this study is comparable with those in other Mediterranean countries, with a less prominent frequency of female patients.
The results of a cohort of 114 patients who met the 2016 rACR criteria for the diagnosis of GCA and underwent TAB over a 10-year period in a tertiary center, Rassoul Akram Hospital, in Tehran, Iran were described [15]. This finding reflects the increase in GCA incidence with age. Although this study did not sufficiently provided a macroscopic account of the incidence and manifestation of GCA in a population, it was the first study performed in Iran assessing the intricacies of characterizing GCA and the discrepancies that may arise as a result of heterogeneous studies, especially due to the absence of definite criteria for the diagnosis of GCA.
Africa stands out for its scarcity of information on GCA and its epidemiology. Perhaps, this could be due to an underdeveloped healthcare system, which hinders the proper equipment and tools for an adequate diagnosis, which could ultimately serve as data to be studied on a larger scale. It may also be that the African population has a lower susceptibility to GCA. In addition, the life expectancy in Africa is lower, which could influence statistics related to a disease with an increased likelihood of manifesting at a later stage in life. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that this region presents with lower rates of this vasculitis. The two studies discussing the epidemiology of GCA in the African population both pertain to French-colonized islands. From 1991 to 2016, data from two pathology units in Martinique, West Indies were reviewed to discuss the features of cases of biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis [16]. The findings fortified the assumption that GCA is less prevalent in an African descent population. Nevertheless, the retrospective nature of the study and the exclusion of a biopsy-negative GCA may have led to an underestimation of cases of GCA.
In a retrospective study from La Reunion near the Southwest region of the Indian Ocean from 2005 to 2017, an incidence rate roughly 4–12 times lower than in most European countries was calculated [17]. An exact count was difficult to provide due to the presence of a diverse group of ethnicities in La Reunion, especially from regions of the world with a lower prevalence of GCA. A shorter life expectancy may contribute to a lower frequency of cases observed as GCA increases with age. Other characteristics were found to be analogous observations made in previous epidemiological studies.
Studies conducted in the United States have the potential of presenting important findings due to the possibility of comparing and contrasting features of a disease between ethnicities. A retrospective study spanning 11 years was conducted in the Texas Gulf Coast. Twenty-seven out of 101,239 patients aged 40 years or older had GCA. Intriguingly, 13 of these patients were black females, rendering it a noteworthy aspect of this study in which a significantly greater proportion of patients with GCA were black individuals [18].
A report from a study spanning from 1971 to 1980 in Shelby County, Tennessee identified 26 cases of GCA [19]. The average annual incidence was computed to be 1.58 per 100,000 individuals older than 50 years of age. The predominant patient from this study was white and female. This study presents one of the lowest frequencies of GCA cases across the globe. This could partially be due to the racial makeup of this population, which has a high percentage of black residents. African descent population is assumed to present a lower incidence rate of GCA. Among other contributions to a low incidence rate such as a retrospective design as well as inconsistencies in the diagnosis criteria, this study urged the need to consider environmental factors as potential causes for the onset of the vasculitis, such as the climate, exposure to the sun, frequency of rainfall, elevation, etc.
In another region of the United States, Olmsted County, Minnesota holds a population with northern European ancestry, which appears to be the group of people most severely afflicted by GCA. Therefore, the observation of a greater incidence rate may indicate a genetic factor in the onset of GCA. Between 1950 and 1991, 125 Olmsted County inhabitants were diagnosed with giant cell arteritis. The incidence per 100,000 persons 50 years of age or older was 17.8, which was significantly higher in women than in men. The incidence of GCA had increased to 19.8 from 2000 to 2009. The annual incidence rates substantially increased over the study period and with congregated cases of GCA, suggesting a regular cyclic pattern over time, which suggested the possibility of an infectious root for giant cell arteritis.
Previous studies suggested a low incidence of GCA in black patients, although conclusions were drawn from relatively small sample sizes. Nevertheless, the impression that GCA rarely impacts black individuals is generally assumed. Some reports have sought to compare GCA more directly between two races. A multicenter study involving 10 healthcare institutions was conducted to evaluate the presentation of GCA in African Americans [20]. An African American group of patients was compared with a cohort of Caucasian patients with a positive biopsy for ophthalmic GCA. Both the groups appeared to have a similar sex distribution, as around 70% of patients in both the cohorts were females. At Johns Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute, findings notably challenging the commonly held belief that GCA is uncommon in African Americans were presented [21]. However, annual rates may not be directly calculated due to racial distributions in patients not reflecting that of the census population of the city of Baltimore, a detail that needs to be approached diligently prior to establishing conclusions. Furthermore, the screening and diagnosis process may differ among races and ethnicities due to physicians and clinicians holding preconceived perception of a greater prevalence in certain populations.
When comparing the rate of GCA between Caucasians and Asians, a significant lower occurrence rate of GCA in Asians was identified, which they computed to be 0.26–3.8 per 100,000 individuals older than 50 years of age, in parallel with studies from Asia [22]. The data for this study were collected from the University of California San Francisco computer database for patients from July 1989 to July 2006.
Similarly, giant cell arteritis has been reported to be very rare in Hispanics. From 1996 to 2002, patients with GCA at the Bascom Palmer Eye Institute were assessed [23]. Rates of a positive temporal artery biopsy were similar among Hispanic and non-Hispanic patients. Thirty-two patients with biopsy-proven GCA revealed similar mean age, symptoms, and final visual acuity between Hispanic and non-Hispanic cohorts. Hispanic and non-Hispanic cases are similarly impacted by the onset of giant cell arteritis.
A retrospective review was performed of all the biopsy-positive cases of giant cell arteritis presenting to a neuro-ophthalmology practice in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan [24]. Records of 141 consecutive patients who underwent temporal artery biopsy at the Saskatoon Eye Centre from July 1998 to June 2003 were reviewed. The average age of the biopsy-positive patients was 76.5 years, and the patients were 2.4 times more likely to be women. A total of 35 patients had a European ancestry, while two patients were of Aboriginal descent. The estimated incidence of GCA for Saskatoon was 9.4 per 100,000 for people over the age of 50 years. This study reveals the prospect of GCA to affect the people of Aboriginal descent despite a probable low incidence rate.
Very few studies pertaining to the epidemiology of GCA have come from South American countries. One that most closely attempted to depict the status of GCA nationwide collected findings from three university hospitals in Brazil for patients with GCA between 2009 and 2010 [25]. This was, in fact, the first study addressing the features of GCA in Brazilian patients having the disease. Most GCA patients were Caucasians, while a few were of a combined European and Indigenous lineage. The Caucasian cohort was mostly of Portuguese, Italian, or Spanish ancestry. These suggested the possibility of asymptomatic manifestations, which may skew the epidemiological perspective of this disease.
The last geographic region to be discussed is Oceania, which can be hypothesized to most closely resemble findings from Europe. From 1992 to July 2011, 314 cases of biopsy-proven GCA in South Australia were studied, in which the incidence for people over the age of 50 was 3.2 per 100,000 individuals [26]. Most characteristics of the disease were in line with observations described in studies from Europe, including a similar mean age and female predominance. Seasonal variations were additionally perceived, with a greater amount of diagnosis occurring during the summer season.
Cyclical variations were similarly noted in a study conducted in Otago, New Zealand. Records of 363 consecutive patients who underwent temporal artery biopsy at Dunedin Hospital between 1996 and 2005 were reviewed, with biopsy-proven GCA diagnosed in 70 patients. The mean annual incidence of GCA in Otago for people older than 50 years was 12.73 per 100,000 persons ≥50 years of age [26].
Nordic countries present the highest annual incidence rates of GCA. This vasculitis moderately affects southern European countries (Italy, Spain, France, etc.). The lowest incidence rates have been reported in East Asia. The diverse ethnical populations in countries such as United States lead to variations across regions, such as a higher incidence rate in the Northern states due to Scandinavian ancestry. Different ethnicities may present varying susceptibility because clinicians may exhibit different degree of suspicion with certain races, leading to influence on the number of biopsies performed and diagnosis made. In some regions, race and ethnicity is self-identified, which may reveal limited information on genetic background. Figure 2 reveals the varied incidence rate observed in different populations across the globe.
The incidence rate increases substantially with age and a greater ratio of patients are women in most regions, except for Asian countries. Whether female susceptibility is genuinely lower in that region or whether this discrepancy is due to different health-seeking behavior is unknown. Although seasonal and cyclic patterns were observed in a few studied and environmental factors were suggested, such influence remains inconclusive.
The definition of giant cell arteritis is inconsistent across literature, resulting in the inclusion of heterogeneous data during extensive review. Hence, there may be an over- or underestimation of statistical values. The criteria for the diagnosis of this disease substantially varied, with incidence rates presented based on biopsy-proven cases, ACR-criteria-fulfilling cases, or unspecified clinical diagnosis. Therefore, data may vary depending on which inclusion criteria were used.
Moreover, the technicality for biopsy-proven cases (length of the segment or threshold for diagnosis) may also alter the rate of incidence. In many reviews, the length of the arterial specimen remains unmentioned.
In 2016, an alteration to the list of criteria for a more comprehensive diagnosis of GCA was submitted. Furthermore, additional diagnostic tools have recently emerged, including the color Doppler ultrasound (CDUS), despite requiring extensive experience for utilization and a proper diagnosis. Other high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging technologies include magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), CT with angiography, and conventional MRA, which alternatively permit the visualization of the temporal artery. Although most reports attempted to thoroughly describe the equipment and tools for diagnosis, the heterogeneous approach across studies hinders appropriate comparisons, which may limit a precise epidemiological outlook of the disease in question.
Although this study repeatedly describes the rarity of GCA, it remains the most common vasculitis with severe consequences if remained untreated, ultimately resulting in permanent visual loss. Therefore, clinicians should remain diligent when coming across individuals presenting symptoms of the disease because an immediate course of action may greatly influence a person’s course of life and impact their well-being physiologically and psychologically.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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