Fourteen species new to science described from Aguascalientes, México.
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His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48540",title:"Ultrastructural and Morphological Description of the Three Major Groups of Freshwater Zooplankton (Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda) from the State of Aguascalientes, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/60659",slug:"ultrastructural-and-morphological-description-of-the-three-major-groups-of-freshwater-zooplankton-ro",body:'Electronic microscopy (EM) has different elements for its applications; all of them have produced important contributions to the different branches of science. While transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has produced an enormous advance in the study of the different cellular components as well as their function, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has helped in the recognition of surfaces of cells, tissues, and structures, developing a new way of more detailed study [1].
In the case of limnology, the use of SEM has been of great importance for taxonomists as a tool that allows for a more detailed study of the different planktonic organisms that are mainly microscopic, and thus optical microscopy might not allow for a clear distinction of structures of taxonomical importance. In the other hand, nuclear ultrastructure in animals, plants, fungi, and Protoctista was studied by TEM to consider variations of RNP particles that may be related to the initial evolution of posttranscriptional processing [2].
In the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico, with the help of SEM, the ultrastructural study of the taxonomic groups Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda has led to the discovery of species new to science, as well as the observation of new structures previously unnoticed. Fourteen new species of these three taxonomic groups were described in Aguascalientes (Table 1). In spite of the discoveries obtained so far, there are still many water reservoirs that have not been analyzed before which opens the probability of increasing the number of new species records for the State or even species new to science.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSpecies new to science from Aguascalientes, México\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t\tRotifera\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tCladocera\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tCopepoda\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tBrachionus araceliae\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAlona aguascalentensis\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAcantocyclops caesariatus\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tB. josefinae\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tA. anamariae\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tA. dodsoni\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tKeratella mexicana\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tKarualona penuelasi\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tA. marceloi\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tMacrothrix agsensis\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tParacyclops hirsutus\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tM. mexicanus\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tM. sierrafriatensis\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tM. smirnovi\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Fourteen species new to science described from Aguascalientes, México.
To prepare any organism for SEM is an art. To calculate the concentrations of each substance to apply, to measure the exposure time for each substance on the desired organism, and to know the order in which to proceed through this methodology is an alchemic process. For rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods, we have used methodologies previously designed. However, each organism requires slight adequations in this methodology to obtain better results for its observation. In these cases, we have used the next two methodologies.
Specimens were fixed in 4 % formaldehyde, dehydrated in graded series of ethanol, taken to critical point, mounted in an aluminum stub (1 cm high and 1.2 cm in diameter) and covered with gold. To study the trophi in rotifers, organisms of every species were prepared according to the protocol of [3] with slight modifications. Briefly, this protocol consisted of isolating ten females of rotifers in a Petri dish and then adding a drop of sodium hypochlorite and waiting until the lorica was dissolved. Then the females were washed three times with distilled water and mounted in a SEM cylinder. The specimens were observed in a JEOL 5900 LV scanning electronic microscope.
We cultured rotifers until we obtained 500 males. They were fixed in 2 % glutaraldehyde (GTA) and 4 % paraformaldehyde (PFA) with 0.16 M phosphate buffer (PBS). Then, they were post-fixated with 1 % osmium tetroxide (OsO4). Later, the males were embedded in epoxy resin (EPON) and observed in a JEOL 1010 transmission microscope operated at 80 kv.
Rotifers are a primary group of small invertebrates ranging from 53 µm to 2 mm that play an important role in freshwater ecosystems; they can also colonize marine and terrestrial ecosystems; they can even be found in plants (Bromeliaceae), mosses, and lichens [4]. They are recognized by three main characteristics: 1) the corona, which is a complex of cilia in the anterior part of the organism and allows the production of water currents that help the animal to capture food; 2) the trophi which is the chewing apparatus made of chitin [5], and its function is to grind food that has been captured; and 3) the foot which is found in the posterior part of the organism and its function is to secrete a sticky substance which allows the animal to adhere to a substratum. However, in some species, the foot can be absent, as in the case of the species of the genus Asplanchna.
This phylum is composed of three main classes: The Monogononta with 1,570 species, the Bdelloidea with 461 species, and the Seisonidae with a few marine species [6]. In Mexico, 300 species have been reported [7, 8], and for the state of Aguascalientes, there are 96 species belonging to 33 different genera (Biodiversidad de Aguascalientes 2009). In the state of Aguascalientes, the taxonomic studies so far has focused in the class Monogononta, specifically in the genera Brachionus and Keratella. These genera are very common and well represented in the state of Aguascalientes as well as worldwide; in both genera, cryptic species or species complexes have been described. Therefore, ultrastructural analysis represents an important tool to elucidate the relationship among species of these two genera. The emphasis in the use of Monogononta is related to the ease in its manipulation for ultrastructural analysis compared with Bdelloidea, where only a few specialists worldwide are able to correctly identify them. However, there are many other genera of rotifers that might be worth to study and to detail ultrastructural differences among cryptic species. That might be the case of the numerous genus Lecane.
Rotifers are divided into loricated and illoricated, which means that the loricated rotifers possess a cover or carapace that protects them, while in the illoricated ones, the tegument is exposed to the medium. Due to this, the identification of rotifers is performed in two different ways:
For the study of illoricated organisms which is the case of the class Bdelloidea or the genus Asplanchna, it is necessary to locate the trophi (Figure 1) as it is the best structure to aid in the identification. However, we must record all the characteristics like body shape and count the number of ovaries, vitellarium, and other features in a live uncontracted animal previous to the fixation of the specimen.
Several characteristics used for rotifer identification. The corona and anterior spines of Brachionus (A), anterior spines of Keratella (B), corona of Hexarthra (C), ramate trophi of a Bdelloid (D), malleate trophi of Lecane (E), malleate trophi of Keratella (F); malleoramate trophi of Filinia (G), incudate trophi of Asplanchna (H), malleate trophi of Brachionus (I), the loricated rotifer Lepadella with arrow showing pseudosegments of the foot (J), the illoricated rotifer Hexarthra showing the arms and setae needed for identification (K), and the loricated rotifer Keratella with arrows pointing to the facets of the lorica and anterior and posterior spines needed for identification (L).
For the loricated rotifers, it is necessary to fix them in 4 % formaldehyde. Identification is commonly based on the number and position of the spines as in the genus Brachionus; on the shape of the dorsal and ventral valves of the lorica, the different folds, and the shape and structure of the foot and the presence or absence of claws as in the genus Lecane; and on the structure and number of the facets of the lorica and the number and disposition of spines in the genus Keratella (Figure 1).
However, for a complete analysis in certain species, it is necessary to observe the male and the ornamentation of the cysts; and in cryptic species (like the Brachionus calyciflorus, Brachionus plicatilis, and Keratella cochlearis species complexes), a genetic analysis of coxI sequences [10] or data on cross-mating behavior tests [11] is necessary.
The variations in the taxonomic characteristics, as well as the peculiar way in which mating behavior occurs in the different genera, have aroused great interest about the knowledge of sexual reproductive behavior in rotifers. Usually class Monogononta reproduces mostly via parthenogenesis, but during environmental conditions that still remain controversial, males appear in the environment and sexual reproduction takes place (Figure 2). However, the class Bdelloidea lacks sex completely [12].
Monogononta life cycle: When the female produces an amictic egg, then an amictic (parthenogenetic) female is born and this asexual reproduction goes on until some environmental factors trigger sexual reproduction. However, when a mictic (sexual) female is born, it produces a mictic egg that can be fertilized to produce a resting egg (cyst), or if the egg is not fertilized, this unfertilized mictic egg produces a male. The presence of males in the environment allows cross-mating that results in production of sexual eggs or cysts (that are still known as resting eggs). Cysts represent a strategy to overcome harsh environmental conditions.
The study of sexual reproductive behavior of rotifers has helped taxonomy to clarify the position of some species thought to be cryptic as is the case of B. araceliae which some authors suggested that it might belong to B. bidentatus [13]. However, it was recognized as a new species after cultivation in the laboratory for several generations showed that it was not a morphotype of B. bidentatus, but rather a new species [14]. Later, significant differences between the male of both species were noted [15].
Similar studies on cross-mating tests of species within the same family but belonging to different genera have been reported [11]. Unusual sexual reproductive behaviors and the peculiar life of male rotifers led to the study of the two types of sexual cells present in males (spermatozoa and rods) (Figure 3).
Cavity of the cilia in the male of B. bidentatus surrounded by cytoplasmatic material produced by rods (A) and (B), spermatozoon (C), different views of transversal cuts of spermatozoa (D), rod segregating cytoplasmatic material (E), and transversal cut of a rod (F).
It has been observed that these two cells are intimately related with the fertilization process. Some photographs have evidenced that the cytoplasmic substance that secretes the rods adheres to the necks of the spermatozoa. These results are still not clear, but apparently the chamber in which the spermatozoa are found is surrounded by rods waiting for the spermatozoa to appear. According to [16], rods assist in the sperm delivery during fecundation and are the first element that is introduced in the female. We are working to determine the role of rods in the reproductive mechanism of rotifers using ultrastructural studies. However, we do not have a very conclusive result yet, but it would be an important contribution to the knowledge of sexual reproductive embryology for invertebrates.
Three new species of rotifers recorded in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Brachionus araceliae dorsal view A, ventral view B, anterior spines C, posterior wing D, trophi dorsal view E, ventral view F [14]); B. josefinae ventral view G, foot H, dorsal spines I, ventral spines J, trophi dorsal view K, ventral view L [18, 19]; Keratella mexicana dorsal view M, ventral view N, plaque O, trophi dorsal view P, and ventral view Q [20, 21].
The study of morphology and ultrastructure of rotifers along with studies of sexual reproductive behavior has led to the description of males new to science as in Platyias quadricornis [17] and more importantly, to the description of three species new to science. That is the case of Brachionus araceliae [14], Brachionus josefinae [18, 19], and Keratella mexicana [20, 21] (Figure 4).
Several characteristics important for cladoceran identification. The first pair of antennas (A); cephalic pores (B); caudal ornamentation of carapace (C); second pair of antennas and shape of carapace (D); postabdomen, endclaw, basal spine, and lateral fasciculla of setae (E); and dorsal keel (F).
Cladocerans are small-size crustaceans ranging from 0.2 to 18.0 mm in length. Most species are characterized for having a carapace that covers the entire body except for the head [22]. A clearer and more general description of cladocerans is achieved by taking the water flea (genus Daphnia) as a model: an organism of this genus has a body not clearly segmented; it has a head and trunk, but the latest one is covered by the carapace in the anterior part. The first part of antennas is small and the second part is big and visible; in the head, there is a compound eye. Cladocerans have 5 to 6 pairs of swimming appendages; the postabdomen is quite characteristic of these crustaceans; in the dorsal part, there is an incubation chamber where eggs are deposited.
There are 600 species of cladocerans worldwide [23]. In Mexico, some authors have estimated 150 species [24], and for the state of Aguascalientes, there are 45 species recorded which are distributed in six families [9]. Cladocerans can be found in lakes, ponds, small rivers, and streams, among others. However, some genera are found in musks, lichens, soil, and saline reservoirs.
Typical swimming appendages of a cladoceran. First pair (A), second pair (B), third pair (C), fourth pair (D), fifth pair (E), and sixth pair (F). Scale bar equals 100 µm.
The basic characteristics used for cladoceran identification are a) head with or without a compound eye, b) ocellus, c) cephalic pores, d) the first and second pair of antennas, e) shape and ornamentation of the carapace, f) postabdomen including the endclaw and a number of natatory setae, and g) the five or six pairs of swimming appendages. There are some extra characteristics that might be important tools to help with species identification, but sometimes to observe these peculiar features, it is necessary to dissect the organism. These peculiar features are many times crucial to achieve the species level. Such are the cases of a) the cephalic pores of Alona anamariae (Figure 5B), b) the absent or very rudimentary eyes of the genus Spinoalona [25], and c) the keel in the dorsal part of the carapace of Macrothrix mexicanus (Figure 5 F), just to mention a few cases. However, it is always necessary to support the identification with the analysis of all structures including the five or six swimming appendages (see Figure 6).
Nearly 500 water reservoirs have been examined in the state of Aguascalientes, mainly to determine the biodiversity of zooplanktonic groups with special emphasis in rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods. The study of cladocerans in the state of Aguascalientes has led to the discovery of seven species new to science. The genus Macrothrix is especially well represented with four species new to science: Macrothrix agsensis [26], M. mexicanus [27], M. sierrafriatensis [28], and M. smirnovi [29] (Figure 7A, D, E, F, & G). The genus Alona contributed with two species new to science: Alona aguascalentensis (Figure 7C) and\n\t\t\t\t\tA. anamariae [30] (Figure 7B). The genus Karualona contributed with one species: K. penuelasi [13] (Figure 7C), which is truly endemic and only found in a small part of the state. Besides the description of new species, these studies have provided information about the distribution, endemism, and morphological variation of the different morphotypes that a particular species might show. These ultrastructure studies with SEM and TEM have strengthened the identification of certain taxa and provided criteria that can be used in the future to resolve taxonomic disputes within the Cladocera group.
Copepods have several characteristics by which they can be recognized from other invertebrates. They have a cylindrical shape and a segmented body. In the anterior part, there is a pair of antennules and in the ventral part of the body, there are five pairs of swimming appendages; in the posterior part of the body, there is an abdomen or urosome containing caudal branches. These organisms are very diverse, and there are more than 11,500 species worldwide [31]. In Mexico, 100 species have been described in epicontinental waters from the three main orders: Cyclopoidea, Calanoidea, and Harpaticoidea [24]. In the state of Aguascalientes, 47 species have been recorded; however, only the orders Calanoidea and Cyclopoida have been studied (Dodson & Silva Briano 1996; [33]; CONABIO-IMAE-UAA, 2008; [35]. Copepods are located in oceans, lakes, and ponds, but they have also been found in musks, lichens, dry leaves, and bromeliads [39]; a few species have been recognized as parasites [22]. In Mexico, the species of Calanoidea and in a lesser proportion Cyclopoida have shown high endemic rates [36]. Therefore, ultrastructural studies can be important to describe new species, separate cryptic species within a species complex, and elucidate restricted distribution patterns.
Seven species new to science of cladocerans found in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Macrothrix agsensis (A) [26], Alona anamariae (B) [30], Karualona penuelasi (C) [13], M. smirnovi (D) [29], Macrothrix mexicanus (E) [27], A. aguascalentensis (F) [30], and M. sierrafriatensis (G) [28].
Identifying a copepod requires closed examination of the fifth swimming appendages of the female for cyclopoids and of the male for calanoids. For harpacticoids, it is required to closely examine the maxillipeda for the initial identification. However, the fifth pair of swimming appendages and the maxillipeda are just two of the many features that have to be analyzed. For the populations of calanoids and cyclopoids, we require to analyze a) the first two pairs of antennas, b) the buccal apparatus (mandible, maxilula, maxillae, and the maxillipeda), and c) the urosome (Figure 8). For calanoids, it is necessary to observe the growth in some appendages in the last segments of the thorax. Other morphological variations that might be important for taxonomic identification include a) pores in the swimming appendages, b) different patterns of setae, and c) modifications in the second pair of antennas in some parasite copepods.
Habitus with arrows pointing to the second pair of antennas, a pair of swimming appendages, and urosome (A), caudal part of the urosome (B), segment of the second pair of antennas (C), the first and second pair of antennas (D), caudal part of the urosome (E), fifth pair of swimming appendages (F), and urosome showing the sixth pair of swimming appendages (G).
The study of copepods in the state of Aguascalientes has been less intense than that of cladocerans and rotifers. This is because the state lacks an established researcher with a permanent position in the main academic and research facilities, a condition that exists for the other two taxonomic groups. In spite of that, four species new to science have been found in Aguascalientes. That is the case of Acanthocyclops dodsoni [33] (Figure 9), A. marceloi [38] (Figure 9), A. caesariatus [37] (Figure 9), and Paracyclops hirsutus [38].
Three new species of copepod recorded in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Acanthocyclops dodsoni, dorsal view (A); caudal rami, dorsal view (B); fifth pedigerous and genital doble-somites, ventral view (C) (Mercado- Salas et al. 2006); A. marceloi, dorsal view (D); fifth pedigerous, ventral view (E), and urosome, ventral view (F) [37]; A. cesariatus, dorsal view (G); fifth pedigerous, ventral view (H); and urosome, ventral view (I) [38]. Scale bar: A, C=250 µm; G=200 µm; B, D, F, H=100 µm; I=50 µm; and E=10 µm.
The primary goal of the taxonomical study of rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods is to know the morphology and to carry on an inventory of all species located in a particular geographic area. The second goal is achieved once species are compared regarding morphological similarities and differences which allows for a better system to identify and classify them correctly. However, all these comparisons at the end allow clarification of questions related to evolution and adaptation when we combine ultrastructural morphological, physiological, and genetic studies.
The observation of small modifications among species of these three taxonomic groups only evidences the specificity that exists between the external environment and the internal function of the organism. The perfect design of each species defines the specific niche of each species in an ecosystem. Each slight modification like apparition of small setae in the fifth leg of a copepod, the changes in the structure of a trophi in rotifers, or the presence of a slightly more elongated endclaw in cladocerans is of the greatest importance since such tiny change can be the difference between a species able to perpetuate itself and the others that go extinct. These observations only corroborate the philosophy started by Darwin in his famous book On the Origin of the Species. With this philosophy in mind, then we can estimate the socioeconomic importance that each species implies. The precise knowledge of the species distribution, the kind of ecosystems and niches where we found each species, and the way in which each species interact are a necessity to the economical and sustainable use of each species. For example, if one wishes to use copepods as food for fishes, it would be convenient to know which species grow easily in the region. This knowledge would help to curve maintenance costs and to attain a maximal production of the cultured organisms, in the meantime avoiding producing an ecological misbalance. Another clear example is the use of the cladoceran Daphnia magna as model organism for acute toxicological test according to the Mexican Norm NMX-AA087-SCFI-2010, in which sometimes we exposed neonates of this organism in situ to determine the survival rate. However, this species is native of Europe and it is adapted to reservoirs with conditions quite different to the Europeans (like Mexico). The use of nonnative species to evaluate the health of Mexican ecosystems only introduces a bias into the experimental results. If instead we are able to identify and culture native species for each region and use it as a model organisms, we would obtain high-quality results and be more prepared to preserve the environmental health of our reservoirs.
Some other questions of even greater transcendence, as well as improvement in experimental and industrial designs, are the results of basic research as it is the case of the taxonomy aided by ultrastructural studies.
We are thankful to M. Sc. Reyna Lara Martinez who helped us in the management of the TEM JEOL 1010 at the Faculty of Sciences of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Nowadays, lots of software have been developed based on components because of reusability and composability which can make development and maintenance easier. The component-based approach has some advantages that the cost and time required for maintenance and development can be reduced through the combination of components and the property of encapsulation. In particular, the robot software platforms such as OPRoS [1, 2, 3], openRTM [4, 5], and OROCOS [6], which are examples of component-based systems, have been using components of dynamic libraries, such as .dll and .so, in order for components to be able to be developed and maintained with ease. Despite these advantages, there are some hurdles in reusing of the components. The biggest hurdle is the binary compatibility issue of C++ based components, which is whether or not the components in the binary code compiled by a type of compiler are executing together on the same operating system with other components compiled by its old version compiler or other types of compilers. In practice, the number of components implemented with programming languages such as Java and Python has been increasing because those languages do not cause the binary compatibility problems. However, C++ is an important programming language needed for the control of automation machines/devices such as robots and SW-based PLCs because it provides fast performance [7, 8]. In addition, there have been lots of C++ based components or modules developed and stably used till now for industrial/office/home automation. Because the components were compiled by different types and/or versions of compilers, it is necessary to reuse them effectively. Therefore, the binary compatibility of C++ components (or objects) should be resolved. Note that examples of the components (or objects) are classes, variables, and methods, where a class can include variables, methods, and zero or more classes.
There are following two types of methods in dynamical sharing of C++ classes: the C-based dynamic library method and the sharing method supported by a compiler. Because the C-based dynamic library method cannot directly share classes, the executable files such as .exe, .dll, and .so refer to the abstract class of the same header files and deliver the address of the instance of the class. The sharing method by compiler can directly share classes. But the method cannot share instances of classes compiled by different types of compilers [9]. In other words, there is a serious problem that the sharing of classes is applicable only to the same compiler, which makes spreading of C++ based components difficult.
For instance, let us consider two types of components in the Windows environment, which are made using Visual C++ from Microsoft (MSVC) and GCC from GNU, respectively. A MSVC-based component and a GCC-based component are not mutually compatible in most cases even though they have been made in the same Windows environment. This situation occurs due to the binary compatibility problem. The binary compatibility problem generally causes the situations where the methods of the object cannot be suitably called or its operation is not properly executed. And then the system can enter into a down (or dead) state. To solve the problem, it is necessary to design an object structure compatible in all types of compilers [10].
There have been some researches to solve the binary compatibility problem of C++ objects, examples of which are COM [11], CCC [12], and ZL [13]. COM solves the binary compatibility problem of C++ objects but has some limitations that it should operate in a Windows environment and be supported only by the MSVC compiler [11]. CCC is a library that the classes are composed of only header files to maintain the binary compatibility and designed to use the C++ 11 features [14] to make binary compatible objects with ease. But CCC has a limitation that it can be used only by compilers that support the C++ 11 standard. In other words, CCC does not share objects compiled by compilers not supporting the C++ 11 standard. In the C++ compatible language ZL [13], the binary compatible classes are supported by customized preprocessors and macros. It does not however support multiple inheritances and provides the binary compatibility only for GCC because the compiler for ZL is made from modified version of GCC. In addition COM and CCC do not support the method overloading, but ZL partially supports it. CCC supports exception handling, COM does it in the restricted manner, but ZL does not support it.
This chapter proposes the binary compatibility object model for C++ (BiCOMC) for reusability of software components which provide binary compatibility for sharing objects between C++ executable files in the Windows or the Linux environment. In addition, the proposed model provides the method overloading and overriding, multiple inheritance, and exception handling. And BiCOMC makes each other share the objects generated by different types of compilers such as MSVC, GCC, and ICC. This chapter provides macros of C++ preprocessor for sharing the binary compatible objects easily and independently of the types and versions of compilers. This chapter illustrates how to use the proposed model via a simple example in the Windows and Linux environment. To validate the proposed method, BiCOMC is compared with COM and CCC in terms of the call time during execution and the binary compatibility among interface versions and the types of compilers. Moreover, it is shown that BiCOMC-based components made using both MSVC and GCC can call the methods of each other and the interface version problems are resolved.
In the next section, a binary compatibility object model for C++ (BiCOMC) is proposed, which has the structures of virtual function tables including multiple inheritance and the casting algorithm for conversion of interfaces. It is shown that method overloading and multiple inheritances are supported. In Section 3, the component based on BiCOMC is defined, and its implementation is shown using examples. Section 4 suggests two examples. One is a simple example to illustrate how to use the proposed method in Windows and Linux environment. The other is an example of a robot application to validate the proposed method, where the application consists of three components compiled by different types of compilers. In Section 5, the binary compatibility and the performance measure of the call time of methods are evaluated. Finally, the conclusions are given in Section 6.
A BiCOMC is shown in Figure 1 and has the interface Object as the root of the hierarchy of the class diagrams. Since interfaces are public and can be used by many objects, they do not have any member variables so that binary compatibility is maintained. Note that the interface Object has one pointer variable as shown in Figure 1 for sharing of a virtual function table. The point variable is the vftptr pointer for accessing of the table and exists at the topmost of the interface. The structure of the virtual function table is explained later.
Class diagram of Object and ErrorDetail interface for BiCOMC.
Let us consider the case where an executable file A can create an object but a different executable file B can delete the object. In this case, the memory allocated by the file A cannot normally be deleted using the C++ delete operator in the file B because the delete operator of the file B cannot invoke the destructor of the class in the file A. To solve this problem, the interface Object has a destroy() method so that objects can be deleted by the executable file which created the objects.
Because objects that are shared externally are exposed in the form of an interface, they cannot know the prototype of the object and then cannot be replicated through the C++ copy constructor. The interface Object has a clone() method that is allowed to clone the object.
When interface methods are implemented, the order of the methods in the virtual function table should be the same as the declaration order of the methods in the interface. So the order of the methods in the interface should not be changed once the interface is open in public. Adding a new method to the interface is allowed if its order is not changed. In other words the insertion of a new method is allowed only as the last method of the interface.
All methods can cause exceptions which are related to the interface ErrorDetail in Figure 1. Therefore, only objects implemented in the interface ErrorDetail should be thrown at the occurrence of the exceptions. The interface ErrorDetail has a value() method, a category() method, and a message() method that return an error value, an error category, and a description of the error, respectively.
An interface can inherit only one parent interface, but a class can inherit multiple interfaces. When a class has inherited multiple interfaces, the class has multiple vftptr pointers, which are the addresses of virtual function tables for individually inherited interfaces. The class, which is inherited multiple interfaces, refers to as many virtual function tables as the number of the inherited interfaces, which is shown in Figure 3.
The vftptr pointer of the interface Object points to a virtual function table. A virtual function table contains the address of the overridden method and the interface information for the interface. Figure 2 shows the structure of the virtual function table. The sizes of depth, version, and next offset are equal to the size of a void pointer (or void*), respectively.
Structure of a virtual function table.
A virtual function table contains all the parent interfaces inherited by the interface. The first element, depth, of a virtual function table in Figure 2 stores the number of inheritances from the interface Object to the last interface. If the interface directly inherited by the implementation class is the interface Object, the value of depth is 0. The second element, version, means the version number of BiCOMC for future extension of BiCOMC. The third element, next offset, is used for the objects that inherit multiple interfaces and represents the offset between the current vftptr and the next vftptr, which is explained later. The fourth element Object FT refers to the address of the function table of the interface Object where the actual addresses of overridden methods and the interface information are stored. The remaining elements i-th interface FT points to the function table of the i-th interface (i = 1… N).
The entry interface info in the function table means the interface information. The entry j-th mth. addr. (j = 1… M) is the address of the j-th method. Note that the addresses of the methods are stored in the same order as the order of declaration of the methods.
The interface info includes some elements such as hash, subhash, mth. count, interface name, and j-th mth. sig. (j = 1… M). The hash is a 64bit value, and it is calculated with the name of the interface and the names of inherited interfaces. The same hash means that the name of the interface and the names of the inherited interfaces are the same. The subhash is also a 64bit value, and it is calculated with M method signatures which contain the name of the method, a return type, and parameters’ types. The same subhash means that the method definitions of two interfaces are the same. The sizes of the hash and the subhash of the interface may not be the same as the size of void*. Their sizes are calculated in (1) in bytes. If the hash values of two objects are different, the objects are incompatible. The subhash values are used for the method overloading and backward compatibility. So the method signatures should be checked if the subhash values are not matched. Note that the interface name and the j-th mth. sig. (j = 1…M) are null-terminated character strings encoded by UTF-8 and j-th mth. sig. consists of the method name, the return type, and types of parameters:
As mentioned above, the method signature can distinguish other methods with the same name because the method’s signature is based on the method name as well as the types of parameters and the return type. So it can be said that BiCOMC supports the method overloading.
In BiCOMC, an object that inherits multiple interfaces has as many vftptr pointers as the number of inherited interfaces. Note that the basic structure of the virtual function table is described in Section 2.2. Figure 3 shows the structure of the virtual function tables of an object inheriting three interfaces.
Structure of virtual function table in the case of multiple inheritance.
In the case where three interfaces have been inherited, three vftptr pointers exist as shown in Figure 3. Assume that a 32bit system is used and the next offset of the virtual function Table 1 is 4, which is the difference between the address of vftptr 2 and the address of vftptr 1 in the instance of class. And the next offset of the virtual function Table 3 is −8, which is the difference between the address of vftptr 1 and the address of vftptr 3.
BiCOMC | Dynamic library (DLL) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MSVC | GCC | ICC | ||||||
9 | 14 | 4.5 | 5.2 | 14 | 16 | |||
Executable (EXE) | MS VC | 9 | O | O | O | O | O | O |
14 | O | O | O | O | O | O | ||
GCC | 4.5 | O | O | O | O | O | O | |
5.2 | O | O | O | O | O | O | ||
ICC | 14 | O | O | O | O | O | O | |
16 | O | O | O | O | O | O |
Tests of the binary compatibility in BiCOMC.
General casting methods of C++ such as static_cast and dynamic_cast cannot be used among objects created by different types of compilers. Therefore, methods that can cast BiCOMC objects are necessary regardless of a type of compilers used. Figure 4 shows an algorithm for casting BiCOMC objects to other interfaces.
Algorithm for interface casting.
The casting algorithm gets virtual function tables using two parameters of obj and tgtTable. The algorithm compares the tables of obj with the tables of the target interface in order to check whether or not two interfaces are compatible. NULL is returned if two interfaces are not compatible each other. The seventh, tenth, and forty-second lines in Figure 4 are for processing of multiple inheritance. Lines 21–24 check hash values to test the names of interfaces and inheritance relationships. That is, lines 21–24 compare the hash values and detect whether they are compatible by detecting whether a new interface is added or a different interface name exists. Lines 25–37 compare subhash values, and two interfaces are considered as compatible interfaces if the values are the same. If they are different, it examines method signatures of interface information to check compatibility. An example of interface casting is shown in Figure 6.
In this section the component based on BiCOMC is defined, and its implementation is shown using examples. Figure 5 shows an example of the class Comp_1 based on BiCOMC, where the interface Interface_1 and the interface Interface_2 inherit the interface Object and Interface_3 inherits Interface_2. The definition of the interfaces in Figure 5 is shown in Figure 7. The class Comp_1 is one of the components that provide interfaces Interface_1 and Interface_3. Interface Interface_1 consists of void mth_1(int) and int. mth_2(), and interface Interface_3 inherits interface Interface_2 and consists of void mth_1() and int. mth_2(int).
Class diagram example of relationship between component and interface.
Figure 6 shows an example of the interface casting algorithm in Figure 4, which shows that Interface_1 is converted to Interface_2 using bicomc_cast based on the algorithm in Figure 4.
An example of interface casting.
The macro BICOMC_INTERFACE defines interfaces as shown in Figure 7, using one or two parameters. The first parameter is the name of the interface, and the second parameter is the name of the parent interface and optional. In the case where the second parameter is empty, the interface Object is inherited. The macro BICOMC_DECL_METHOD in Figure 7 declares the method of the interface. The macro has three parameters as follows: the first parameter is the name of the method, the second parameter is the function type of the method, and the third parameter is the number of parameters of the method. For example, let us consider BICOMC_DECL_METHOD(mth_2, int.(), 0). This macro represents the method int. mth_2() in Figure 8.
Definition of interface using macro in Figure 5.
C++ code of Figure 7 after preprocessing.
The interface definition in Figure 7 is converted into the C++ code of Figure 8 by C++ preprocessor. Note that C++ code for Interface_2 is not represented. The macro BICOMC_INTERFACE in Figure 7 is converted to the C++ code related to the inputted interface name such as Interface_1. As seen in the 1st and 17th lines of Figure 8, the macro BICOMC_INTERFACE (Interface_1) and BICOMC_INTERFACE (Interface_3, Interface_2) create the codes of class Interface_1 public Object and class Interface_3 public Interface_2, respectively. The macro BICOMC_DECL_METHOD is converted to a method which consists of a name, a return type, and parameters. The second, third, and eleventh lines in Figure 7 are converted into the third–seventh lines, ninth–fourteenth lines, and nineteenth to twenty-fourth lines in Figure 8, respectively. From the virtual function table pointed at by the vftptr pointer of the interface Object, the addresses of functions(or methods) are acquired using the inheritance depth of the interface and the order of declarations of the interface methods as shown in the 5th, 11th, and 21st lines in Figure 8, and then the actual overridden methods are called. These methods are converted into the function type as shown in Figure 9 and then stored. Note that ErrorCode is a wrapper class of ErrorDetail in Figure 1.
Function type stored in the virtual function table.
In Figure 9, parameter I* is the address of the interface instance, the second parameter R* is the address of the variable receiving the return value of the method, and other parameters (P_1…P_N) are parameters of the method. The method stored in the function type is called with the same function-calling convention. Note that exception information is returned using the interface ErrorDetail. When the exception information has been returned, the C++ code of the method throws the exception on behalf of the method as shown in the 6th, 12th, and 22nd lines in Figure 8.
Figure 10 shows the implementation of the interfaces in Figure 7. The interfaces in Figure 7 are inherited, and the methods are overridden in order to define the class Comp_1. The interfaces and methods for overriding are set using the macros BICOMC_OVERRIDE and BICOMC_OVER_METHOD. Parameters of the macro BICOMC_OVERRIDE are names of all interfaces that the component inherits. Parameters of the macro BICOMC_OVER_METHOD are the names and signatures of the overridden methods. Figure 11 shows C++ code converted from Figure 10 by C++ preprocessor. The macro BICOMC_OVERRIDE is converted to bool overrideMethod(), and parameters of the macro such as Interface_1 and Interface_3 are used for clear conversion of overridden methods related to the type of the interface. The BICOMC_OVER_METHOD macros on lines 3–7 in Figure 10 are converted to codes on lines 6–11 in Figure 11 and the macro BiCOMC_OVERRIDE_INIT() to holder(overrideMethod()) on the 16th line in Figure 11.
Implementation of interfaces and overriding.
C++ code of Figure 10 after preprocessing.
This section describes in sequence how to make a file copy application, which is a simple example based on BiCOMC. The file copy application is designed to run on Windows and Linux and is built using MSVC and GCC, respectively. The dynamic library providing the file copy function, which named utility, is created, and the executable file using this dynamic library, which named app, is generated as the application. The interface is first defined to share an object that provides a method for copying files. The interface to provide this functionality is defined in the utility.h file as the ICopy interface. Figure 12 shows that the ICopy interface is defined based on the macro of BiCOMC and is the source code of the dynamic library named utility.cpp.
C++ code of utility.h.
The BiCOMC macro is defined in object.h, which is added as shown on line 5 in Figure 12 to use it. ICopy has a copy() method that receives two file names of src and dst as the input parameters and copies src to dst, which is shown on the eighth line in Figure 12.
In order to implement the ICopy interface in Figure 12, the Copy class is written made as shown in the utility.cpp of Figure 13. In addition, copy() method of ICopy is overridden in Figure 13. Note that the utility.cpp file is the source code for the utility dynamic library.
C++ code of utility.h.
The utility.h which defines the ICopy interface is added as one of the header files on the second line in Figure 13, and some header files for the Copy class implementation on lines 4–13 are defined for Windows and Linux. The Copy class inherits the ICopy interface on the 15th line, and the overriding methods are explicitly specified using the BiCOMC macro on lines 16–19, where the specified methods are written on lines 23–37. The create() function on lines 40–46 creates an instance of the Copy class in order to pass its instance outside of the dynamic library called utility. The main() function of app using utility dynamic library is written in the app.cpp file, which is illustrated in Figure 14.
C++ code of app.cpp.
The create() function is called on the 21th line in Figure 14 to get an instance of the Copy class in Figure 13 but casted to ICopy* using bicomc_cast() since create() returns Object*. The copy() method is called to perform file copy on the 24th line. This method is used in try-catch because it generates an exception when copy() fails. The commands shown in Figure 15 are executed to build utility.cpp into utility dynamic library and app.cpp into app executable file, respectively.
Compilation commands of app.cpp and utility.cpp.
This section explains how to implement BiCOMC-based components using a robot applications. The robot application consists of three components in a Windows environment as follows: the ManipulatorComp, the MobileComp, and the AppComp in Figure 16.
Configuration example of components for a robot application.
The component ManipulatorComp is compiled with GCC 5.2 and controls the manipulator. The component MobileComp is compiled with MSVC 14 and controls the mobile platform. The component AppComp is compiled with MSVC 10 and coordinates the components MobileComp and ManipulatorComp. The component AppComp accesses the components MobileComp and ManipulatorComp through the interfaces IMobile and IManipulator, respectively. Definitions of these interfaces are illustrated in Figure 17. Figure 18 shows the definition of the component MobileComp that inherits the interface IMobile and overrides the methods of the interface. The component ManipulatorComp and the component AppComp can be defined in the similar manner, which is shown in Figures 19 and 20, respectively.
Definition of interfaces IMobile and IManipulator.
Definition of component MobileComp.
Example of component AppComp.
Definition of component ManipulatorComp.
Figure 21 shows the operation results of the robot after three components in Figure 16 are successfully implemented, which are parts captured from a video clip [15]. It can be observed from Figure 21 that the BiCOMC-based components function properly regardless of the types of compilers.
Video capture of robot application running.
This section evaluates the binary compatibility occurred among different types of compilers and verifies whether backward compatibility can be maintained when the interface version has been changed. There are some binary compatibility checking tools like ABI Compliance Checker [16], shlib-compat [17], libabigail [18], and ABICheck [19], but these tools are used to check API/ABI in C language level or to compare virtual function tables generated by the supported compiler. So they cannot check the binary compatibility of C++ objects created by different types of compilers. In addition these tools cannot detect the compatibility maintained by BiCOMC. For checking of the binary compatibility, this chapter uses the proposed methods explained in Sections 5.1 and 5.2. Finally the call times as performance measures are compared among BiCOMC, COM, and CCC using different types of compilers.
Compilers generally reorder a virtual function table according to each compiler’s ABI, which makes the binary compatibility difficult. The interface CompatibilityChecker is suggested to check whether the methods of objects shared by different binaries (or executable files) created by different types of compilers normally call each other. The interface CompatibilityChecker has the methods check1(), check2(), and check3() arranged in an unordered fashion and is illustrated in Figure 22. The methods simply return the values 1, 2, and 3, respectively. In addition, all methods’ calling convention is controlled as the same.
Interface for binary compatibility test.
These methods are called to check whether the normal return value is delivered. The tests are considered successful if the three methods are normally called and are judged to have failed if any of the methods are not normally called or the program has shut down. The experiments using the interface CompatibilityChecker are performed using MSVC 9 and 14, GCC 4.5 and 5.2, and the Intel C++ Compiler 14 and 16 in Windows 10 in order to verify binary compatibility among different types of compilers. Note that the GCC of MinGW-w64 is used. In Tables 1–3, “O” means pass, “X” means failure, and “-” means not testable. ICC is the abbreviation of the Intel C++ Compiler. In other words, “O” means that the three methods are normally called.
It can be seen in Tables 1 and 2 that BiCOMC and CCC guarantee the binary compatibility among MSVC, GCC, and ICC. However, CCC is only available in compilers supporting C++ 11. Table 3 shows that the binary compatibility between MSVC and ICC is guaranteed as stated in [20], but these two compilers are not compatible with GCC. As stated earlier, the different types of compilers reorder the virtual function table, and then the reordered methods are not called normally. So C++ methods are called abnormally by different types of compilers as shown in Table 3, whereas BiCOMC and CCC worked normally because they prevent to reorder a virtual function table.
CCC | Dynamic library (DLL) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MSVC | GCC | ICC | ||||||
9 | 14 | 4.5 | 5.2 | 14 | 16 | |||
Executable (EXE) | MS VC | 9 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
14 | — | O | — | O | — | O | ||
GCC | 4.5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
5.2 | — | O | — | O | — | O | ||
ICC | 14 | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
16 | — | O | — | O | — | O |
Tests of the binary compatibility in CCC.
CCC | Dynamic library (DLL) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MSVC | GCC | ICC | ||||||
9 | 14 | 4.5 | 5.2 | 14 | 16 | |||
Executable (EXE) | MS VC | 9 | O | O | X | X | O | O |
14 | O | O | X | X | O | O | ||
GCC | 4.5 | X | X | O | O | X | X | |
5.2 | X | X | O | O | X | X | ||
ICC | 14 | O | O | X | X | O | O | |
16 | O | O | X | X | O | O |
Tests of the binary compatibility in C++.
In developing the program, it is necessary to add a new method to the existing interface. That is, the interface version is changed in this case, which is shown in Figure 23.
Interface for backward compatibility test per version.
Figure 23 shows two interfaces of IfaceA and IfaceB, where IfaceB inherits IfaceA. In the version v1, IfaceA has a method, mth_1(). But the interface IfaceA should be upgraded to the new version v2 because a new method of mth_3() is added. Let us consider the following: the v1-related interfaces and the v2-related interfaces are used in the caller and the callee programs, respectively.
This test also uses simple methods that return values of 1, 2, and 3, respectively, which are similar to methods used in Section 5.1. The experiments are done using MSVC 14, GCC 5.2, and ICC 16 in Windows 10.
Table 4 shows that BiCOMC can enable the binary compatibility between interfaces of versions v1 and v2, but CCC, COM, and C++ are not compatible between codes with different interface versions. Therefore, BiCOMC supports the backward compatibility of interface versions. MSVC, GCC, and ICC generate a virtual function table in contiguous memory space regardless of inheritance. In this structure of the table, if a new method is added in the parent interface, the offset of child’s methods will be changed. For this reason, C++ does not provide the backward compatibility. COM and CCC also have the same reason. BiCOMC has the structure of Figure 2 so that the parent’s methods and the child’s methods can be stored at independent memory space of each other. Thus BiCOMC supports the backward compatibility of interface versions.
Method compiler | BiCOMC | CCC | COM | C++ |
---|---|---|---|---|
MSVC 14 | O | X | X | X |
GCC 5.2 | O | X | — | X |
ICC 16 | O | X | X | X |
Tests of the backward compatibility.
Call times as performance measures are measured in Windows 10 using MSVC 14, GCC 5.2, and ICC 16. The methods of objects are called 10 million times, and the call times are obtained as the average values of all call times. These are shown in Figures 24–26, in which MSVC, GCC, and ICC compilers are used for evaluation, respectively. In these figures, two notations such as XXX and XXX-R are used, where XXX is one of BiCOMC, CCC, CPP (or C++), and COM and -R means that the method used in the test has a return value.
Call time in MSVC.
Call time in GCC.
Call time in ICC.
Tables 1–4 show that BiCOMC provides the best binary compatibility among different types of compilers. Figures 24–26 show that C++ has the best call time, but the call time of BiCOMC is similar to those of C++ and COM. CPP is generally faster than others because the method calling accesses an optimized virtual function table which accesses directly addresses of methods. COM is also similar to CPP. Note that GCC does not support COM. CCC is slower as std::function, one of the C++ 11 features [14], is basically used [12]. BiCOMC is slower slightly than CPP and COM because it accesses addresses of methods in the function table pointed by the virtual function table. But the test results show no or little significant difference among BiCOMC and CPP/COM.
This chapter proposed the binary compatibility object model for C++ (BiCOMC) to provide the binary compatibility of objects necessary for reusability of software components in the Windows and Linux environment in order to share objects among C++ based executable files such as .exe, .dll, and .so. The interfaces for the component, method overloading and overriding, multiple inheritance, and the exception handling were suggested based on BiCOMC model.
The proposed model was validated by application examples and comparisons with commonly known object models such as C++, COM, and CCC in terms of the call time of a method during execution and the binary compatibility such as reusability. The application examples showed that components compiled by GCC and MSVC call each other without any restrictions. From Tables 1–3, it can be seen that the BiCOMC provides better binary compatibility in a Windows environment than object models in C++, COM, and CCC, which are compiled in GCC, MSVC, and ICC. The BiCOMC was compared with C++, COM, and CCC in terms of the call times of methods during run time. The results showed that the call time of the BiCOMC was similar to C++/COM. In other words, the application examples and the evaluation results verified that the proposed method was provided for the binary compatibility among different types of compilers.
In future we will develop and distribute BiCOMC-based components for various applications such as industrial/medical robot applications and factory/home automation application, which can be used regardless of the types of compilers.
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