These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
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Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9759",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Vitamin E is a group of fat-soluble compounds found in a wide variety of foods. Daily requirements of vitamin E can be met with a balanced diet. High-dose supplementation may be hazardous rather than beneficial. Vitamin E serves as an antioxidant, participates in anti-inflammatory processes, inhibits platelet aggregation, and enhances immunity. Vitamin E supplementation can be beneficial against coronary artery disease, eye disorders, cognitive decline, cancer, and skin aging. This book will mainly focus on the diverse functions of vitamin E, importance of vitamin E status to provide a healthy lifespan, and the interaction between vitamin E and several pathological conditions. Readers will receive a general overview of the importance of vitamin E in health and different pathological conditions.",isbn:"978-1-83968-838-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-837-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-839-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87564",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",numberOfPages:300,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4089,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 16th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 3rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 2nd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",biography:"Pınar Erkekoğlu graduated from the Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Turkey, where she received her MSci and Ph.D. in Toxicology. She completed her Ph.D. studies at the University of Joseph Fourier, France, and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission/Institute for Nanosciences and Cryogenics/Nucleic Acid Lesions (CEA/INAC/LAN). She worked as a post-doc and visiting associate in the Biological Engineering Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA. She is currently a full professor and head of the Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, and a faculty staff/board member at the Hacettepe University Vaccine Institute and Hacettepe University\nCenter for Stem Cell Research and Development (PEDI-TEM). Her main interests are endocrine-disrupting chemicals, neurotoxic chemicals, and the toxic effects of vaccines. Dr. Erkekoğlu has published more than 180 papers and 16 book chapters. She has edited seven international books and served as the translation editor for three others. She has been a European Registered Toxicologist (ERT) since 2014.",institutionString:"Hacettepe University Faculty of Pharmacy Department of toxicology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"379",title:"Vitaminology",slug:"alimentology-vitaminology"}],chapters:[{id:"77087",title:"Vitamin E in Human Skin: Functionality and Topical Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98336",slug:"vitamin-e-in-human-skin-functionality-and-topical-products",totalDownloads:441,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamins are part of the antioxidant system of human skin, and are detectable in different layers, so the topical application can be an alternative to maintain the functionality of the system. The capacity of the antioxidant gradient of keratinocytes is associated with attenuation of the action of related free radicals in both esthetics and health. These problems arise from extrinsic aging and are related to the risk of cancer. Vitamin E has been proven to have antioxidant and moisturizing properties in the skin and can protect against the damage of UVB radiation, with emphasis on the reduction of acute erythema and photoaging. The choice for the use of topical vitamin E, compared to the oral is given by the safety as mild irritation and it has potential for multifunctional topical formulations. The purpose of the chapter is to review the topical use of formulations with vitamin E, addressing the development, safe use and evaluation of effectiveness.",signatures:"Claudineia Aparecida Sales de Oliveira Pinto, Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins, Renata Miliani Martinez, Thamires Batello Freire, Maria Valéria Robles Velasco and André Rolim Baby",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77087",authors:[{id:"332694",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Claudineia Aparecida Sales de Oliveira",surname:"Pinto",slug:"claudineia-aparecida-sales-de-oliveira-pinto",fullName:"Claudineia Aparecida Sales de Oliveira Pinto"},{id:"332698",title:"Prof.",name:"André Rolim",surname:"Baby",slug:"andre-rolim-baby",fullName:"André Rolim Baby"},{id:"332699",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valéria Robles",surname:"Velasco",slug:"maria-valeria-robles-velasco",fullName:"Maria Valéria Robles Velasco"},{id:"351583",title:"MSc.",name:"Thamires",surname:"Batello Freire",slug:"thamires-batello-freire",fullName:"Thamires Batello Freire"},{id:"352145",title:"MSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Miliani Martinez",slug:"renata-miliani-martinez",fullName:"Renata Miliani Martinez"},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins"}],corrections:null},{id:"76413",title:"Pharmaceutical Applications of Vitamin E TPGS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97474",slug:"pharmaceutical-applications-of-vitamin-e-tpgs",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"D-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (Vitamin E TPGS) has been approved as a safe pharmaceutical adjuvant by FDA, and several drug delivery systems (DDS) based on TPGS have been developed. TPGS properties as a P-gp inhibitor, solubilizer/absorption and permeation enhancer in drug delivery and TPGS-related formulations such as nanocrystals, nanosuspensions, tablets/solid dispersions, vaccine system adjuvant, nutritional supplement, film plasticizer, anticancer reagent, and so on, are discussed in this review. Consequenly, TPGS can inhibit ATP-dependent P-glycoprotein activity and act as a potent excipient that promotes the efficiency of delivery and the therapeutic effect of drugs. Inhibition of P-gp occurs through mitochondria-dependent inhibition of the P-gp pump. Many of the latest studies address the use of TPGS for many poorly water-soluble or permeable drugs in the manufacture of nanodrugs or other formulations. In addition, it has been reported that TPGS shows a robust improvement in chylomicron secretion at low concentrations and improves intestinal lymphatic transport, which would also boost the potential of drug absorption. It also indicates that there are still many problems facing clinical translation of TPGS-based nanomedicines, requiring a more deep evaluation of TPGS properties and a future-based delivery method.",signatures:"Adnan M. Jasim and Mohammed J. Jawad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76413",authors:[{id:"332371",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Adnan Mansour",surname:"Jasim",slug:"adnan-mansour-jasim",fullName:"Adnan Mansour Jasim"},{id:"344231",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Jasim",surname:"Jawad",slug:"mohammed-jasim-jawad",fullName:"Mohammed Jasim Jawad"}],corrections:null},{id:"75506",title:"Vitamin E in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) Prevention",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96452",slug:"vitamin-e-in-chronic-myeloid-leukemia-cml-prevention",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The resistance to inhibitors of tyrosine kinase necessitates novel approaches to the therapy of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). The progression of CML to blast crisis is associated with down-regulation of C/EBP-alpha being involved in the differentiation block in leukemic blast cells. Moreover, lowered C/EBP-alpha expression correlates with resistance to imatinib in CML. We have demonstrated that vitamin E up-regulates expression of C/EBP-alpha and down-regulates expression of Snail transcription factor in K562 cells in vitro contributing to the putative recovery of myeloid differentiation potential. In parallel with increased CEBP alpha expression, Vitamin E treatment results in the decreasing expression of placental-like alkaline phosphatase and increasing expression of tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase. We suggest that vitamin E could be used as the plausible biological modulator to prevent the progression to blast crisis and to overcome drug resistance of leukemic cells in CML.",signatures:"Lyudmyla Shvachko, Michael Zavelevich, Daniil Gluzman and Gennadii Telegeev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75506",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75506",authors:[{id:"339160",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmyla",surname:"Shvachko",slug:"lyudmyla-shvachko",fullName:"Lyudmyla Shvachko"},{id:"339269",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Zavelevych",slug:"michael-zavelevych",fullName:"Michael Zavelevych"},{id:"339270",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniil",surname:"Gluzman",slug:"daniil-gluzman",fullName:"Daniil Gluzman"},{id:"339271",title:"Dr.",name:"Gennadii",surname:"Telegeev",slug:"gennadii-telegeev",fullName:"Gennadii Telegeev"}],corrections:null},{id:"78135",title:"Vitamin E and Derivatives in Skin Health Promotion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99466",slug:"vitamin-e-and-derivatives-in-skin-health-promotion",totalDownloads:275,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamin E is fundamental for a proper function of human cells. Mostly obtained from vegetable oils, it has antioxidant and non-antioxidant actions. At times, its oral intake or skin application are employed. Oral intake is recommended in some cases. Differently, the topical application is a part of daily skin routine. Both in oral or in topical formulations, it is employed in its isoforms or derivatives. Tocopherols and tocotrienols are isoforms while derivatives are synthetic forms. In pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations, vitamin E and its derivatives are widely used due to its antioxidant and photoprotective properties. However, the clinical success treatment is often impaired by its low skin penetration, high lipophilicity, and chemical instability. A rational formulation design in the development of novel vitamin E dosage forms is required. In this chapter, the most successful and innovative approaches towards Vitamin E and its derivatives loaded in formulations for skin health promotion are reviewed. Conventional and nanoparticle-based formulations enable vitamin E chemical stabilization, and they are suitable vehicles for its release on the skin. Further, nano-sized carriers can increase vitamin E content in formulations as well as favor its skin penetration.",signatures:"Júlia Scherer Santos, Guilherme Diniz Tavares and Thaís Nogueira Barradas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78135",authors:[{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos"},{id:"426780",title:"Prof.",name:"Guilherme",surname:"Diniz Tavares",slug:"guilherme-diniz-tavares",fullName:"Guilherme Diniz Tavares"},{id:"426781",title:"Prof.",name:"Thaís",surname:"Nogueira Barradas",slug:"thais-nogueira-barradas",fullName:"Thaís Nogueira Barradas"}],corrections:null},{id:"77193",title:"Role of Vitamin E in Boosting the Immunity from Neonates to Elderly",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98553",slug:"role-of-vitamin-e-in-boosting-the-immunity-from-neonates-to-elderly",totalDownloads:306,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin which occurs as a tocopherol component abundant in humans. The vitamin E supplements in humans and animals have provided numerous health benefits. The vitamin E is rich in antioxidants which slow the aging process and reduce the free radical damage. Vitamin E isoforms play an important role in respiratory health. It is also important in health and well-being of preterm neonates. Vitamin E deficiency in new born includes hemolytic anemia, disease of retina, bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Further, in vitro studies, vitamin E has increased the oxidative resistance and prevents the atherosclerotic plaque. The consumption of vitamin E rich foods reduces coronary heart diseases. This chapter focuses on the treatment of vitamin E deficiency in preterm babies and the role of vitamin E in preventing coronary heart diseases.",signatures:"Mariyappan Kowsalya, Mohan Prasanna Rajeshkumar, Thangavel Velmurugan, Kattakgounder Govindaraj Sudha and Saheb Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77193",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77193",authors:[{id:"333469",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mariyappan",surname:"Kowsalya",slug:"mariyappan-kowsalya",fullName:"Mariyappan Kowsalya"},{id:"334818",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna Rajeshkumar",surname:"Mohan",slug:"prasanna-rajeshkumar-mohan",fullName:"Prasanna Rajeshkumar Mohan"},{id:"421248",title:"Dr.",name:"Thangavel",surname:"Velmurugan",slug:"thangavel-velmurugan",fullName:"Thangavel Velmurugan"},{id:"421249",title:"Dr.",name:"Kattagounder Govindaraj",surname:"Sudha",slug:"kattagounder-govindaraj-sudha",fullName:"Kattagounder Govindaraj Sudha"},{id:"421250",title:"Dr.",name:"Saheb",surname:"Ali",slug:"saheb-ali",fullName:"Saheb Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"76117",title:"Role of Vitamin E in Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97268",slug:"role-of-vitamin-e-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamins play important roles in female health. They are essential for many functions, including menstruation and ovulation, oocyte (egg) quality and maturation. Vitamin E was first discovered in 1922 as a substance necessary for reproduction. It has become widely known as a powerful lipid-soluble antioxidant. There are various reports on the benefits of vitamin E on health in general. Vitamin E helps your body create and maintain red blood cells, healthy skin, eyes and strengthens your natural immune system. However, despite it being initially discovered as a vitamin necessary for reproduction, to date studies relating to its effects in this area are lacking. Vitamin E supplementation may help reduce the risk of pregnancy complications involving oxidative stress, such as pre-eclampsia. This chapter is written to provide a review of the known roles of vitamin E in pregnancy.",signatures:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui, Usama Ahmad, Asad Ali, Farogh Ahsan and Md. Faheem Haider",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76117",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76117",authors:[{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad"},{id:"329245",title:"Dr.",name:"Asad",surname:"Ali",slug:"asad-ali",fullName:"Asad Ali"},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider"},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui"},{id:"355655",title:"Mr.",name:"Farogh",surname:"Ahsan",slug:"farogh-ahsan",fullName:"Farogh Ahsan"}],corrections:null},{id:"76798",title:"Impact of Vitamins and Minerals Enriched Flora in the Management of Calciphytoliths: A Special Focus on Vitamin E",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97777",slug:"impact-of-vitamins-and-minerals-enriched-flora-in-the-management-of-calciphytoliths-a-special-focus-",totalDownloads:230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Calciphytoliths (calcium oxalate calculi) have a great influence on human health and are a disease with a high likelihood of recurrence at a rate of more than 10% within a year. Plant flavonoids, saponins, and tannins are reported to be Litholytic by inhibiting calcium oxalate crystals or by their calcium channel blocking activity. Vitamins and minerals containing flora completely prevent deposition of oxalate by preventing pre-oxidation injury and restoring renal tissue antioxidants. So vitamin therapy also might protect against oxalate calculi deposition in the human kidneys. The present chapter discusses the impact of vitamins especially vitamin E, calcium, and low oxalate-containing plants for the management of various urinary or kidney disorders.",signatures:"Ramu Govindan, Tilak Meenakshisundaram, Navanita Sivaramakumar, Podila Naresh, Duraiswamy Basavan and Dhanabal Palanisamy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76798",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76798",authors:[{id:"298479",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramu",surname:"Govindan",slug:"ramu-govindan",fullName:"Ramu Govindan"},{id:"346328",title:"Prof.",name:"Tilak",surname:"Meenakshisundaram",slug:"tilak-meenakshisundaram",fullName:"Tilak Meenakshisundaram"},{id:"346330",title:"Ms.",name:"Navanita",surname:"Sivaramakumar",slug:"navanita-sivaramakumar",fullName:"Navanita Sivaramakumar"},{id:"346331",title:"Prof.",name:"Duraiswamy",surname:"Basavan",slug:"duraiswamy-basavan",fullName:"Duraiswamy Basavan"},{id:"346333",title:"Prof.",name:"Dhanabal",surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"dhanabal-palanisamy",fullName:"Dhanabal Palanisamy"},{id:"415185",title:"Mr.",name:"Podila",surname:"Naresh",slug:"podila-naresh",fullName:"Podila Naresh"}],corrections:null},{id:"78195",title:"Vitamin E: Natural Antioxidant in the Mediterranean Diet",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99705",slug:"vitamin-e-natural-antioxidant-in-the-mediterranean-diet",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oxidation has been related to several diseases in humans. Indeed, to protect the body from high free radical damages, organism requires natural resources of antioxidant compounds, such as phenols, tocopherols (α, β, γ, and σ) which have important roles in the cell antioxidant defense system. In Mediterranean areas, olive oils and pepper fruits are considered among the best foods in a diet, which keeps on attracting the interest of scientists due to the health benefits linked with its consumption. The Olive oil and pepper fruits are among the most consumed nutrients in the Mediterranean diet; their richness in naturally powerful antioxidants, such as alpha-tocopherols, polyphenols, carotenoïds, and capsaicinoïds (specific of capsicum species), and monounsaturated fatty acids in olive and seed pepper oils, constitutes good health protection against oxidative damages and inflammation. Also, these phytochemicals shield and prevent the human body from many diseases such as cardiovascular, coronary, Alzheimer’s diseases, and cancers.",signatures:"Samia Ben Mansour-Gueddes and Dhouha Saidana-Naija",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78195",authors:[{id:"333704",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Samia",surname:"Ben Mansour-Gueddes",slug:"samia-ben-mansour-gueddes",fullName:"Samia Ben Mansour-Gueddes"},{id:"334904",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhouha",surname:"Saidana-Naija",slug:"dhouha-saidana-naija",fullName:"Dhouha Saidana-Naija"}],corrections:null},{id:"76292",title:"Vitamin E: Recommended Intake",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97381",slug:"vitamin-e-recommended-intake",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Data of vitamin E intake and status are controversial. Vitamin E is an essential micronutrient for humans and achieving an optimal status is assumed to produce beneficial health outcomes. Dietary intake recommendations for vitamin E vary considerably by different countries and organizations. It appears to be still a challenge to define these despite the wealth of data published. Vitamin E requirements have been proposed to depend on other nutritional factors, such as the intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Although several foods contain naturally occurring sources of vitamin E, it is frequently the case that the intake recommendations are not achieved. Several other dietary factors affect the need for vitamin E. In this regard, significant challenges to be considered include the efficiency of other tocopherol variants and their properties that could affect the revision of the nutritional recommendations for vitamin E. Particularly, an ever-increasing evidence indicates that other vitamin E homologs may potentially present with a higher biological activity. Low dietary consumption of vitamin E, coupled with compelling evidence that increased intake of vitamin E above current recommendations for the general population may benefit older individuals.",signatures:"Marianna Schwarzova, Katarina Fatrcova-Sramkova, Eva Tvrda and Miroslava Kacaniova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76292",authors:[{id:"335734",title:"Prof.",name:"Miroslava",surname:"Kačániová",slug:"miroslava-kacaniova",fullName:"Miroslava Kačániová"},{id:"335737",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianna",surname:"Schwarzová",slug:"marianna-schwarzova",fullName:"Marianna Schwarzová"},{id:"335738",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarína",surname:"Fatrcová-Šrámková",slug:"katarina-fatrcova-sramkova",fullName:"Katarína Fatrcová-Šrámková"},{id:"344238",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Tvrdá",slug:"eva-tvrda",fullName:"Eva Tvrdá"}],corrections:null},{id:"76753",title:"Biosynthesis Pathways of Vitamin E and Its Derivatives in Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97267",slug:"biosynthesis-pathways-of-vitamin-e-and-its-derivatives-in-plants",totalDownloads:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Naturally occurring vitamin E, comprised of four forms each of tocopherols and tocotrienols, are synthesized solely by photosynthetic organisms and function primarily as antioxidants. The structural motifs of the vitamin E family and specifically the chroman moiety, are amenable to various modifications in order to improve their bioactivities towards numerous therapeutic targets. Tocopherols are lipophilic antioxidants and together with tocotrienols belong to the vitamin-E family. These lipid-soluble compounds are potent antioxidants that protect polyunsaturated fatty acids from lipid peroxidation. Biosynthetic pathways of plants producing a diverse array of natural products that are important for plant function, agriculture, and human nutrition. Edible plant-derived products, notably seed oils, are the main sources of vitamin E in the human diet. The biosynthesis of tocopherols takes place mainly in plastids of higher plants from precursors derived from two metabolic pathways: homogentisic acid, an intermediate of degradation of aromatic amino acids, and phytyldiphosphate, which arises from methylerythritol phosphate pathway. Tocopherols and tocotrienols play an important roles in the oxidative stability of vegetable oils and in the nutritional quality of crop plants for human and livestock diets. Here, we review major biosynthetic pathways, including common precursors and competitive pathways of the vitamin E and its derivatives in plants.",signatures:"Makhlouf Chaalal and Siham Ydjedd",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76753",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76753",authors:[{id:"336326",title:"Dr.",name:"Makhlouf",surname:"Chaalal",slug:"makhlouf-chaalal",fullName:"Makhlouf Chaalal"},{id:"336443",title:"Dr.",name:"Siham",surname:"Ydjedd",slug:"siham-ydjedd",fullName:"Siham Ydjedd"}],corrections:null},{id:"75417",title:"Tocotrienol: An Underrated Isomer of Vitamin E in Health and Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96451",slug:"tocotrienol-an-underrated-isomer-of-vitamin-e-in-health-and-diseases",totalDownloads:453,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamin E was first discovered as a fertility factor in 1922 in the laboratory of Herbert McLean Evans, a scientist and anatomist. Following this discovery, it was extensively researched and found to possess a potent antioxidant property. It soon dawned that the family of vitamin E has eight members: four tocopherols, namely α-, β-, δ- and γ-tocopherol; and four tocotrienols in the form of α-, β-, δ- and γ-tocotrienols. This chapter discusses this rather unknown and underrated isomer of vitamin E with unsurpassed health benefits: tocotrienols. Until recently, tocotrienols rarely figured in vitamin E research in spite of their relative superiority to tocopherol coupled with their abundant presence in palm oil. In fact, since palm oil contains about 70% of all tocotrienol homologues, it would be no exaggeration to call it nature’s best kept secret, if not the most promising natural substance in influencing health and disease. While highlighting the wonders of tocotrienols as a safe and efficacious product, this chapter offers a panoramic view of recent research into tocotrienols that demonstrates their undeniable benefits in conferring protection against cancer as well as a whole litany of ailments including cardiovascular, metabolic, autoimmune, bone and neurological diseases. Admittedly, many of these researches were conducted in the laboratory, with some preclinical trials translated into clinical trials. Nonetheless, it is hoped that more randomised clinical trials will be carried out on a global scale in the near future. From the vessels in the heart to the neurons in the brain, tocotrienols have the extraordinary potential to be the future of vitamin E research.",signatures:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75417",authors:[{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa"}],corrections:null},{id:"77766",title:"Vitamin E in Human Health and Oxidative Stress Related Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99169",slug:"vitamin-e-in-human-health-and-oxidative-stress-related-diseases",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oxidative stress characterized by an imbalance in the production and degradation of radical species has been implicated in the onset and progression of several diseases. The efficacy of antioxidants acting via the inhibition of radical chain reactions, scavenging of free radicals, direct donation of electrons to radical species and chelation of metal ions have been reported to attenuate the oxidative process. Vitamin E is an effective antioxidant and its hydrophobic nature and membrane permeability offer some benefits to application and bioavailability. This chapter highlights the following; structural differences in the vitamin family, biosynthesis in plants and the native biological role, antioxidant mechanisms of vitamin E, an overview of the prophylactic action of vitamin E as well as the effect on the oxidative process in some diseases.",signatures:"Israel Ehizuelen Ebhohimen, Taiwo Stephen Okanlawon, Augustine Ododo Osagie and Owen Norma Izevbigie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77766",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77766",authors:[{id:"332421",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Israel Ehizuelen",surname:"Ebhohimen",slug:"israel-ehizuelen-ebhohimen",fullName:"Israel Ehizuelen Ebhohimen"},{id:"418960",title:"Mr.",name:"Owen Norma",surname:"Izevbigie",slug:"owen-norma-izevbigie",fullName:"Owen Norma Izevbigie"},{id:"418961",title:"Mr.",name:"Taiwo Stephen",surname:"Okanlawon",slug:"taiwo-stephen-okanlawon",fullName:"Taiwo Stephen Okanlawon"},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie"}],corrections:null},{id:"77097",title:"Male Infertility, Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98204",slug:"male-infertility-oxidative-stress-and-antioxidants",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Within the male reproductive system, oxidative stress (OS) has been identified as prevailing etiology of male infertility. The effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on male fertility depend on the dimensions, “modus operandi” of the ROS and the oxido-reduction potential (ORP) of the male reproductive tract. Hereupon, for an adequate response to OS, the cells of our body are endowed with a well-sophisticated system of defense in order to be protected. Various antioxidant enzymes and small molecular free radical scavengers, maintain the delicate balance between oxidants and reductants (antioxidants), crucial to cellular function and fertility. Therapeutic use of antioxidants is an optimal and coherent option in terms of mitigating OS and improving semen parameters. Therefore, recognizing and managing OS through either decreasing ROS levels or by increasing antioxidant force, appear to be a requesting approach in the management of male infertility. However, a clear defined attitude of the experts about the clinical efficacy of antioxidant therapy is still deprived. Prominently, antioxidant such as coenzyme Q10, vitamin C and E, lycopene, carnitine, zinc and selenium have been found useful in controlling the balance between ROS production and scavenging activities. In spite of that, healthy lifestyle, without smoke and alcohol, everyday exercise, reduction of psychological stress and quality well-designed meals, are habits that can overturn male infertility.",signatures:"Vegim Zhaku, Ashok Agarwal, Sheqibe Beadini, Ralf Henkel, Renata Finelli, Nexhbedin Beadini and Sava Micic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77097",authors:[{id:"333532",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vegim",surname:"Zhaku",slug:"vegim-zhaku",fullName:"Vegim Zhaku"},{id:"354806",title:"Prof.",name:"Nexhbedin",surname:"Beadini",slug:"nexhbedin-beadini",fullName:"Nexhbedin Beadini"},{id:"354807",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheqibe",surname:"Beadini",slug:"sheqibe-beadini",fullName:"Sheqibe Beadini"},{id:"354808",title:"Prof.",name:"Ashok",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ashok-agarwal",fullName:"Ashok Agarwal"},{id:"354809",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",surname:"Finelli",slug:"renata-finelli",fullName:"Renata Finelli"},{id:"354810",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",surname:"Henkel",slug:"ralf-henkel",fullName:"Ralf Henkel"},{id:"354811",title:"Prof.",name:"Sava",surname:"Micic",slug:"sava-micic",fullName:"Sava Micic"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"17",series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",issn:"2632-0983",editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5176",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2e20dabc8ed6fbaef3686be8c6fce99",slug:"nutritional-deficiency",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5176.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5836",title:"Bisphenol A",subtitle:"Exposure and Health Risks",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"446599b9e5cf929537d445edc546c449",slug:"bisphenol-a-exposure-and-health-risks",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6486",title:"Glutathione in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23fb1f2e0cea5cf004d57bc8c0d46ce4",slug:"glutathione-in-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6486.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10884",title:"Bisphenols",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d73ec720cb7577731662ac9d02879729",slug:"bisphenols",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10884.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7281",title:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"728df4ace35f652725e5b94da45d0c4d",slug:"oncogenes-and-carcinogenesis",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7281.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5940",title:"Vitamin C",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e23e79359167bb9d4a53edd78c7b5038",slug:"vitamin-c",bookSignature:"Amal H. Hamza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5940.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188326",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amal",surname:"Hamza",slug:"amal-hamza",fullName:"Amal Hamza"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5169",title:"Vitamin K2",subtitle:"Vital for Health and Wellbeing",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2f9f024939ddc4f5da2a8afa3fcd9c9",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5169.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7263",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6bd8e547b4f3ad7f1675a36b8dbde8f2",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Jose Antonio Morales-Gonzalez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7263.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109774",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",surname:"Morales-Gonzalez",slug:"jose-antonio-morales-gonzalez",fullName:"Jose Antonio Morales-Gonzalez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6709",title:"B Group Vitamins",subtitle:"Current Uses and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f34959a0fcc33a2c6fb3d03e9ec544bf",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Jean Guy LeBlanc and Graciela Savoy de Giori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6709.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67023",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Guy",surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"jean-guy-leblanc",fullName:"Jean Guy LeBlanc"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"erratum-application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodies",title:"Erratum - Application of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly: Development of a Multifeedstock Biodiesel Processor",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68990.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68990",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68990",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68990",chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63204",slug:"application-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-development-of-a-multifeedstock-biodiesel-proce",signatures:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan and Khumbulani Mpofu",dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 3rd 2019",book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"11921",title:"Prof.",name:"Khumbulani",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",fullName:"Khumbulani Mpofu",slug:"khumbulani-mpofu",email:"mpofuk@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"260269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilesanmi Afolabi",middleName:null,surname:"Daniyan",fullName:"Ilesanmi Afolabi Daniyan",slug:"ilesanmi-afolabi-daniyan",email:"afolabiilesanmi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7460",title:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly",slug:"applications-of-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly",publishedDate:"January 3rd 2019",bookSignature:"Ancuţa Păcurar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7460.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7961",leadTitle:null,title:"Induced Abortion and Spontaneous Early Pregnancy Loss",subtitle:"Focus on Management",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is focused on the protection of female reproductive health. Artificial pregnancy termination is known to be associated with an increased risk of infertility, spontaneous pregnancy loss, and other gestational pathologies. Since family planning is a system for the prevention of unwanted pregnancy, the current situation of the spread of induced abortion in different parts of the world is analyzed. Early pregnancy loss is a wide-ranging problem in medicine and habitual abortion is a real tragedy for women in their childbearing years. The different pathogenetic scenarios of spontaneous pregnancy termination are described and the possible interventions for prevention contributing to beneficial outcomes are discussed.",isbn:"978-1-78985-388-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-387-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-439-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77791",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"induced-abortion-and-spontaneous-early-pregnancy-loss-focus-on-management",numberOfPages:112,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"02cfa65d8d630b8cacd78aafa3f2f42e",bookSignature:"Igor Lakhno",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7961.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:4784,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"189",title:"Obstetrics and Gynecology",slug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology"}],chapters:[{id:"67037",title:"Provoked Abortion",slug:"provoked-abortion",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"217073",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Affonso Renato",surname:"Meira",slug:"affonso-renato-meira",fullName:"Affonso Renato Meira"}]},{id:"68634",title:"Is Induced Abortion a Part of Family Planning in China?",slug:"is-induced-abortion-a-part-of-family-planning-in-china-",totalDownloads:867,totalCrossrefCites:3,authors:[{id:"293941",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei-Hong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"wei-hong-zhang",fullName:"Wei-Hong 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Increasing cancer burden is a major health problem; GLOBOCAN estimated nearly 8.2 million deaths and 14.1 million new cancer cases all over the world in 2012 [1] and it is expected to be 16 million new cases every year by 2020 [2]. Widespread application of existing cancer control knowledge, early detection, appropriate therapy with proper follow-up, and prediction measures through cancer biomarkers could definitely be very effective tools for the amelioration of cancer burden. Biomarkers are “Any measurable diagnostic indicator that is used to assess the risk or presence of disease” as defined by the US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA), or they would be comprehensively defined as—“A characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological responses to therapeutic intervention” [3]. Cancer biomarkers (CB) are biomolecules produced either by the tumor cells or by other cells of the body in response to the tumor, and CB could be used as screening/early detection tool of cancer, diagnostic, prognostic, or predictor for the overall outcome of a patient. Moreover, cancer biomarkers may identify subpopulations of patients who are most likely to respond to a given therapy [4]. Biomarkers can be genes, gene products, specific cells, molecules, enzymes, or hormones which can be detected in blood, urine, tissues, or other body fluid [5].
\n
1.1 Historical background of cancer biomarkers
Two thousand years ago, Ancient Egyptians were the first known who try to find markers for malignancy as described in an Egyptian papyrus, they had their first attempt in distinguishing breast cancer from mastitis [6]. Use of CB in medicine then started around 170 years ago, when Sir Bence Jones described a protein in urine of multiple myeloma patients that could be identified by its special heat coagulation properties. In 1847, Bence-Jones protein was the first cancer biomarker that was discovered as a tumor-produced light chain antibody of immunoglobulin G (IgG) in multiple myeloma patients, it was excreted in urine in excess and could be identified by heat denaturation [7]. Later, in 1986, Bence-Jones protein was reported to be present also in the serum of myeloma patients [8]. Two years later, in 1988, an immunodiagnostic test was approved by the FDA for the detection of Bence-Jones protein which may aid in the diagnosis of multiple myeloma, Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia, leukemia, and lymphoma. In 1867, amylase was introduced by Sir Michael Foster who reported the increase levels of serum amylase in patients with cancer pancreas. He suggested urinary amylase as a biomarker for cancer pancreas. Then, after years of studying pathology and physiology of pancreas, it was realized that cancer pancreas originate from ductal cells not acinar cell; the source of amylase enzyme. Therefore, elevation of amylase enzyme may occur in large tumors impinging on acinar cells [9]. During the next 100 years, numerous studies involved other CB including hormones as chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in choriocarcinoma and catecholamines in pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma, and enzymes as acid phosphatase in prostate cancer, and alkaline phosphatase in bone tumors [10]. Definitely, the development of the immunoassay concept in the 1950s by Yalow and Berson has very important impact on the field of CB testing using polyclonal antibodies. Later in 1970s, CEA immunoassay was commercially available. The field of cancer biomarkers showed uprising in 1975 with the development of monoclonal antibodies and in 1982 with the development of the immune-metric (sandwich) immunoassay. This leaded to feasible expansion in the introduction of several immunoassays and new tumor antigens to be used as available tests in routine clinical practice. Recombinant antibody techniques also provided better understanding of the hypothesized structure and functions of CB. Recent molecular biology techniques were the key for discovering and realizing the putative functions of CB as tumor suppresser genes, oncogenes, nuclear proteins, and telomerase [11, 12]. Unfortunately, along all these years since the discovery Bence-Jones protein, only very few CB have been approved by the FDA as diagnostic or prognostic cancer markers in spite of being extensively studied. However, emerging technology of omics, such as genomics and proteomics, may indeed encourage the generation and Validation of CB [10].
\n
1.2 Cancer development and mechanisms for the production of cancer biomarkers
Cancer is a multifactorial cluster of diseases reflecting fundamental abnormality involving uncontrolled cell growth and proliferation alternating the normal cell behavior. Molecular mechanisms exhibit alterations in the expression of multiple genes mostly includes: (proto) oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes that contribute to the development of cancer genotype and phenotype with a state of dysregulation of cell proliferation events. Cancer hallmarks hypothesis has been postulated in 2000 by Hanahan and Weinberg. They initially categorized biological mechanisms for the cancer development into six processes: proliferative signaling, avoiding growth suppression, cell death resistance (immortalization), enabling of replicative immortality, induction of angiogenesis, and finally activation of invasion and metastasis [13]. Increasing evidence suggest that cancer may be triggered also by epigenetic changes as histone modification and DNA alteration of methylation causing alterations in the condensation state of chromatin [14]. Genetic alterations of cancer cells, as point mutation, gene rearrangement or amplifications, and subsequent disturbances of cell division and proliferation will be manifested by release of biomarkers of such changes in majority of patients with a specific type of cancer. Therefore, they can be used as biomarkers for the cancer detection or predicting responses to various treatments [15–17]. Comprehensive understanding of the altered molecular mechanisms and cellular processes underlying carcinogenesis or hallmarks of cancer may link cancer biomarkers and their clinical utility in cancer patient. Genetic, molecular, and metabolic biomarker may be identified through applying the sequential of events occurring in cancer cells from gene mutation following its effects on cellular proliferation and metabolism [18], as illustrated in Figure 1. One of the major challenges for oncology research is to establish the definite relationship between cancer biomarkers and cancer pathology, as well as, to detect cancer in early stage beside the development of targeted therapies targeting the exact altered gene or cellular process [16].
\n
Figure 1.
Identification of biomarkers in the process of carcinogenesis modified from Bhatt et al. [18].
\n
1.3 Serum, biological fluid, and tissue Cancer Biomarkers
Understanding mechanisms of carcinogenesis could explain the production and release of CB in cancerous cells, blood or various body fluid and hence release of those molecules and elevation during cancer initiation, development, and progression or metastasizing. Mechanisms for elevation of CB levels in any of the biological fluid could be explained by three mechanisms. The first mechanism is overexpression or amplification of gene product, or enhancement of epigenetic changes (affect gene expression) as DNA methylation with release of such CB as protein human epididymal secretory protein 4 (HE4) in ovarian cancer. HE4 is overexpressed in ovarian carcinoma and could be also detected in serum [19–21]. However, clinical evaluation of HE4 revealed that it is also overexpressed in endometrial, breast, and bronchial adenocarcinoma [22]. The second mechanism of elevation could be typically applied on serum biomarkers, which is the secretion of cellular proteins or shedding of membrane proteins. An example of such serum biomarker is alpha-fetoprotein (AFP); an oncofetal protein with altered single peptide that is elevated in circulation in patient with hepatocellular carcinoma [23] and HER2-neu, a cell membrane surface-bound tyrosine kinase, released and elevated in the serum of breast cancer patients after being cleaved by proteolysis. HER2-neu is also approved by the FDA for monitoring of metastatic cases of breast cancer [24]. The third mechanism is cell invasion and angiogenesis as occur with prostate-specific antigen (PSA). It is expressed normally by prostatic epithelium but elevation of PSA levels occurs due to distorted basement membrane of prostatic cell and lymph angiogenesis [25]. The clinical application of CB, especially circulating protein targets in cancer management, is emerging into a new era especially with the availability of promising sensitive techniques that implement the discovery of “omics” cancer biomarkers in body fluids that may represent a novel, highly sensitive diagnostic tools for the early detection of cancer. Of even much importance are hidden cancers that are not easily accessible, for example, nasopharyngeal, ovarian, and pancreatic cancers. However, there is mandatory need for validation of such biomarkers [26]. CB could be detected in cancerous cells or tissue of origin in solid tumors, bone marrow, and lymph node or as circulating cells. CB could be detected in biological body fluid such as serum, ascetic fluid, pleural fluid, or urine representing noninvasive specimens or samples. CSF fluid is a suitable candidate for brain and CNS cancer. Meanwhile, urine is one of the promising frontier for the detection of bladder cancer or for of patients’ surveillance [27]. In addition, it was postulated that prostate cancer antigen 3 (PCA3) is another promising new molecular marker for diagnosis and follow-up of cancer prostate [28]. Stool for colorectal cancer, nipple aspirate fluid, ductal lavage, and cyst fluid for breast cancer are other examples for biological fluid sources for discovery or clinical application tool for CB [29].
\n
\n
\n
2. Clinical applications and performance indications of Cancer Biomarkers
\n
More than 25 years ago, the clinical usefulness of CB was limited to be an effective tool for patient’s prognosis, surveillance, and therapy monitoring. Definition of tumor markers that have been adopted by the fifth International Conference on Human Tumor Markers held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1988 stated that “Biochemical tumor markers are substances developed in tumor cells and secreted into body fluids in which they can be quantitated by non-invasive analyses. Because of a correlation between marker concentration and active tumor mass, tumor markers are useful in the management of cancer patients. Markers, which are available for most cancer cases, are additional, valuable tools in patient prognosis, surveillance, and therapy monitoring, whereas they are presently not applicable for screening. Sero-diagnostic measurements of markers should emphasize relative trends instead of absolute values and cut-off levels.” However, CB have been reported to be used also for screening of general population or risk groups, for differential diagnosis, and for clinical staging or stratification of cancer patients. Additionally, CB are used to estimate tumor burden and to substitute for a clinical endpoint and/or to measure clinical benefit, harm or lack of benefit, or harm [4, 18, 30]. Among commonly utilized biomarkers in clinical practice are PSA, AFP, CA125, and CEA. PSA is one of the serum biomarker currently used consistently in primary care to assess the risk of underlying prostate cancer. Cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) can be a biomarker of ovarian cancer risk or an indicator of malignancy, but it has low sensitivity and specificity. CEA is another biomarker that is elevated in patients with colorectal, breast, lung, or pancreatic cancer [31]. A major challenge is to develop promising CB for the stratification of cancer patients not only to predict outcome or response for therapy, providing customized treatment, but also for personalized therapeutic strategies of cancer patients. Among promising biomarkers in that field is survivin and HER2-neu [32, 33].
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2.1. Sensitivity and specificity for evaluation of accuracy of CB
As being released from tumor cells, or body cells in response to the tumor, CB can be detected in any of the body fluids, secretions, or tumor tissue and cells. CB can be detected in serum, plasma, or whole blood, also in whole excretions as urine, sputum, or CSF. Therefore, CB could be assessed in noninvasive and in serial manner. Evaluation of cancer biomarker in tissue or cells requires tissue biopsy or more invasive technique than serum biomarkers. CB can be detected in tissues by special techniques but in an invasive manner than serum or urine biomarkers. Genetic biomarkers could be detected in DNA derived from tumor tissue, whole blood, or buccal mucosa cells [34]. Evaluation of diagnostic value of any test or marker is usually performed with referral to the terms of sensitivity and specificity of that marker. Specificity means that ability of the marker to detect non-diseased subjects whereas sensitivity refers to the ability of that test to identify diseased subjects (patients) [35]. At definitive cutoff value, a test or biomarker may be found above that value (positive), but actually not all positives are diseased subjects. Therefore, sensitivity is calculated, as the ratio of the all positives who are found by that test, above the cutoff value to the total number of abnormals known to have the disease (true positive); simply sensitivity is the true positive rate (TPR). Similarly, by applying the same cutoff value for the same test, some people with normal results below cutoff value are actually normal (true negative) but not all of them are not having the disease (false negative). Therefore, the true negative rate or specificity could be calculated as the ratio of the all negatives who found by the test below cutoff value to the total number of normals known not to have the disease (true negative) [36]. Therefore, a CB with 100% specificity could be used to correctly identifies all non-cancerous subjects, CB with 70% specificity could identify only 70% of the non-cancerous as being negative (true negatives), and however, 30% of non-cancerous are falsely identified positive (false positives) [37]. Supposing sensitivity of a CB is 100%, this means that it could identify all cancer patients and if another CB supposed to be with 90% sensitivity, it could detects 90% of patients with cancer (true positives) but fail to detect it only in 10% of cancer patients (false negatives). Consequently, sensitivity and specificity could be computed across all possible cutoff or threshold values and both are inversely related to each other [38].
\n
Figure 2.
Cancer biomarker range of results among cancer and non-cancerous patients.
Comparative analysis of different sensitivities and specificities at different thresholds would be very effective to judge the accuracy of diagnostic test. ROC curve was introduced by the British during World War II in order to identify accurate radar detectors and was used later in performance evaluation of radiological tests [39]. ROC curve is simply defined as performance indicator of a test or biomarker by plotting its sensitivity along the y axis and its 1-specificity or FPR (false positive rate) along the x axis to assess the diagnostic ability of such biomarker and in discrimination of the diseased from the healthy subjects [40]. ROC curves have been extensively used for evaluation of the accuracy of diagnostic tests with meaningful interpretations. Several indices could be derived from it such as the area under the curve (AUC) that determines the average of the sensitivity values for all possible specificity values and includes whole area underneath the entire ROC curve [36]. AUC could have a range between one and zero because values of the x and y axes probably having values ranging from zero to one as well. The closer the value of AUC to one the better is the clinical performance of that test [40]. Comparing AUC areas of different tests can be used to compare their diagnostic performance as AUC is a measure of their overall performance. The test with bigger AUC value is of better overall performance. On comparison of two tests and if both AUC areas are equal, this indicates same diagnostic performance of both tests, but non-necessarily mean identical ROC curves [41]. Figure 2 represents the CB levels among cancer and non-cancer cases, while Figure 3 illustrates ROC curve and area under the curve.
Figure 3.
ROC curve analysis and comparison of area under the curve.
\n
2.3. Ideal biomarker
Measurement of sensitivity and specificity of a biomarker at a range of cutoff values could be of an important impact for evaluation of CB as we may chose a definitive cutoff value that achieves the highest sensitivity and specificity. Increment of cutoff point will definitely lead to increase of specificity of the test or false negative patients but on the other hand, this will decrease number of false positives; this indicate a highly specific but low sensitive biomarker. Similarly, if the cutoff point is low that indicates a highly sensitive but low-specific biomarker, as there are fewer false negatives but more false positive subjects. Indeed, pairs of sensitivities and specificities may describe accuracy of the biomarker and its ability to discriminate between healthy (normal) and diseased. We can identify the threshold limit or cutoff value to a diagnostic sensitivity of 100% or less but considering the corresponding specificity for that threshold. The decision threshold must be chosen to be used in patient care, but not for assessment of accuracy. Indeed assessment for performance at definitive point may be misleading or this may results in bias for comparison between tests [42]. Ideal biomarker must be strictly able to differentiate between cancerous from benign cases, aggressive tumors from insignificant one; it should be of high specificity and sensitivity. Furthermore, it should be a noninvasive and inexpensive [30, 43]. The characteristic features of an ideal biomarker are variable and relay to some extent on the application and classification of CB. Mostly, CB have to fulfill the following general properties to be considered ideal. Obviously, no biomarker could meet these requirements all together, but these criteria should be highly considered for selection of diagnostic biomarker [44]:\n\n
High clinical sensitivity: produced by all patients with that specific cancer (100% TPR).
High clinical specificity: low false negative rate (100%True negative).
Organ or tissue specific.
Proportional to tumor burden or volume: quantitatively proportionate to tumor volume or disease progression.
Short half-life: reflecting quickly any early changes in tumor burden for proper monitoring of therapy.
Present (if any) at low levels in the serum of healthy individuals and those with benign disease.
Sharply discriminating metastasis.
Exist in quantitative, standardized, reproducible, and validated assay.
Inexpensive or low coasting method.
Obtained in a noninvasive manner: detected in serum, body fluids, or in easily accessible tissue.
\n
\n
\n
3. Uses, clinical utility, and limitations of CB
\n
Conventionally used tumor markers or CB may be either proteins or glycoproteins, being probably not involved in carcinogenesis or development of cancer process, rather are likely to be by-products of malignant transformation. Low molecular weight, small molecules or nucleic acids markers (as gene mutations or polymorphisms and quantitative gene expression analysis, peptides, proteins, lipids metabolites, and other small molecules are promising and recently being evaluated as potential clinically useful tumor markers, the patterns of gene expression and genetic alterations and defects may be the framework of the molecular classification of CB [11]. There are several classification s for CB depending on different aspects related to their chemical nature, proposed mechanisms for their release and applications. Six years ago, a unique classification proposed by Mishra and Verma [45] with an emphasis on clinical utility of CB. They classified CB into prediction biomarkers as DNA biomolecules, detection biomarkers as RNA molecules, diagnostic biomarkers as protein biomarkers, and prognosis biomarkers as glyco-biomarkers. Clinical applications and uses of CB, as simply illustrated in Figure 4 are screening and early detection, diagnostic confirmation, prognosis and prediction of therapeutic response, and monitoring disease and recurrence [46]. Another use of CB includes cancer susceptibility and risk assessment markers which include the identification of individuals who are at a high risk of developing cancer or candidates for screening programs and early preventive studies [47]. Risk or susceptibility assessment markers include markers of inflammation, oxidative stress and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and mutations in certain genes [48, 49]. Table 1 illustrates most of traditional, the FDA approved, and clinically relevant CB with their uses in various cancer types.
\n
Figure 4.
Clinical utility and uses of cancer biomarkers.
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3.1. Screening/early detection
In 2008, Wald defined screening as “the systematic application of a test to identify subjects at sufficient risk of a specific disorder to benefit from further investigation or direct preventive action, among persons who have not sought medical attention on account of symptoms of that disorder” [50]. Earlier efficient treatment must lead to better outcome compared with the treatment available at later cancer stages or symptomatic patients. Screening aim was to detect disease when subjects are asymptomatic which differ from diagnosis of symptomatic patients. Objectives of screening and early detection of cancer were to detect cancer at curable and better outcome state and even before appearance of symptoms. Reports calculated a drop in the 5 years survival rate from being about 90%, in early localized breast cancer, to reach about 60% in local metastasizing and only 30% to distant metastasizing cases of breast cancer [51]. Therefore, screening CB should be able to detect cancer in an early stage or asymptomatic stage and consequently will result in increase of survival rate and decrease complications or morbidities. Screening test must be highly specific to minimize false positives as less as possible. High specificity is mandatory for screening biomarker because even a small false-positive rate could result in large number of unnecessary other invasive diagnostic procedures that may be unneeded with the associated psychological burden and excess costs. Ideal screening programs have to be noninvasive and inexpensive and definitely lead to obvious reduction in morbidity and mortality and increase in survival rate. Usually, screening programs are directed for highly prevalent cancers and further treatment and follow-up are mandatory [34]. Other limiting factors for screening biomarker are the low diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of most of the currently used biomarkers to serve as screening markers and being elevated later in the course of cancer. However, few biomarkers have been used as screening biomarkers as AFP in screening for hepatocellular cancer in high‐risk subjects, PSA in screening for prostate cancer, CA125 in screening for ovarian cancer, and fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) in screening for colorectal cancers (CRC) and vanillymandelic acid (VMA) in screening for neuroblastoma in newborns [52]. PSA was cleared by the FDA as a screening biomarker for prostate cancer; however, false positive elevation of PSA levels can be found in individuals with benign or inflammatory conditions as benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostatitis [53]. Contribution of PSA screening in decreasing mortality is still being a matter of contraverse [54, 55].
Current cancer biomarkers and uses in clinical practice.
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3.2. Diagnosis/differential diagnosis
A diagnostic biomarker would be applied only for symptomatic patients in contrast to screening biomarker that would be applicable only for symptomatic individuals. Interestingly, the characteristics of an ideal diagnostic biomarker are similar to the characteristics for screening. Notably, most of well-established biomarkers for screening could be used as diagnostic markers and PSA is well-recognized example. PSA, in combination with a digital rectal examination (DRE), is the most commonly used diagnostic tool for prostate cancer [56]. Regarding encountered limitations for diagnostic biomarkers, current available cancer biomarkers are still having low diagnostic sensitivity and specificity; however, diagnostic biomarkers must be of high sensitivity in order to be a good diagnostic biomarker [57]. For example, Bence-Jones protein in urine remains one of the strongest, well-established diagnostic indicators of multiple myeloma [29]. Nevertheless, some CB have proved to be useful in confirming diagnosis, often in conjunction with a panel of other markers especially to identify primary tumor in metastatic cases with unknown primary and/or other clinical, imaging tools [58]. Use of panel of CB in order to increase sensitivity and specificity of CB in diagnosis has been used to confirm diagnosis of certain cancers. In 2005, Mor et al. [59] reported that a panel, consisting of 4 biomarkers: leptin, osteopontin, prolactin, and insulin-like growth factor 2, collectively had a sensitivity of 95% and a specificity of 95% for the detection of ovarian cancer. In another report, addition of two biomarkers to the previously studied panel included macrophage inhibitory factor and CA125, sensitivity was 95% and a specificity increase to 99.4% for the detection of ovarian cancer. Other attempts to improve diagnostic sensitivity and specificity included combination of CA125 with ultrasonography for diagnosis of ovarian cancer [60].
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3.3. Prognosis/prediction
Prognosis is the probability of cure or likely outcome of any patient. A prognostic marker is a disease or patient characteristic feature at the time of diagnosis independent upon therapy; hence, prognostic marker will provide information about the natural history of the disease or the likely outcome. Meanwhile, a predictive biomarker predicts the response to different therapeutic modalities; hence, predictive biomarker is the basic concept for personalized medicine [57]. Magnitude of elevation or levels of CB usually reflects tumor burden, or mass hence higher elevation of CB level mostly reflects bad prognosis and vice versa. By reflecting the tumor burden, CB can be used in staging system for cancer or the tumor–node–metastasis (TNM) classification. For example, in testicular germ cell tumors, very high levels of a CB such as AFP, LDH, and HCG-β may indicate an aggressive cancer with poor prognosis and outcome so such biomarkers may be used for staging in TNMS system in place with a site-specific prognostic factor (S is for site-specific prognostic factors) [61]. LDH alone has been used for staging of lymphoma as well [62]. However, the accuracy of the marker in determining tumor stage is poor. Estrogen receptor (ER) is one of the widely used prognostic and predictive tissue biomarker; as a predictive tissue biomarker, ER is used for selecting the patients likely to respond to hormonal therapy. Therefore, patients with ER positive tumors will mostly respond to selective ER modulators or aromatase inhibitors independent upon stage of breast cancer weather early or advanced [63]. ER is considered a prognostic marker as well, once ER is negative, that indicate a poor prognosis and when positive a good prognosis is likely the outcome for such patients. In spite of most of CB have some prognostic values which their specific therapeutic impact cannot be applied because of their poor predication accuracy [64]. In the same context, high serum levels of HER2 in serum of breast cancer patients correlate with poor prognosis in such patients [24]. Targeted therapy for HER-2 positive breast cancer patients, trastuzumab (Herceptin), is a recombinant monoclonal antibody against HER-2. Herceptin has been used in women with metastatic breast cancer that overexpressed HER2 and reported to increases the clinical benefit of first-line chemotherapy in those patients [65]. KRAS is a predictive biomarker for colorectal cancer, because patients with somatic mutations in KRAS have poor response to anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeting therapies [66].
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3.4. Therapeutic monitoring/follow-up/evidence of metastasis or recurrence
Therapeutic monitoring may constitute the most common applications of CB markers in clinical practice [67]. Clinically useful biomarkers usually fluctuate in accordance with tumor behavior, size, or burden changes that are best elicited by increase in levels of CB with progressive disease, decrease with remission, and do not change significantly with stable disease. Kinetics of CB are more important than single measurement or elevated values [68]. Recurrence of cancer may be detected biochemically via rise in CB levels even before appearance of any clinical or radiological evidence of cancer recurrence. Continues follow-up for cancer patients during and after therapy can mirror their condition if the levels of CB were not elevated or remain at basal level, indicating successful therapy or remission. On the other hand, rising of CB level above the basal level indicates recurrence of the disease. CB can be a warning sign of recurrence earlier by 3–12 months before any other diagnostic methods. Many CB could be used for monitoring therapy or detection of recurrence or metastasis, for example, CEA in colorectal cancers, cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) in ovarian cancers, or PSA in prostatic cancer [69]. Some patients who encountered resistance to therapeutic modalities will experience increasing levels of CB, and in that case, reconsideration of alternative therapy is mandatory. Monitoring CB, as screening and diagnostic biomarker needs to be both diagnostically sensitive and specific to ensure proper assessment of effective therapy and continuation of such beneficial therapies and early discontinuation/replacement of ineffective therapy or resistant cancer to those therapies. A representing example of monitoring CB is carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9) which has been used in pancreatic in CRC [70]. CA19-9 has been approved by the FDA in 2002 as a monitoring marker for pancreatic cancer. However, it is not recommended as a screening biomarker [71, 72]. Monitoring biomarkers have been extensively used in clinical practice with few limitations perhaps related to detectors’ biomarkers of recurrence rather than monitoring ones. Limitations of those biomarkers probably related to short lead time and poor affection to the outcome [29].
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4. Applications of CB in most common cancers
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Cancer is an enormous health problem all over the world, over years cancer was indicated as one of the leading causes of death among males and females; an estimated 8.2 million deaths among cancer patients occurred in 2012 worldwide [73]. Over 11 million patients are diagnosed with cancer every year, and 16 million new cases will be expected yearly by 2020 [2]. According to the latest report of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the GLOBOCAN worldwide estimates of cancer incidence and mortality published on 2015 and the most common cancers’ types among males were lung, prostate, colorectal, liver, and urinary bladder. Meanwhile, breast cancer, lung, liver, ovarian cancers were among the most common cancers in females worldwide [1]. For many years ago, few CB have been used as an effective tool in clinical practice, while also promising CB were extensively studied for their clinical utility. As previously discussed, traditionally used or promising CB may be used for risk assessment for cancer, screening among asymptomatic population, confirming diagnosis or differentially discriminate benign from malignant, prediction of outcome or prognosis, and monitoring of therapy or staging of cancer applications [58].
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4.1. Breast cancer
Breast cancer is the most common malignancy among females and the first leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide; its prevalence is surprisingly increasing at a rapid rate lately [74]. Therefore, it is critical to use all available tools for early diagnosis and proper management of cases. Clinically, symptoms are mainly breast lump, nipple discharge, or skin or nipple changes. Screening guidelines by The American Cancer Society recommend that women over 40 have to perform mammography and a yearly or every other year clinical breast exam [75]. Diagnosis mainly relies on pathological examination; however, the role of CB in breast cancer is mainly helpful with prognosis, monitoring of therapy, and for follow-up. Notably, CB does not show great utility for early diagnosis [76]. Assessment of ER and progesterone receptors (PR) in tissue for newly diagnosed breast cancers has been recommended by European Society of Medical Oncology, for predicting response to hormone therapy in early and advanced breast cancer cases [63, 77, 78]. HER-2 is another prognostic marker, most useful for selecting patients with either early or metastatic breast cancer for the treatment with Trastuzumab (Herceptin) [79] or predicting resistance to tamoxifen therapy in early stage of breast cancer [63]. Determination of risk groups for the development of breast cancer, who must be included in screening program, involves the detection of genetic mutation of BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 genes, which account for up to 5% of breast cancer cases. Due to their high susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancer, it is strongly recommended that women carrying BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations undergo routine cancer screening [80]. It was reported that low levels of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) correlate with a reduced risk of recurrence of breast cancer and shown to be strong independent prognostic factors of newly diagnosed lymph node-negative breast cancers [81, 82]. Serum biomarkers are mainly applicable as monitoring markers during therapy or to less extent prognostic markers and usually assisted in post-operative surveillance, and CB included under that category include CA15.3, CEA, and BR 27-29 [83, 84]. They are used in conjugation with other tools of radiological and clinical assessments to monitor chemotherapy in advanced breast cancer cases. Elevation of serum levels of these markers may indicate recurrence or progression of the disease [85].
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4.2. Prostate cancer
Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common cancer in men and most common causes of male cancer-related deaths [74]. Strong evidences suggested that PSA test revolutionized the prostate cancer screening and diagnosis landscape, and the introduction of PSA as a screening test has led to a sharp increase in the incidence of prostate cancer because there has been a shift to diagnosis at earlier stages, consequently reducing mortality from prostate cancer [86]. Later, many studies demonstrated significant improvement sensitivity of PSA as a diagnostic marker using a PSA subtractions and isoforms [−2] (proPSA) and its percentage derivative % proPSA (percent value relative to PSA) as these fraction may help for the discrimination between benign and malignant prostatic tumors in patients with PSA values ranging from 4 to 10 μg/L [87, 88]. Other novel and promising biomarkers under investigation include human kallikrein type 2, prostate cancer antigen 3 (PSA 3), and prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) [89]. PCA3 urine assay has promising role in improving the accuracy of diagnosis in prostate cancer [90]. Elevated levels of metalloproteinase 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) members of protease family have been associated with prostate cancer diagnosis [91]. MMPs have been studied as biomarkers of therapeutic monitoring in prostate cancer [92].
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4.3. Ovarian cancer
Most of the patients with epithelial ovarian cancer are diagnosed late and they have clinically advanced stage III and IV on diagnosis; therefore, ovarian cancer needs a sensitive and specific diagnostic biomarkers [93]. CA 125 is one of the most widely and conventionally used CB. It is recommended as a screening biomarker for women who have positive family history or are high risk for the development of ovarian cancer, beside CA125 has been used in conjugation with vaginal ultrasound as a well-established, diagnostic biomarker [94]. CA125 is also been used as monitoring biomarker, being decreased after starting of chemotherapy or surgery, that correlates with favorable response basal level of CA125, two weeks before starting any therapeutic intervention then follow ups and continues monitoring of its level at regular intervals are highly recommended [95]. Other biomarkers were extensively studied in monitoring of ovarian cancer and in prediction of prognosis but further studies are needed for proper confirmation of their exact role. This panel includes kallikreins (5–9), osteopontin, Her-2/neu, tumor-associated inhibin, CEA, trypsin inhibitor, hCG, interleukin-6 (IL-6), prostasin, TPA, lysophosphatidic acid, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) [95–97].
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4.4. Colorectal cancer
CRC is ranked third among all cancers all over the world. An estimated one million new cases are diagnosed and half of a million cases died each year [1]. The most common site for colorectal carcinoma is the rectum encountering 38% of all cases followed by sigmoid accounting 29% of cases [98]. Screening program for CRC should be directed to all asymptomatic individuals above 50 years as recommended [99]. National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (NACB) recommends that all subjects 50 years or older should undergo screening for colorectal cancer. Multiple screening procedures exist [100]. Fecal occult blood test (FOBT) is the most widely used CB in stool [101]. Testing for blood in the stools involves either detecting globin fraction of blood (hemoglobin) by fecal immunochemical test or the guaiac test which measures pseudo-peroxidase activity of heme fraction of hemoglobin. CEA was characterized and introduced into clinical practice in 1965 [76]. It is widely used as universal or non-organ, non-tissue-specific tumor marker. CEA is not used in screening of CRC due to its low sensitivity and specificity, beside the low prevalence of CRC among asymptomatic population; however, it is very efficient prognostic and therapy monitoring biomarker [102]. CEA estimation is recommended at the beginning of therapy then every 1–3 months all through the therapeutic regimen, it is also the marker of choice for metastatic cases of CRC [103]. CA19-9 has been used as prognostic marker, in surveillance of CRC after surgical resection and as monitoring marker for therapeutic intervention in advanced cases [104]. Other CB under investigation are CA242 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases type 1(TIMP-1) and both may complement CEA in the surveillance of patients with colorectal cancer [105].
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5. Discovery of new biomarkers/validation/technologies (omics)
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Among hundreds of thousands of cancer biomarkers have been discovered, only few of them have been approved during the past two decades by the FDA for monitoring response, surveillance, or recurrence of cancer [106]. To be a clinically applicable and reliable biomarker, it must be of value for informing clinical decision-making to improve the patient outcome [107]. Initially, CB have to distinguish between people with cancer and those without. In fact, many biomarkers do not achieve beyond this point because the investigators are either unable to develop robust, accurate assay methods, or this biomarker lacks sufficient sensitivity and/or specificity [108]. Actually, there was very low rate (0.1%) of successful clinical translation of biomarker [109]. Developing new cancer biomarkers has been formulated in stepwise manner. About 15 years ago, Hammond and Taube proposed an approach for CB development starting from discovering the marker, developing an assay method for assessment, analyzing its clinical potential preliminarily, standardization of its assay, and finally validation of such biomarker for clinical use [110]. Structured phased model for the development evaluation, and validation of biomarkers, (shown in Table 2) has been proposed by Pepe et al. [111] and has been adopted and modified by others [112, 113]. This model was similar to another model commonly used in drug development strategy including five phases: preclinical exploratory studies, clinical assay and validation, retrospective longitudinal repository studies, prospective screening studies, and finally cancer control studies. Novel biomarkers must bypass an analytical validation step concerned mainly with testing and assay methods of the biomarker (technical aspects). After that, the biomarker has to be analyzed for its clinical validity for discriminating between groups independently. Finally, candidate biomarker must be assessed for clinical utility for providing additional input for patient management or aid to provide additional information helping in decision-making for patients in order to improve patient outcome [114].
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\n\n
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Phases
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Type of studies
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Outcome
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\n\n\n
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Phase I
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Preclinical exploration
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Promising directions are explored and potential biomarkers identified
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Phase II
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Clinical assay and validation
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Determination of the potential capacity of the biomarker to established disease
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Phase III
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Retrospective longitudinal
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Determine how well biomarkers detect preclinical disease through retrospectively testing
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Phase IV
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Prospective screening
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Identify the characteristics of the disease detected by the biomarker and determine the false positive rate
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Phase V
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Cancer control
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Quantification of the role of the biomarkers in the reduction of disease burden through Phase 5 population screening
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Table 2.
Structured phased model for the development evaluation, and validation of biomarkers modified from Pepe et al. [111] and Paradiso et al. [113].
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5.1. Challenges for discovery of novel biomarkers
Development of biomarkers for cancer screening, early detection, and monitoring of treatment has both biological and economic challenges. Most detection methods currently in use identify mostly late stage or fully developed cancer, not in the premalignant or early lesions, which are amenable to resection and cure. In spite of the fact that a screening test might detect cancer at the preclinical stage, at the same time, not applicable for follow-up so it could fail to detect micrometastasis, therefore limiting the benefit of early detection and treatment [115]. Another challenge is that in many organs, for example; prostate or colon, preneoplastic lesions are much more common than aggressive cancers [116]. This creates the question of whether any screening method should just focus on early lesions or whether it should also analyze the behavior of the tumor. Another challenge for the development of CB is the nature of the cancer as being a heterogeneous disease; it is composed of many biologically different phenotypes with different responses to intervention. The nature of its heterogeneity is found between cells of a single macroscopic cancer. This heterogeneity may complicate the development of biomarkers. Therefore, the development of biomarker by genomic and proteomic means might carefully address the heterogeneity issues [117]. Detailed and comprehensive knowledge of cancer at the cellular and molecular levels has grown dramatically and exponentially in the past two decades and has resulted in significant improvement in the characterization of human tumors which in turn has catalyzed a shift toward the development of targeted therapies, the basic concept for personalized medicine [118]. Therefore, it has been recently postulated that the emergence of highly powerful “omics” technologies, such as genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics [119]. Omics technologies may be the backbone toward the discovery of novel CB and/or panels, with distinct advantages over the currently used biomarkers. Omics have increased the number of potentially investigated biomarkers as DNA, RNA, or other protein biomolecules. The former concept of single biomarker discovery was replaced recently by multi-biomarkers discovery of panel of genes or proteins whereby, rising the query of whether the heterogeneous and multifactorial cancer may have single fingerprint.
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5.2. Genomic technologies
Genomic technologies have been used extensively for the characterization of cancers at the molecular level hence providing better comprehensive understanding of cancer and may provide scientists the basic concepts for designing drugs that could target specific molecules or the fundamental of personalized medicine [120]. Personalized medicine has been defined by The US National Cancer Institute (NCI) as “a form of medicine that uses information about a person’s genes, proteins, and environment to prevent, diagnose, and treat disease.” [50]. Genomic alterations that may be associated with cancer include gene amplification, mutation, chromosomal rearrangements, and aberrant methylation. Molecular alterations are evolved in the content or sequence of DNA, its transcriptions mRNA or microRNA, the production of proteins, or the synthesis of various metabolites. Genomic alterations can be assessed through genome sequencing technologies or microarray for gene expression [29]. Mutation screening can be assessed by sequencing technique, while assessment of DNA copy numbers could be analyzed by DNA microarrays and DNA expression profile via PCR [120]. Genomic microarrays represent a highly powerful and sensitive technique; it can predict the clinical behavior of tumors [121]. Genomics has been extensively used for biomarker discovery and identification. Human genome accounts approximately 30,000 genes, the availability of omics techniques allows researchers to move another step further, which is designing and manufacturing of a biological drug with better understanding of pharmacogenomics, thus biomarkers allow the studying of the influence of genetic variation, providing new methods for treating patients on an individual basis. The outcome of such researches is known as personalized medicine [122].
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5.3. Epigenomics
Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression that are not attributable to alterations in the sequence of DNA. Epigenetic changes include DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs. These alterations may be present ubiquitously human malignancies and may appear in early cancer development. Therefore, they provide particularly attractive markers with broad applications in diagnostics [123]. Methylated DNA (meDNA) is a various stable carrier of epigenetic information that is directly occurred in tumor formation and progression. In fact, the inherent stability of DNA is one of the major advantages of detecting methylation. Genes that are often methylated in tumors are termed tumor biomarkers because their methylation can be used to detect the disease. Utilization of meDNA markers is superior comparing to other types of tumor biomarkers for numerous reasons including: The analysis of DNA methylation can be achieved with a wide range of methods using different types of biological material such as tissue, plasma, serum, sputum, and urine, among others [124]. Methodology of DNA methylation measurement has progressed gradually through the years. Assessment techniques for epigenetic changes may include: The bisulphate conversion of DNA followed by PCR amplification allows gene-specific methylation analysis (methylation-specific PCR, i.e., MSP), which is based on using primers and probes specific to the corresponding methylated DNA sequence [125]. This technology makes the detection of hundreds of thousands of DNA methylation signals a reality. These signals can be digitized into a long string of ones and zeros, creating a digital phenotype that reflects genetic activity in a particular cell or tissue, that is, whether it is functioning normally or whether it is abnormal. Around 200 such biomarkers have been discovered through a large-scale genome-wide screening effort of all major human tumors for DNA methylation biomarkers in bio-specimen; tissue and serum [126].
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5.4. Proteomics
Proteomics-based strategy diseases identification is considered as one of the dynamic and innovative tools that could confirm, complement, or quite often supply more elaborate information beyond that obtained by other high-throughput approaches such as genomic, transcriptomics, and epigenomics. Despite genomic expression profiling is a highly reliable method for cancer classification and prognostication [127, 128]. The function of such genes and the data interpretation in the context of functional networks require their translation into active proteins and their analysis through the power of proteomics. Moreover, although studies focusing on detecting the differential expression of mRNA have been extremely informative, they do not necessarily correlate with the functional protein concentrations. Therefore, post genomic “proteomic” projects correlating protein expression profiles to cancer are essential for a complementary and comprehensive representation of cancer biology. Moreover, targeting-specific protein pathways involved in tumorigenesis present a realistic aim in cancer treatment, as proteins exert their effects through specific pathways rather than functioning individually [120]. Macromolecules, in general, and proteins, in particular, are highly dynamic molecules. Mechanistically, proteins can be subjected to extensive functional regulation by various processes such as proteolytic degradation, posttranslational modification, involvement in complex structures, and compartmentalization. Proteomics is concerned with studying the whole protein repertoire of a defined entity in a biological fluid, an organelle, a cell, a tissue, an organ, a system, or the whole organism. Therefore, in-depth studying of proteomics profiles of various bio-specimens obtained from cancer patients is expected to increase our understanding of tumor pathogenesis, monitoring, and the identification of novel targets for cancer therapy. In a simple way, proteins may be actively secreted or released by the tumor cells as a result of necrosis or apoptosis and released into the circulation [76]. This changes the protein profile. The difference in signal intensities may be detected by comparison with sera from normal individuals. Secretomics, a subfield of proteomics that studies secreted proteins and secretion pathways using proteomic approaches, has recently emerged as an important tool for the discovery of biomarkers. In what is now commonly referred to as proteogenomics, and proteomic technologies are further used for improving gene annotations. Parallel analysis of the genome and the proteome facilitates discovery of post-translational modifications and proteolytic events (comparative proteogenomics).
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5.5. Metabolomics
A cancer biomarker can be a metabolite, secreted by tumor, metabolic pathway or process, and may be employed to diagnose cancer and predict patient response towards therapies and monitor recurrence. Though proteins are the key tumor markers that can be as diverse as molecular, biochemical, physiological, or anatomical [129]. Markers can be utilized for diagnosis (to identify early stage), prognosis (assess the lethality), and prediction (of patient’s response to treatment) of cancer. The markers can be detected in body fluids (blood, urine, serum, stool, saliva), or tissues (tissue samples or biopsies of the cancer). Moreover, it has been shown recently that cancer volatile organic compounds (VOC) markers can be detected in breath [130]. However, detecting the markers is a sophisticated process and metabolomics is one of the omic technologies. Among genome, transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome, the latter is the powerful representative of the phenotype [131]. Exploring the cancer metabolome seems to be an effective way to study the phenotypic changes associated with tumor. Screening biomarkers by recruiting an array of analytical techniques has been emphasized [132]. Rather than a single metabolite, a pattern is believed to be more indicative of cancer status. Metabolomic approach makes it feasible to detect an array of metabolites in a single assay. The principal analytical tools employed for metabolome analysis are mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR).
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6. Conclusion and prospective
\n
Cancer biomarkers play an important role in the field of oncology and in clinical practice for risk assessment, screening, diagnosis integrated with other diagnostic tools and mostly for the determination of prognosis and response to treatment and/or relapse. Cancer biomarkers can also facilitate the molecular definition of cancer. It is necessary for clinicians and researchers to have a comprehensive understanding of molecular aspects, clinical utility, and reliability of biomarkers in order to determine whether and in what setting a biomarker is clinically useful for the patient care, or additional evaluation is required before integration into routine medical practice. The challenge and future prospective of biomarkers, by facilitating the combination of therapeutics with diagnostics, promise to play an important role in the development of personalized medicine.
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\n\n',keywords:"cancer, biomarkers, molecular markers, prognosis, diagnosis, proteomics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50247.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50247.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50247",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50247",totalDownloads:3857,totalViews:1405,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,totalAltmetricsMentions:7,introChapter:null,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:84,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 14th 2015",dateReviewed:"February 8th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 17th 2016",dateFinished:"April 5th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cancer biomarkers (CB) are biomolecules produced either by the tumor cells or by other cells of the body in response to the tumor. Every cell type has its unique molecular signature and identifiable characteristics such as levels or activities of myriad of genes, proteins, or other molecular features; therefore, biomarkers can facilitate the molecular definition of cancer. Our aim was providing updated knowledge and performing detailed review about CB regarding their molecular and biochemical characterization and their clinical utility in screening, diagnosis, follow-up, or therapeutic stratification for cancer patients. Focusing on conventional, the FDA approved as well as promising future biomarkers in most common cancers. In addition, emphasizing on their prospective role may be of great value in improving the management of cancer patients. The challenge and future prospective of biomarkers, by facilitating the combination of therapeutics with diagnostics, promise to play an important role in the development of personalized medicine.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50247",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50247",book:{id:"5175",slug:"role-of-biomarkers-in-medicine"},signatures:"Hala Fawzy Mohamed Kamel, and Hiba Saeed Bagader Al-Amodi",authors:[{id:"179315",title:"Dr.",name:"Hala",middleName:null,surname:"Fawzy Mohamed Kamel",fullName:"Hala Fawzy Mohamed Kamel",slug:"hala-fawzy-mohamed-kamel",email:"kamelhala@msn.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"184928",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiba",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Amodi",fullName:"Hiba Al-Amodi",slug:"hiba-al-amodi",email:"alamodi@hotmail.co.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Historical background of cancer biomarkers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Cancer development and mechanisms for the production of cancer biomarkers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Serum, biological fluid, and tissue Cancer Biomarkers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Clinical applications and performance indications of Cancer Biomarkers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1. Sensitivity and specificity for evaluation of accuracy of CB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3. Ideal biomarker",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Uses, clinical utility, and limitations of CB",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Screening/early detection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Diagnosis/differential diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3. Prognosis/prediction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4. Therapeutic monitoring/follow-up/evidence of metastasis or recurrence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Applications of CB in most common cancers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1. Breast cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2. Prostate cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.3. Ovarian cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.4. Colorectal cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. Discovery of new biomarkers/validation/technologies (omics)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.1. Challenges for discovery of novel biomarkers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.2. Genomic technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.3. Epigenomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.4. Proteomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.5. Metabolomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"6. Conclusion and prospective",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nFerlay J, Soerjomataram I, Dikshit R, Eser S, Mathers C, Rebelo M, et al. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1996;93:9821–6.\n'},{id:"B126",body:'\nBooth MJ , Branco MR, Ficz G, Oxley D, Krueger F, Reik W,. Quantitative sequencing of 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine at single-base resolution. Science 2012;336:934–7.\n'},{id:"B127",body:'\nZeidan BA , Townsend PA. SELDI-TOF proteomic profiling of breast carcinomas identifies clinicopathologically relevant groups of patients similar to previously defined clusters from cDNA expression. Breast Cancer Research: BCR 2008;10:107.\n'},{id:"B128",body:'\nCurtis C , Shah SP, Chin SF, Turashvili G, Rueda OM, Dunning MJ,. The genomic and transcriptomic architecture of 2,000 breast tumours reveals novel subgroups. Nature 2012;486:346–52.\n'},{id:"B129",body:'\nWinter PM , Caruthers SD, Kassner A, Harris TD, Chinen LK, Allen JS,. 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British Journal of Medical & Surgical Urology 2012;5:162–8.\n'},{id:"B134",body:'\nvan Nagell JR , Jr., DePriest PD, Reedy MB, Gallion HH, Ueland FR, Pavlik EJ, et al. The efficacy of transvaginal sonographic screening in asymptomatic women at risk for ovarian cancer. Gynecologic Oncology 2000;77:350–6.\n'},{id:"B135",body:'\nKoizumi F , Odagiri H, Fujimoto H, Kawamura T, Ishimori A. Clinical evaluation of four tumor markers (CEA, TPA, CA50 and CA72-4) in colorectal cancer. Rinsho Byori: The Japanese Journal of Clinical Pathology 1992;40:523–8.\n'},{id:"B136",body:'\nMatsuoka Y. Basic and clinical aspects of tumor markers–with special reference to CEA. Rinsho Byori: The Japanese Journal of Clinical Pathology 1990;38:31–4.\n'},{id:"B137",body:'\nvon Kleist S. The clinical value of the tumor markers CA 19/9 and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in colorectal carcinomas: a critical comparison. The International Journal of Biological Markers 1986;1:3–8.\n'},{id:"B138",body:'\nMolina R , Barak V, van Dalen A, Duffy MJ, Einarsson R, Gion M,. Tumor markers in breast cancer-European Group on Tumor Markers recommendations. Tumour Biology: The Journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine 2005;26:281–93.\n'},{id:"B139",body:'\nMcGuire WL , Horwitz KB, Pearson OH, Segaloff A. Current status of estrogen and progesterone receptors in breast cancer. Cancer 1977;39:2934–47.\n'},{id:"B140",body:'\nColleoni M , Viale G, Zahrieh D, Pruneri G, Gentilini O, Veronesi P,. Chemotherapy is more effective in patients with breast cancer not expressing steroid hormone receptors: a study of preoperative treatment. Clinical Cancer Research: An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research 2004;10:6622–8.\n'},{id:"B141",body:'\nPaik S , Tang G, Shak S, Kim C, Baker J, Kim W,. Gene expression and benefit of chemotherapy in women with node-negative, estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology: Official Journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 2006;24:3726–34.\n'},{id:"B142",body:'\nVaradan V , Kamalakaran S, Gilmore H, Banerjee N, Janevski A, Miskimen KL,. Brief-exposure to preoperative bevacizumab reveals a TGF-beta signature predictive of response in HER2-negative breast cancers. International Journal of Cancer Journal International du Cancer 2016;138:747–57.\n'},{id:"B143",body:'\nKurtzman JT , Wilson H, Rao CV. A proposed role for hCG in clinical obstetrics. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine 2001;19:63–8.\n'},{id:"B144",body:'\nChen L , Ho DW, Lee NP, Sun S, Lam B, Wong KF,. Enhanced detection of early hepatocellular carcinoma by serum SELDI-TOF proteomic signature combined with alpha-fetoprotein marker. Annals of Surgical Oncology 2010;17:2518–25.\n'},{id:"B145",body:'\nJohnson PJ , Williams R. 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Journal of Internal Medicine 2009;266:126–40.\n'},{id:"B149",body:'\nMazzaferri EL , Robbins RJ, Spencer CA, Braverman LE, Pacini F, Wartofsky L,. A consensus report of the role of serum thyroglobulin as a monitoring method for low-risk patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2003;88:1433–41.\n'},{id:"B150",body:'\nKibar Y , Goktas S, Kilic S, Yaman H, Onguru O, Peker AF. Prognostic value of cytology, nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP22) test, and urinary bladder cancer II (UBC II) test in early recurrent transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science 2006;36:31–8.\n'},{id:"B151",body:'\nvan Gils MP, Cornel EB, Hessels D, Peelen WP, Witjes JA, Mulders PF, et al. Molecular PCA3 diagnostics on prostatic fluid. The Prostate 2007;67:881–7.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hala Fawzy Mohamed Kamel,",address:"kamelhala@msn.com; dr.halakamel@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine Umm AL Qura University, Makkah, KSA
Medical Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine Umm AL Qura University, Makkah, KSA
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Pacheco-Moisés, Mario A. Mireles-\nRamírez, L. Javier Flores-Alvarado, Héctor González-Usigli, Angélica\nL. Sánchez-López, Lorenzo Sánchez-Romero, Irma E. Velázquez-\nBrizuela, Erika Daniela González-Renovato and Erandis Dheni\nTorres-Sánchez",authors:[{id:"26109",title:"Dr.",name:"Genaro",middleName:"Gabriel",surname:"Ortiz",fullName:"Genaro Ortiz",slug:"genaro-ortiz"},{id:"166323",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermín",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco-Moisés",fullName:"Fermín Pacheco-Moisés",slug:"fermin-pacheco-moises"},{id:"166326",title:"Dr.",name:"Irma E",middleName:null,surname:"Velázquez-Brizuela",fullName:"Irma E Velázquez-Brizuela",slug:"irma-e-velazquez-brizuela"},{id:"173290",title:"MSc.",name:"Erica Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"González-Renovato",fullName:"Erica Daniela González-Renovato",slug:"erica-daniela-gonzalez-renovato"},{id:"173292",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Angélica L.",middleName:"Lizeth",surname:"Sánchez López.",fullName:"Angélica L. Sánchez López.",slug:"angelica-l.-sanchez-lopez."},{id:"173295",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Mireles-Ramírez",fullName:"Mario Mireles-Ramírez",slug:"mario-mireles-ramirez"},{id:"173377",title:"Dr.",name:"J Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Alvarado",fullName:"J Luis Flores-Alvarado",slug:"j-luis-flores-alvarado"},{id:"178191",title:"Dr.",name:"Héctor",middleName:null,surname:"González-Usigli",fullName:"Héctor González-Usigli",slug:"hector-gonzalez-usigli"},{id:"178192",title:"BSc.",name:"Lorenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Romero",fullName:"Lorenzo Sánchez-Romero",slug:"lorenzo-sanchez-romero"}]},{id:"51096",title:"Nitroso-Redox Crosstalk in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy",slug:"nitroso-redox-crosstalk-in-diabetic-cardiomyopathy",signatures:"Daniel R González, Adriana V Treuer and Ulises Novoa",authors:[{id:"54305",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"R",surname:"Gonzalez",fullName:"Daniel Gonzalez",slug:"daniel-gonzalez"},{id:"177979",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",middleName:null,surname:"Novoa",fullName:"Ulises Novoa",slug:"ulises-novoa"},{id:"177980",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:"V.",surname:"Treuer",fullName:"Adriana Treuer",slug:"adriana-treuer"}]},{id:"51146",title:"Ubiquinone, Ezetimibe/Simvastatin and Rosuvastatin Effects on Mitochondrial Function in Diabetic Polyneuropathy",slug:"ubiquinone-ezetimibe-simvastatin-and-rosuvastatin-effects-on-mitochondrial-function-in-diabetic-poly",signatures:"Luis M. Román-Pintos, Geannyne Villegas-Rivera, Ernesto G.\nCardona-Muñoz, Adolfo D. Rodríguez-Carrizalez, Fermín P.\nPacheco-Moisés and Alejandra G. Miranda-Díaz",authors:[{id:"166323",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermín",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco-Moisés",fullName:"Fermín Pacheco-Moisés",slug:"fermin-pacheco-moises"},{id:"178033",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra Guillermina",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Diaz",fullName:"Alejandra Guillermina Miranda-Diaz",slug:"alejandra-guillermina-miranda-diaz"},{id:"184047",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Roman-Pintos",fullName:"Luis Miguel Roman-Pintos",slug:"luis-miguel-roman-pintos"},{id:"184049",title:"Dr.",name:"Geannyne",middleName:null,surname:"Villegas-Rivera",fullName:"Geannyne Villegas-Rivera",slug:"geannyne-villegas-rivera"},{id:"184050",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Carrizalez",fullName:"Adolfo Daniel Rodriguez-Carrizalez",slug:"adolfo-daniel-rodriguez-carrizalez"},{id:"184051",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto German",middleName:null,surname:"Cardona-Muñoz",fullName:"Ernesto German Cardona-Muñoz",slug:"ernesto-german-cardona-munoz"}]},{id:"52065",title:"Involvement of Free Radicals in the Development and Progression of Alzheimer’s Disease",slug:"involvement-of-free-radicals-in-the-development-and-progression-of-alzheimer-s-disease",signatures:"Martha C. Rosales Hernández, Maricarmen Hernández Rodríguez,\nJessica E. Mendieta Wejebe and José Correa Basurto",authors:[{id:"177968",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales Hernández",fullName:"Martha Cecilia Rosales Hernández",slug:"martha-cecilia-rosales-hernandez"},{id:"184168",title:"MSc.",name:"Maricarmen",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Rodriguez",fullName:"Maricarmen Hernández-Rodriguez",slug:"maricarmen-hernandez-rodriguez"},{id:"184169",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Mendieta-Wejebe",fullName:"Jessica Elena Mendieta-Wejebe",slug:"jessica-elena-mendieta-wejebe"},{id:"184170",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Basurto",fullName:"Jose Correa Basurto",slug:"jose-correa-basurto"}]},{id:"51334",title:"Free Radicals and Biomarkers Related to the Diagnosis of Cardiorenal Syndrome",slug:"free-radicals-and-biomarkers-related-to-the-diagnosis-of-cardiorenal-syndrome",signatures:"Carolina B.A. Restini, Bruna F.M. Pereira and Tufik M. Geleilete",authors:[{id:"178144",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Baraldi A. Restini",fullName:"Carolina Baraldi A. Restini",slug:"carolina-baraldi-a.-restini"},{id:"178387",title:"Ms.",name:"Bruna",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",fullName:"Bruna Pereira",slug:"bruna-pereira"},{id:"184159",title:"Dr.",name:"Tufik",middleName:null,surname:"Geleilete",fullName:"Tufik Geleilete",slug:"tufik-geleilete"}]},{id:"51914",title:"Subcellular ROS Signaling in Cardiovascular Disease",slug:"subcellular-ros-signaling-in-cardiovascular-disease",signatures:"M. Ruhul Abid and Frank W. Sellke",authors:[{id:"178147",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Ruhul",middleName:null,surname:"Abid",fullName:"Md. Ruhul Abid",slug:"md.-ruhul-abid"},{id:"178149",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Ruhul",middleName:null,surname:"Abid",fullName:"M. Ruhul Abid",slug:"m.-ruhul-abid"}]},{id:"50965",title:"Free Radicals and Neuronal Recovery from an Ischaemic Penumbra: A Review",slug:"free-radicals-and-neuronal-recovery-from-an-ischaemic-penumbra-a-review",signatures:"Cleva Villanueva, Robert D. Kross and Luis Pérez-Astudillo",authors:[{id:"178299",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleva",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva",fullName:"Cleva Villanueva",slug:"cleva-villanueva"},{id:"178301",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Kross",fullName:"Robert Kross",slug:"robert-kross"},{id:"178302",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Astudillo",fullName:"Luis Perez-Astudillo",slug:"luis-perez-astudillo"}]},{id:"51903",title:"Role of Oxygen Free Radicals in Cancer Development and Treatment",slug:"role-of-oxygen-free-radicals-in-cancer-development-and-treatment",signatures:"Jalal Pourahmad, Ahmad Salimi and Enaytollah Seydi",authors:[{id:"172672",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalal",middleName:null,surname:"Pourahmad",fullName:"Jalal Pourahmad",slug:"jalal-pourahmad"}]},{id:"50851",title:"Role of Dietary Antioxidant Agents in Chronic Kidney Disease",slug:"role-of-dietary-antioxidant-agents-in-chronic-kidney-disease",signatures:"Dianelena Eugenio‐Pérez, Liliana Yazmín Medina‐Fernández,\nJennyfer Andrea Saldivar‐Anaya, Eduardo Molina‐Jijón and José\nPedraza‐Chaverri",authors:[{id:"178060",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Pedraza-Chaverri",fullName:"José Pedraza-Chaverri",slug:"jose-pedraza-chaverri"},{id:"184010",title:"Ms.",name:"Dianelena",middleName:null,surname:"Eugenio-Pérez",fullName:"Dianelena Eugenio-Pérez",slug:"dianelena-eugenio-perez"},{id:"184012",title:"BSc.",name:"Liliana Yazmín",middleName:null,surname:"Medina-Fernández",fullName:"Liliana Yazmín Medina-Fernández",slug:"liliana-yazmin-medina-fernandez"},{id:"184013",title:"Ms.",name:"Jennyfer Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Saldivar-Anaya",fullName:"Jennyfer Andrea Saldivar-Anaya",slug:"jennyfer-andrea-saldivar-anaya"},{id:"184014",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Jijón",fullName:"Eduardo Molina-Jijón",slug:"eduardo-molina-jijon"}]},{id:"51172",title:"Novel Antioxidant Therapy Against Myocardial Ischemia– Reperfusion Injury During Percutaneous Coronary Angioplasty",slug:"novel-antioxidant-therapy-against-myocardial-ischemia-reperfusion-injury-during-percutaneous-coronar",signatures:"Pablo Parra and Ramón Rodrigo",authors:[{id:"178438",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",fullName:"Ramón Rodrigo",slug:"ramon-rodrigo"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2857",title:"Apoptosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ecedf2c21b8be33b3e6b587c5eb71fca",slug:"apoptosis",bookSignature:"Justine Rudner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138726",title:"Dr.",name:"Justine",surname:"Rudner",slug:"justine-rudner",fullName:"Justine Rudner"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5121",title:"Free Radicals and Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f5f123060d6e78a2f4bb7d37e781d92",slug:"free-radicals-and-diseases",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5121.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5175",title:"Role of Biomarkers in Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f47eae7f8443697d384b2c8e763f0c55",slug:"role-of-biomarkers-in-medicine",bookSignature:"Mu Wang and Frank A. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Micro-alloyed steel is a type of steel containing a minute amount of alloying elements (0.05–0.15%) including niobium, vanadium, titanium, molybdenum, zirconium, boron, and rare-earth metals [1]. They are mainly used to refine the grain microstructure or facilitate precipitation hardening. Micro-alloyed steel developed in the second half of twentieth century. A lot of advancements have taken place due to the development of micro-alloyed steels. Certainly, it improves the hardening, tensile strength, and other mechanical properties of steels. Micro-alloyed substituents like niobium, vanadium, titanium, etc. cause significant grain refinement by retarding recrystallization and forms precipitation of carbon-nitride by these micronutrients. Precipitation of Nb(C,N) that forms improve the microstructure and overall properties of final product. This precipitation further inhibits the recrystallization of austenite, as a result of which reduction of ferritic grains takes place after transformation of noncrystalline austenite. On the basis of this principle later, high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) was developed.
\n
\n
\n
2. Effect of alloying element on ferrite
\n
FCC has 8 and 4 octahedral and tetrahedral voids per unit cell, respectively, whereas BCC has 12 and 6, respectively. The octahedral void in FCC is bigger than the tetrahedral. Carbon occupies the octahedral void with less distortion. The octahedral void in BCC is smaller than the tetrahedral even in the case when carbon occupies octahedral void due to lesser distortion (only top atom and bottom need to be distorted) [2]. The number of voids in BCC is greater than that in FCC, whereas size of voids in BCC is significantly smaller than that in FCC. For this reason austenite have higher solubility of C than ferrite. But all the alloying elements have some sort of solubility in ferrite. It mainly depends on the amount of carbon present in the structure. Nickel, aluminum, silicon, copper, cobalt, etc. dissolve in ferrite in a large extent and play a significant role in increasing hardness and strength by solid solution hardening. Group 2 elements in Table 1 dissolve in ferrite in the absence of carbon, otherwise it forms carbide.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Alloying element
\n
Group 1 Dissolved in ferrite
\n
Group 2 Combined in carbide
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Nickel
\n
Ni
\n
\n
\n
\n
Silicon
\n
Si
\n
\n
\n
\n
Aluminum
\n
Al
\n
\n
\n
\n
Copper
\n
Cu
\n
\n
\n
\n
Manganese
\n
Mn
\n
Mn
\n
\n
\n
Chromium
\n
Cr
\n
Cr
\n
\n
\n
Tungsten
\n
W
\n
W
\n
\n
\n
Molybdenum
\n
Mo
\n
Mo
\n
\n
\n
Vanadium
\n
V
\n
V
\n
\n
\n
Titanium
\n
Ti
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Behaviors of the individual elements in annealed steels.
In Figure 1, the probable hardening effect of various elements dissolved in alpha (α) iron is shown. When silicon dissolved in alpha (α) iron, then the hardening value lies in maximum among the addition of Mn, Ni, Mo, V, W, and Cr. Among the alloyed elements, the addition of chromium causes the least hardening effect.
\n
Figure 1.
Probable hardening effect of the various elements as dissolved in alpha iron (reprinted from Ref. [3]).
\n
The dissolved element has a little hardening effect in the contribution of ferrite to the overall strength of the steel. In the case of the low-carbon chromium steels, when the structural change occurs by any process, then hardening of such steels occur. The change of structure can be done in the case of annealed steels by cooling it from higher temperature by air. In Figure 2 it is clearly understood. In Figure 2 when the low-carbon chromium-annealed steels are air-cooled, then its tensile strength rises to a high value. On the other hand, when cooled in furnace, a little change in tensile property is seen.
\n
Figure 2.
The minor effect of chromium in annealed steels compared with the powerful effect as a strengthener through its influence on structure in air-cooled steels. Probable hardening effect of the various elements as dissolved in alpha iron (reprinted from Ref. [3]).
\n
\n
\n
3. Influence of alloying elements on iron-iron carbide diagram
\n
The presence of alloying elements plays an important role in the change of critical range, position of eutectoid point, and location of the alpha and gamma fields indicated by the binary iron-iron carbon diagram. Besides, the presence of nickel and manganese lowers the critical temperature on heating, which stabilizes austenite. If the critical temperature lowers than that of the standard region, then austenite becomes stable at room temperature. Thus nickel and molybdenum stabilize austenite at room temperature, and the addition of such alloying element is used in the preparation of austenitic stainless steel.
\n
On the other hand, Mo, Cr, Si, and Ti raise the critical temperature range which contracts the austenite zone and enlarges the alpha and gamma regions as well.
\n
Austenitic stainless steel plays a great role in industrial applications by giving corrosion resistance of steels and providing well mechanical strength. It is mainly used in pressure vessels, reactors, storage tanks which are used underground, and especially in aqueous environments containing chlorides. Austenitic stainless steels are used in manufacturing pump in the oil industry that injects saltwater to expel gas and oil. For the preparation of austenitic stainless steels, Ni and Mo play an important role.
\n
From Figure 3, it is clearly shown that the addition of Ti, Mo, Si, W, and Cr raises the eutectoid temperature of steels. The rise of the eutectoid temperature of steels lowers the stability region of austenite, which ultimately stabilizes austenite at the elevated temperature. At this scenario, austenite becomes unstable at lower or room temperature. Besides, the addition of Mn and Ni lowers the eutectoid temperature which passively indicates that the stability of austenite at room temperature. As a result, Mn and Ni are the helpful alloying elements in the case of the austenitic stainless steels.
\n
Figure 3.
Eutectoid composition and eutectoid temperature as influenced by several alloying elements. Probable hardening effect of the various elements as dissolved in alpha iron (reprinted from Ref. [3]).
\n
Figure 4.
Range of austenite in chromium steels (reprinted from Ref. [6] with permission).
\n\n
Figure 5.
Annealed steel without niobium (BSE after Behara etching) with (a) Austenite grains in ferrite matrix and (b) beginning of the sigma phase (adapted from Ref. [7], p. 802).
\n
Figure 6.
Steels modified with 0.2% niobium (adapted from Ref. [7], p. 803).
\n
Chromium in particular lowers the eutectoid temperature. Thus with the addition of chromium, the austenite zone contracts as austenite is stable above the critical temperature. If the critical temperature rises up, then austenite gets stable at elevated temperature and unstable at room temperature. Thus with the addition of chromium the austenite zone contracts more and prone to the formation of austenitic stainless steel reduces. And austenitic stainless steels become unstable at room temperature.
\n
\n
\n
4. Effect of alloying element on tempering
\n
In the case of the tempering of the plain carbon steels, when the temperature is increased, then the hardness value is decreased; thus hardened steels are softened. At the same time, the hardness drops continuously. Some alloying elements play an important role in retarding the softening effect of the hardened steel at elevated temperature. When tempering is done at elevated temperature, then the steel may soften. Usually the elements that remain dissolved in ferrite, such as Ni, Si, and Mn, have very little effect in the retardation of the softening of steels at elevated temperature.
\n
The complex carbide-forming elements such as Cr, W, Mo, and V retard the softening at elevated temperature while tempering. Besides, they do not only retard the softening effect but also improve the hardness of the plain carbon steels to some aspects.
\n
\n
\n
5. Niobium-micro-alloyed steels
\n
Niobium is a soft gray ductile and transition element. The main commercial source of niobium is mineral pyrochlore. Around 80% of the niobium produced is used in automotive industry, for oil and gas pipelines, and in construction. Adding niobium to steels causes the formation of niobium carbide and niobium nitride which improve grain refinement and retardation of recrystallization. Besides, it enhances precipitation hardening which increases toughness, strength, formability, and weldability of micro-alloyed steel [4].
\n
Large-diameter pipes are used in transportation of oil and gas. It is manufactured by thermomechanical controlled processing (TMCP) [5]. Its performance can be enhanced by inducing its strength and toughness through grain refinements. Grain refinement can be done by controlling austenite parameters by the addition of niobium.
\n
In austenitic-ferritic stainless steel, usually solidification starts at 1450°C with the formation of ferrite (α) which acts as an origin to start the formation of austenite near 1300°C. σ forms at the interphase of austenite and ferrite at 600–950°C, and the toughness of the steel gets reduced.
\n
\nFigures 1–6 show the microstructural characteristics of the austenitic-ferritic stainless steel with or without niobium, after heat treatment.
\n
\nFigure 5(a) shows the heat-treated steels without niobium with elongated austenitic grains in ferrite matrix. When the annealed sample is aged at 850°C/15 min then it is observed that the beginning of sigma phase forms.
\n
When steel is modified with 0.2% niobium, then a little amount of sigma phase is observed than steel without niobium after being annealed and aged at 850°C/15 min. Besides no Laves phase is seen (Figure 7).
\n
Figure 7.
Steel modified with 0.5% niobium (adapted from Ref. [7], p. 803).
\n
When steel is modified with 0.5% niobium after being annealed and aged at 850°C/min, then the Laves phase appears as needles associated with sigma phase.
\n
In the aggressive environments, the preferential attack prone to the reduction of Cr and Mo near and alongside of the sigma phases. That is the reason for the reduction on pitting corrosion resistance in the steels.
\n
The addition of niobium in supermartensitic stainless steel after tempering at 600°C for 2 h improves the mechanical resistance properties with lower degree of sensitization. Besides, given such properties, it never compromises its elongation and pitting corrosion resistance compared to the reference steels.
\n
\n
\n
6. Titanium steels
\n
Titanium alloys are mainly used in the structural materials in the aerospace and chemical industries due to lower density, high strength, and corrosion resistance. Tensile strength/density ratios of titanium alloys are considerably greater than that of steels and Al alloys at ordinary temperature. For these reasons Ti alloys are mostly used in the aerospace industries. And for this Ti is added to the steels to improve its properties to some extent (Figure 8).
\n
Figure 8.
Comparison of (a) short-time tensile strength and (b) tensile strength/density ratio for titanium alloys, three classes of steel, and 2024-T86 aluminum alloys included for annealed alloys with less than 10% elongation or heat-treated alloys with less than 5% elongation (reprinted from Ref. [8]).
\n
When Ti is added to the steels, then it improves its high temperature properties as refractory metals [9]. The chemical behavior of Ti always limits its application at moderate to high temperature. At low temperature Ti passives to acids and minerals, but at elevated temperature, Ti oxidizes very fast. Besides, dissolution of hydrogen and nitrogen causes surface hardening.
\n
Pure Ti undergoes allotropic transformations at about 1158 K. Thus if Ti remains in steels at around 1158 K, the properties may vary, because pure Ti at 1158 K transforms from a closely packed hexagonal structure to a body-centered cubic structure. The high temperature BCC of Ti is called alpha phase. On the other hand, HCP at low temperature forms beta phase. Beta to alpha transformation happens by diffusionless martensitic transformation.
\n
Allotropic transformation temperature depends on few alloying elements. Some alloying elements raise the transformation temperature called alpha stabilizers, whereas few lower the transformation temperatures called beta stabilizers.
\n
\nFigure 9 shows that carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen are rapidly absorbed by Ti when the metal is hot. All these elements hardened and the solution hardened the alpha Ti. Al has significant solubility over alpha and beta phases. The reason to explain it is that Ti has many fold advantages on the steel acting as an alloying element.
\n
Figure 9.
Phase transformation of titanium with the weight percentage of (a) Cr and (b) Ni stabilizers (reprinted from Ref. [10]).
\n
Elements that lower the transformation temperature are of two classes. One is elements that undergo eutectoid transformations, for example, iron, Cu, N, Co, Mn, etc. And the other one is those that are isomorphous with beta phase at high temperature and from alpha + beta equilibrium phase at ordinary temperature.
\n
\nFigure 10 expresses that Mo, Ta, V, etc. have limited solubility in alpha phases.
\n
Figure 10.
Phase diagrams of titanium with selected stabilizers (reprinted from Ref. [10]).
\n
The main role of Ti in steel is grain refinement strengthening and precipitation strengthening. The smelting of Ti-micro-alloyed steel should satisfy that most of the Ti dissolves in the molten steel and precipitates in the form of carbide or carbonitride after the subsequent solidification.
\n
The affinity of Ti toward oxygen is less than that of the aluminum toward the oxygen. Besides, Ti has greater affinity than manganese toward oxygen. Thus if the molten steel during smelting is not deoxidized properly, then there is a large amount of titanium oxide.
\n
The high content of nitrogen forms titanium nitride that forms inclusions in molten steels. On the other hand, titanium oxides and nitrides will obstruct the process of continuous casting. During the refining process by pyrometallurgy of Ti-micro-alloyed steel, it is required to remove sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. But emphasis should be given on the relationship between Ti, Al, and Ti, which are refractory elements. Compared with Nb or V, in the case of Ti, it is more difficult to control Ti-micro-alloyed steels which attributes to the more type of the secondary phase and wider temperature range of the precipitate.
\n
During smelting Ti2O3 and TiN particles will precipitate in the liquid steel that improves as cast microstructure. During slab cooling process TiN and Ti4S2C2 tens to hundreds of nanometers precipitate in the solid solution plays an important role in controlling the grain growth of austenite during soaking and recrystallization process (Figure 11).
\n
Figure 11.
Ti-bearing precipitation (adapted from Ref. [11]).
\n
During rolling TiC precipitation of TiC with the size below 10mm could result in the significantly precipitation hardening.
\n
As a kind of micro-alloying element, Ti significantly improves the comprehensive properties of steel. However, when compared with niobium and vanadium micro-alloyed technology, Ti has not been used extensively in industry for a long time. Ti-micro-alloyed steel fluctuates largely and production process is not stable. Ti is very reactive and forms TiO and TiS that are very harmful. Formation of these phases consumes a portion of Ti that reduces the volume fraction of TiC precipitation at low temperature but also significantly changes the chemical free energy of TiC. Precipitation behavior of TiC changes and strengthening effect is greatly affected. Besides, TiC is sensitive to temperature and affects the properties of steel.
\n
Besides, high-strength Ti-micro-alloyed steels are the precipitation-hardened ferritic steels. The ferrite grain refinement and TiC precipitation have a good combination in strengthening that plays an important role in obtaining both high strength and high toughness simultaneously for those steels. The ferrite grain refinement depends on the refinement of austenite grain size and on the control of transformation temperature. The refinement of austenite grain size mainly depends on the control of the austenite grain growth before hot rolling and recrystallized austenite grains during hot rolling.
\n
\n
\n
7. Nickel steels
\n
Nickel is the oldest and one of the fundamental alloying elements. It has unlimited solubility in gamma iron and is highly soluble in ferrite. As a result it gives high strength and toughness. Ni lowers the critical temperature of steels and retards the decomposition of austenite. As a result at low temperature or room temperature, austenite gets stable.
\n
Ni does not form carbide. Besides, it reduces the carbon content of the eutectoid. As a result of which there is high percentage of pearlite forms compared to the equal composition plain carbon steels. Pearlite forms at the lower temperature thus become finer and tougher than the pearlite in unalloyed steels.
\n
\n
\n
8. Chromium steels
\n
Chromium is less expensive than Ni. Chromium is a carbide former and forms (Cr7C3, Cr4C) or complex carbide [(FeCr)3C]. This carbide has high hardness and wear resistance. It has 13% solubility in austenite and unlimited solubility in ferrite. In alloying steels, chromium containing more than 5% improves the corrosion resistance and high temperature properties.
\n
\n
\n
9. Manganese steels
\n
Manganese is less expensive and mostly acts as deoxidizers. The presence of manganese in alloy steel reduces the prone to the hot shortness. As a result of which, the alloy steel containing manganese can perform the hot work.
\n
Besides, the absence of manganese in the steel may form FeS. FeS has low melting temperature. Ehen the steel sample is how rolled then due to the low melting temperature of the FeS it melted first. Thus the few places in steels containing FeS become slippery, and thus the hot-rolled samples may slip during rolling.
\n
Mn and Ni both reduce the critical temperature and lowers the amount of carbon in eutectoid. Alloying steels containing more than 10% Mn become austenitic after slow cooling.
\n
Hadfield Mn steel is a special type of steel (12% Mn) and has great abrasion resistance. If it is slow-cooled from 1750F, then a large brittle carbide forms surrounding the austenite grain. Ultimately forms the structure with low strength and ductility.
\n
\n
\n
10. Molybdenum steels
\n
Molybdenum is a little expensive alloying element. It has limited solubility in austenite and ferrite. As a result of which, it is a strong carbide former. Molybdenum is used in combination with Ni or Cr or both. Plain molybdenum steel is carburized to improve wear resistance.
\n
A lot of research has been done in the case of interphase precipitation. In matter molybdenum plays significant roles. Four steels were manufactured with identical composition, and Ti, V, Mo, and N content is added to investigate the effect of composition on interphase precipitation. Alloys were rapidly cooled from the single austenite phase field and isothermally transformed at 630°C and 650°C for 90 min. When Mo is added, then there is a significant reduction in the austenite to ferrite transformation kinetics, particularly in the case of V steels. Interphase precipitation was observed in all alloys at both transformation temperatures. In the case of the Ti-bearing steel, two types of precipitate were observed, namely, TiC (finer) and Ti2C (coarser), while for the V-bearing steels, VC (finer) and V4C3 (coarser) were observed. Where Mo was present in the alloy, it was found dissolved in all carbide types. The (Ti,Mo)C and (V,Mo)C were formed by classical planer interphase precipitation (PIP), while the (Ti,Mo)2C and (V,Mo)4C3, which had a much wider row spacing, were formed through curved interphase precipitation (CIP). Each adopted one variant of the Baker-Nutting orientation relationship. The Ti-micro-alloyed steels undergo the smallest precipitates of all the steels, which were approximately the same size irrespective of whether Mo was present in the alloy and irrespective of the transformation temperature. However, the addition of Mo to the V-bearing steels causes significant increase in precipitate volume fraction and a reduction in precipitate size.
\n
\n
\n
11. Tungsten steels
\n
Tungsten is mainly popular for providing high temperature properties and hardenability. It is mainly a carbide former. Approximately 2–3% W is equivalent to 1% Mo. Tungsten is mainly used in the tools industry (Table 2).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Nb micro-alloyed steels
\n
Ti micro-alloyed steels
\n
Ni micro-alloyed steels
\n
Cr micro-alloyed steels
\n
Mn micro-alloyed steels
\n
Mo micro-alloyed steels
\n
W micro-alloyed steels
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Addition of Nb in steels causes formation of niobium carbide and niobium nitride which improves grain refinement, and retardation of recrystallization ultimately increases toughness, strength, formability, and weldability
\n
Addition of Ti in steels passives to acids and minerals at low temperature and improves high temperature properties
\n
Ni lowers the critical temperature of steels and retards the decomposition of austenite. As a result at low temperature or room temperature, austenite gets stable
\n
In the alloying steels, chromium containing more than 5% improves the corrosion resistance and high temperature properties
\n
The presence of manganese in the alloy steel reduces the prone to the hot shortness
\n
Molybdenum is used in combination with Ni or Cr or both. Plain molybdenum steel is carburized to improve wear resistance
\n
Tungsten is mainly popular for providing high temperature properties and hardenability of steels
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Basic comparison of different types of micro-alloyed steels.
\n
For achieving high strength and toughness, fine grain structure is essential in steels. To produce such microstructure, a carefully controlled high temperature processing of steels must be done. Hot working alone cannot refine the coarse or nonuniform grain. For example, grain coarsening behavior of laboratory heats of C-Si-Mn base steels varies with the concentration of Al, V, Ti, or Nb micro-alloy addition. Thus, steels containing the very insoluble TiN coarsen at much higher temperatures than steels containing the more soluble VCN.
\n
The main strengthening mechanisms of micro-alloyed steels are grain refinement and precipitation [12]. It can be done by high temperature-controlled process and by adding proper alloying elements. Nowadays an economical alternative of the traditional quenched and tempered steels is micro-alloyed steels.
\n
\n
\n
12. Conclusion
\n
Strengthening mechanism can be done by precipitation forming and grain refining. Micro-alloy element hinders grain growth that causes grain refinement [13]. Precipitates forming on ferrite or austenite cause improvement of hardening or strengthening of steel. Phase transformation in some cases also causes strengthening of steels. In phase transformation, different micro-alloying elements appear to contribute considerably. Strengthening of steels can be done by different heat treatment techniques as well in addition to alloying. Besides, the most economical alternative way of improving the mechanical properties of steel is adding smaller amounts of some special elements.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"austenite grain size, mechanical properties, ferrite, microstructure, precipitation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72244.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72244.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72244",totalDownloads:848,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2019",dateReviewed:"February 3rd 2020",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2020",datePublished:"June 24th 2020",dateFinished:"May 20th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Phase transformation in crystalline solid is an important factor that designs the microstructure and plays a great role in alloy development. Iron has an allotropic form, and this unique metallurgical property leads to phase transformation. Addition of micro-alloying elements enhances the phase transformation scenarios in steels. Phase transformation due to the addition of micro-alloying elements, together with exceptional precipitation hardening capabilities, substantially improves mechanical properties of steels of different grades. Ferrite transforming to other phases reduces the hardenability of steels. Micro-addition of elements forms precipitation in ferrite and austenite, which controls the microstructure and hence the mechanical properties of steels. Besides, interactions between different deformation sequences used in the production of steel and addition of elements as solute or precipitates regulate the microstructure. Ferrite grain refinement depends on the refinement of austenite grain size in one case, and austenite grain size growth can be varied by addition of various elements. Thus, a variety of elements influences phase transformation that leads to significantly modified properties.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72244",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72244",signatures:"Fahim Khan and Hossain M. M. A. Rashed",book:{id:"9393",type:"book",title:"Engineering Steels and High Entropy-Alloys",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Steels and High Entropy-Alloys",slug:"engineering-steels-and-high-entropy-alloys",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",bookSignature:"Ashutosh Sharma, Zoia Duriagina, Sanjeev Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9393.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-948-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-947-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-556-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"305818",title:"Mr.",name:"Fahim",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Fahim Khan",slug:"fahim-khan",email:"fahimkhanprionto@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Texas A&M University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"316380",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossain M.M.A",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Hossain M.M.A Rashed",slug:"hossain-m.m.a-rashed",email:"hrashed@mme.buet.ac.bd",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Effect of alloying element on ferrite",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Influence of alloying elements on iron-iron carbide diagram",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Effect of alloying element on tempering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Niobium-micro-alloyed steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Titanium steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Nickel steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Chromium steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Manganese steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Molybdenum steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Tungsten steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"12. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nAbbaschian R, Abbaschian L, Reed-Hill RE. Physical Metallurgy Principles. 4th ed. Stamford: Cengage Learning; 1994\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nAvner SH. Introduction to Physical Metallurgy. New York: MAcGraw-Hill Book Company; 1974\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nBain EC, Paxoton HW. Alloying Element in Steel. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals; 1961\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nOliveira M, Calderon–Harnandez J, Magnabosco R, Hincapie D, Alonso–Falleiros N. Effect of niobium on phase transformations, mechanical properties and corrosion of supermartensitic stainless steel. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance. 2016;26. DOI: 10.1007/s11665-017-2610-1\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nJavaheri V. Effect of Niobium and Phase Transformation Temperature on the Microstructure and Texture of a Novel 0.40% C Thermomechanically Processed Steel. Finland: Elsevier; 2018. pp. 295-308\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nDavis Joseph R. Metals Handbook Desk. 2nd ed. ASM International. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-87170-654-6\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nFilho AI, Silva RV, da Silva Cardoso W, Casteletti LC, et al. Effect of niobium in the phase transformation and corrosion resistance of one austenitic-ferritic stainless steel. Materials Research. 2013;17(4):801-806. DOI: 10.1590/1516-1439.190113\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nASM Handbook. Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials. Vol. 2. ASM International. 1990\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nMao X. Titanium Microalloyed Steel: Fundamentals, Technology, and Products. Beijing, China: Metallurgical Industry Press; 2019\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nMassalski TB. Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Ohio, USA: ASM International Materials Park; December 1990\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nYong Q. Physical Metallurgical Principles of Titanium Microalloyed Steel—Dissolution and Precipitation of Titanium-Bearing Secondary Phases. China: Springer; pp. 71-139\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nLeslie WC, Rickett RL, Dotson CL, Walton CS. Influence of Al content on the corrosion resistance of micro-alloyed hot rolled steel as a function of grain size. Transactions of the American Society of Metals. 1954;46:1470\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nJoseph RD. Metals Handbook Desk Edition. 2nd ed. ASM International. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-87170-654-6\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Fahim Khan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hossain M. M. A. Rashed",address:"hrashed@mme.buet.ac.bd",affiliation:'
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\\n
\\n\\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\\n
\\n\\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,700 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\n
\n\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\n
\n\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
\n
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S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman"}]},{id:"62247",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77315",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:7645,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"Fresh water accounts for 3% of water resources on the Earth. Human and industrial activities produce and discharge wastes containing heavy metals into the water resources making them unavailable and threatening human health and the ecosystem. Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16966,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10165,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21554,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14203,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7575,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2953,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"82808",title:"Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on the Ecosystem of the Transgressive Mud Coastal Region of Bight of Benin, Nigeria",slug:"climate-change-and-anthropogenic-impacts-on-the-ecosystem-of-the-transgressive-mud-coastal-region-of",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105760",abstract:"The transgressive mud coastal area of Bight of Benin is a muddy coastal complex that lies east of the Barrier/lagoon coast and stretches to the Benin River in the northwestern flank of the Niger Delta Nigeria. It constitutes a fragile buffer zone between the tranquil waters of the swamps and the menacing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive breaching of this narrow coastal plain results in massive incursion of the sea into the inland swamps with serious implications for national security and the economy. Climate change impacts from the results of meteorological information of the regions shows a gradual degradation in the past 30 years. Temperature, rainfall and humidity increase annually depict climate change, resulting from uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources is rapidly pushing the region towards ecological disasters. The ecosystem is very unique being the only transgressive mud coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea. The chapter describes the geomorphology, tidal hydrology, relief/drainage, topography, climate/meteorology, vegetation, economic characteristics, anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the ecosystem.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Patrick O. Ayeku"},{id:"82697",title:"Analyzing the Evolution of Land-Use Changes Related to Vegetation, in the Galicia Region, Spain: From 1990 to 2018",slug:"analyzing-the-evolution-of-land-use-changes-related-to-vegetation-in-the-galicia-region-spain-from-1",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106015",abstract:"Considering the complex dynamics, patterns, and particularities that the Galicia region present—e.g., the fragility, shown to achieve sustainable development and growth—a study that analyzes the Land-Use related to the vegetation of this region is seen as pivotal to identifying barriers and opportunities for long-term sustainable development. Using GIS (Geographic Information Systems), the present chapter enables us to identify the dynamics and patterns of the evolution of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region from 1990 to 2018 (years 1990, 2000, 2012, and 2018 using CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) data). This study permits us to reinforce that the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region have undergone multiple changes—marked by increasing and decreasing periods. Also, can be considered a surveying baseline for the comparative analysis of similar works for different Land-Use Changes related to vegetation trends in Europe or worldwide. Land-Use Changes related to vegetation studies are reliable tools to evaluate the human activities and footprint of proposed strategies and policies in a territory. This chapter also enables us to understand that the main actors should design development policies to protect, preserve and conserve these incomparable landscapes, environments, ecosystems, and the region as a whole.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Sérgio Lousada and José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:77},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82817",title:"Perspective Chapter: Microfluidic Technologies for On-Site Detection and Quantification of Infectious Diseases - The Experience with SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105950",signatures:"Andres Escobar and Chang-qing Xu",slug:"perspective-chapter-microfluidic-technologies-for-on-site-detection-and-quantification-of-infectious",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12215",title:"Cell Death and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12215.jpg",hash:"dfd456a29478fccf4ebd3294137eb1e3",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 29th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82991",title:"Diseases of the Canine Prostate Gland",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105835",signatures:"Sabine Schäfer-Somi",slug:"diseases-of-the-canine-prostate-gland",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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