Effects of sulphur dioxide (SO2) on human health (Öztürk, 2005)
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2119",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Miscellanea on Encephalopathies - A Second Look",title:"Miscellanea on Encephalopathies",subtitle:"A Second Look",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book project “Miscellanea on Encephalopathies-a second look” aims to cover some of the important aspects regarding metabolic, hypoxic, neoplasm- and drug-related encephalopathies, by transmitting valuable information filtered through the real life clinical and research experience of the authors.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0558-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5281-1",doi:"10.5772/2523",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"miscellanea-on-encephalopathies-a-second-look",numberOfPages:402,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"2881c23482aaaccf648a51319e3f8af9",bookSignature:"Radu Tanasescu",publishedDate:"April 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2119.jpg",numberOfDownloads:110521,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:43,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"72305",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu",middleName:null,surname:"Tanasescu",slug:"radu-tanasescu",fullName:"Radu Tanasescu",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr Radu Tanasescu is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Neurology, “Carol Davila “University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Colentina Hospital - Bucharest, Romania. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"18591",title:"Air Pollutants and Its Effects on Human Healthy: The Case of the City of Trabzon",doi:"10.5772/20016",slug:"air-pollutants-and-its-effects-on-human-healthy-the-case-of-the-city-of-trabzon",body:'\n\t\t
Air pollution, both indoors and outdoors, is a major environmental health problem affecting everyone in developed and developing countries alike. Any agent that spoils air quality is called air pollutant. Air pollution can be defined as the presence of pollutants,such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), particle substances (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and ozone (O3) in the air that we inhale at levels which can create some negative effects on the environment and human health (Bayram, 2006). Air pollutants have sources that are both natural and human-based. Now, humans contribute substantially more to the air pollution problem. Though some pollution comes from natural sources, most pollution is the result of human activity. Air pollution is a problem of growing importance. This pollution damages the natural processes in the atmosphere, and affects public health negatively. Currently, several cities stand out as worst cases of air pollution (Kilburn,1992). It was found that until the 1980s, 1.3 billion people lived in cities where pollution was above the air quality standards (Bayram, 2006). Besides, air pollution is a main threat to the vegetation.
\n\t\t\tPollutants such as dust, soot, fog, steam, ash, smoke, etc. are introduced into air naturally and as a result of human activities. The athmosphere can neutralize toxic solid, liquid and gaseous substances by melting them; however, due to the production of excessive amounts of such substances and depending on the meteorological and topographic conditions, the atmosphere is in a continuous process of pollution. (Kaypak and Özdilek,2008). There are several main types of pollution. Among the main pollutants in the urban atmosphere are primarily the particle substances (PM), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and secondarily ozone (O3) that is created as a result of photochemical reactions. (Özden et all.,2008).
\n\t\t\tParticles are introduced into the air by burning fuel for energy. The gases produced as a result of burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries are a major source of pollution in the air. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quanitites of soot into the air. Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain (URL4).
\n\t\t\tAir pollution was first seen in Turkey as a serious problem in the early 1970s, and in the following years it spread into other cities mainly Istanbul. The reason for this is that lignite coal which has a high pollution rate was started to be used as a source of energy (Evyapan, 2008). 41% of the energy sources that are consumed in Turkey is used for heating purposes in houses, and in winters air pollution in the residential areas with intense population reaches levels that threaten human and environmental health.
\n\t\t\tAn air pollutant is any substance which may harm humans, animals, vegetation or material (Kampa and Castanas, 2008). Air pollutants cause adverse effects on human health and the environment. A constant finding is that air pollutants contribute to increased mortality and hospital admissions. Human health effects can range from nausea and difficulty in breathing or skin irritation, to cancer (Kampa and Castanas,2008).
\n\t\t\tThere are studies in literature which report the relationship between respiratory tract diseases and the level of air pollution concentrations (SO2 and PM). Few scientists found that air pollution is associated with respiratory tract diseases of many sorts, including lung cancer and emphysema.A number of studies have established a qualitative link between air pollution and ill health(Lester and Eugene,1970). In their study, Sardar et al. (2006) investigated the health records and found that there are statistically significant relationships between respiratory tract diseases and rough particles, and that rough particles constitute an important threat for human health. In addition, epidemiological and toxicological research have focused on the role of particles (PM2.5) on the observed health effects (Anderson, 2000, Brown, Stone, Findlay, Macnee, Donaldson, 2000, 1990). In their study, Lipfert et al. (1995) report that there is a statistically significant relationship between atmospheric particle matter size and admissions to hospitals for respiratory tract infections and mortalities. On average, 5% of daily mortality is associated with air pollution.
\n\t\t\tAs is the case of all environmental problems, the two primary causes of air pollution in Turkey are urbanization which has been rapid since the 1950s, and industrialization. Before industrialization, more than 80% of the population lived in rural areas, but now more than 60% live in cities and industrial complexes. Among the developments contributing to air pollution in the cities are incorrect urbanization, low quality fuel, the high content of sulphur and ash in the fuel used for heating and improper combustion techniques, the shortage of green areas, the increase in the number of motor vehicles, inadequate disposal of wastes and meteorological factors (Özer et al,1997).
\n\t\t\tCombustion of coal and various kinds of oil cause excessive air pollution in Istanbul, Ankara, Bursa, Erzurum and Trabzon. In the Marmara Region, after the introduction of natural gas for heating, the levels of pollution caused by heating was reduced in the cities in this region. However, it has been observed that air pollution is increasing in cities like Gaziantep, Erzurum, Bayburt, Trabzon, Niğde, Kütahya, Isparta and Çanakkale where there is no intense industrialization.
\n\t\t\tAlthough air pollution is a serious problem in Turkey, the number of studies on the effects of air pollution on health is rather limited.. In a study that investigated the relationship between air pollution and mortality, Şahin (2000) found a statistically significant correlation between the total suspended particulate matter and daily mortality in Istanbul. In a thesis study, Olgun (1996) concluded that in Istanbul there was an 8% increase in the mortality caused by respiratory system diseases in the children of 0-2 age group during the winters when air pollution is the highest. Another study by Olgun (1996) which again focused on the 0-2 age group investigated the 5-year SO2 and total suspended particulate matter (PM) values and the admissions to hospitals due to respiratory system diseases. The study found that parallel to the increase in the air pollution, there was an increase in the bronchitis, sinusitis, laryngitis and pneumonia cases and that there was an increase in the average length of stay in hospitals.
\n\t\t\tIn a study, Keleş et al. (1999) investigated the prevalence of allergic rhinitis and atopy in two quarters of Istanbul, where in one air pollution was intense and where in the other low. They found that allergic rhinitis sympoms were significantly higher in the quarter where there was an intense air pollution.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tÜnsal et al. (1999) investigated the admissions to the emergency service of the Eskişehir Public Hospital for symptoms of certain diseases, and they found that parallel to the increase in daily SO2 levels, there was also an increase in the number of admissions due to lower respiratory tract infections, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and Cor Pulmonale (Ünsal et al., 1999). Another study carried out in Ankara investigated the relationship between the concentrations of particulate matter (PM), one of the air pollution parameters, and asthma. A correlation was found between emergency asthma admissions and SO2 and PM concentrations (Evyapan, 2008).
\n\t\t\tAnother study investigated the relationship between air pollution and admissions to hospitals for acute respiratory tract diseases between June 1994 and June 1995 in Istanbul. A positive relationship was found between the PM levels and admissions to hospitals (Dağlı et all, 1996). Similarly, a thesis study that was carried out in Izmit and that covered the years of 1996 and 1997 investigated the relationship between admissions to hospitals due to asthma and air pollution and meteorological parameters. The study found that there is a positive correlation between year-long weekly average smoke concentrations and admissions to hospitals due to asthma (r=0,26; p=0,000001). On the other hand, a weak correlation was found between the SO2 levels and admissions to hospitals due to asthma in summer times (r=0,22; p=0,002)(Çelikoğlu,1999). Another study that was carried out in Gaziantep investigated the life quality of asthma patients. The study found an increase in the asthma symptoms in times of intense air pollution (Fişekçi et al,2000).
\n\t\t\tIn addition, studies that investigated the relationships between air pollution parameters (SO2 and PM) and such respiratory tract diseases as COPD and asthma were also carried out in such cities as Gaziantep, Denizli and Diyarbakır. The findings of these studies showed an increase in the admissions to emargency services of hospitals especially in times of intense air pollution.
\n\t\t\tIn the framework of the study, the effects of air pollution on human health were investigated in the city of Trabzon that was chosen as the study area. The time interval of the study was determined to be between 2000-2009, and the possible effects of the air pollution on human health during this time interval were recorded and displayed.
\n\t\t\tThis study aims to investigate the relationship between morbidity (number diseases reported /total population)of the diseases and the air pollution parameters (SO2 and PM concentrations). To this end, the data for diseases caused by air pollutants and air pollution concentrations in the winter months in the city of Trabzon between 2000 and 2009, have been recorded and statistically analyzed.
\n\t\tGiven the fact that an average person inhales about 13,000-16,000 litres of air daily and 400-500 million litres in his lifetime, then the importance of air quality for human health becomes clearer (Öztürk, 2005). The direct effects of air pollution on human health vary depending on the period of exposure to air pollution, intensity of air pollution, and the general health condition of the population. Although the negative effects of air pollution can also be seen on healthy people, its effects create more serious problems in groups with higher vulnerability. Children and the elderly, those with respiratory tract diseases and cardiocascular diseases, those who are allergic, and those who do exercises are at more risk (URL 9). It has been reported in such studies that air pollution increases the risk of acute respiratory tract diseases in children and leads to an increase in cardiorespiratory morbidity and mortality (Bayram et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\tAs a result of the negative effects of air pollution on health, the following have been observed:
\n\t\t\tAn increase in lung cancer cases
An increase in the frequency of chronic asthma crisis
An increase in the frequency of asthma cases
An increase in the frequency of coughing/phlegm
An increase in the acute disorders of upper repiratory system
An increase in eye, nose and throat irritation cases
Reduction in respiratory capacity
An increase in mortality
A reduction in productivity and production
An increase in medical treatment expenses
The relationship between air pollution and lung cancer has also been addressed in several case-control. Studies focusing on morbidity endpoints of long-term exposure have been published as well (Cohen,2000, Katsouyannı et al.,1997). Notably, work from Southern California has shown that lung function growth in children is reduced in areas with high PM concentrations (Gauderman et al.,2000 and Gauderman et al.,2002) and that the lung function growth rate changes in step with relocation of children to areas with higher or lower PM concentrations that before (Avol, E.L. et al. 2001).Pollutants in the air cause health defects ranging from unnoticeable chemical and biological changes to trouble breathing and coughing. The ill effects of air pollution primarily attack the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The severity of a person\'s reaction to pollution depends on a number of factors, including the composition of the pollution, degree and length of exposure and genetics(URL3).
\n\t\t\tHealth effects of concern are asthma, bronchitis and similar lung diseases, and there is good evidence relating an increased risk of symptoms of these diseases with increasing concentration of sulphur dioxide (SO2), ozone(O3) and other pollutants. Moreover, there is increasing evidence to suggest that pollution from particulate matter (PM10 and black smoke) at levels hitherto considered "safe" is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality (disease and death) from heart disease as well as lung disease. This is likely especially in people with other risk factors (such as old age, or pre-existing heart and lung disease). These concerns are the subject of current research throughout the world(URL-1).
\n\t\t\tThe 2005 WHO Air quality guidelines (AQGs) are designed to offer global guidance on reducing the health impacts of air pollution.According to WHO; Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health and is estimated to cause approximately 2 million premature deaths worldwide per year. The WHO Air quality guidelines represent the most widely agreed-upon and up-to-date assessment of health effects of air pollution, recommending targets for air quality at which the health risks are significantly reduced. By reducing particulate matter (PM10) pollution from 70 to 20 micrograms per cubic metre can cut air quality-related deaths by around 15% and help countries reduce the global burden of disease from respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer (URL2).
\n\t\t\tSulphur dioxide (SO2) and Particulate Matter (PM) are among the most important air pollutants that affect human health negatively. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) reacts with the moisture content in the nose, nasal cavity and throat and, in this way, it destroys the nerves in the respiratory system and harms human health. (Öztürk, 2005). When the SO2 concentration is higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) standards, it negatively affects especially those with asthma, bronchitis, cardiac and lung problems (Öztürk, 2005).
\n\t\t\tThe studies have shown that air pollution has an important role on the development and progression of lung cancer (URL 10). It was also found that air pollution increases the risk of acute respiratory tract diseases especially in children and that it causes an increase in cardiorespiratory morbidity and mortality (Bayram et al., 2006). The aim of the “Regulations for the Protection of Air Quality” dated 2 November 1986 (published in the official gazette no 19269) is to take under control the soot, smoke, dust, gas, steam and aerosol emissions created by any kind of human activity; to protect human beings and their environment from the dangers caused by air pollution; to prevent and eradicate the negative effects that occur in the environment and that harm the community and neighborhood relations, and itemize the mandatory short- and long-term limit values for various air pollutants (Table1). (Öztürk, 2005).
\n\t\t\tThe negative effects of particulate matter on human health increase as the size of the matter gets smaller. Due to the fact that those who do sports especially in areas with high PM concentrations take deeper breaths and more frequently during the activity than those who do not do sports, such matters reaches the lungs more easily and accumulate there (Öztürk, 2005).
\n\t\t\tSO2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t (ppm) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDuration of Exposure\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEffects\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,037-0,092 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAnnual Average | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tWith 185 μg m-3 smoke concentration, increase in respiratory track diseases and lung diseases | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAnnual Average | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tWith high particulate matter concentration, progression in the respiratory track diseases in children | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,11-0,19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 hours | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIn low particle concentration, increase in the respiratory track diseases in the elderly . | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 hours | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tProgression in chronic respiratory track diseases in the grown-ups | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 hours | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIn low particle concentrations, an increase can be observed in mortality | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 hours | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tWith 750 μg m-3 smoke concentration, an increase in daily mortality rates may be observed (UK). Sudden increase in morbidity. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
0,5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 minutes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIn asthma patients, increase in breathing resistance during exercise (mobility) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 hours | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIn healthy people, increase in breathing resistance | \n\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 minutes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tBronchospasm | \n\t\t\t\t\t
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Eye irritation, coughing | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Effects of sulphur dioxide (SO2) on human health (Öztürk, 2005)
SO2 can affect the respiratory system and the functions of the lungs, and causes irritation of the eyes. Inflammation of the respiratory tract causes coughing, mucus secretion, aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis and makes people more prone to infections of the respiratory tract. Hospital admissions for cardiac disease and mortality increase on days with higher SO2 levels. When SO2 combines with water, it forms sulfuric acid; this is the main component of acid rain which is a cause of deforestation.
\n\t\t\tParticulate air pollution is a mixture of solid, liquid or solid and liquid particles suspended in the air. These suspended particles vary in size, composition and origin. It is convenient to classify particles by their aerodynamic properties because:
\n\t\t\tthese properties govern the transport and removal of particles from the air;
they also govern their deposition within the respiratory system and
they are associated with the chemical composition and sources of particles.
These properties are conveniently summarized by the aerodynamic diameter, that is the size of a unitEUR/density sphere with the same aerodynamic characteristics. Particles are sampled and described on the basis of their aerodynamic diameter, usually called simply the particle size (URL 11).
\n\t\t\tThe effects of PM on health occur at levels of exposure currently being experienced by most urban and rural populations in both developed and developing countries. Chronic exposure to particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as of lung cancer. In developing countries, exposure to pollutants from indoor combustion of solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves increases the risk of acute lower respiratory infections and associated mortality among young children; indoor air pollution from solid fuel use is also a major risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer among adults. The mortality in cities with high levels of pollution exceeds the mortality observed in relatively cleaner cities by 15–20%. Even in the EU, average life expectancy is 8.6 months lower due to exposure to PM2.5 produced by human activities. Specifically, the database on long-term effects of PM on mortality has been expanded by three new cohort studies, an extension of the American Cancer Society (ACS) cohort study, and a thorough re-analysis of the original Six Cities and ACS cohort study papers by the Health Effects Institute (HEI) (URL 11).
\n\t\t\tIn view of the extensive scrutiny that was applied in the HEI reanalysis to the Harvard Six Cities Study and the ACS study, it is reasonable to attach most weight to these two. The HEI re-analysis has largely corroborated the findings of the original two US cohort studies, which both showed an increase in mortality with an increase in fine PM and sulfate. The increase in mortality was mostly related to increased cardiovascular mortality. A major concern remaining was that spatial clustering of air pollution and health data in the ACS study made it difficult to disentangle air pollution effects from those of spatial auto-correlation of health data per se. The extension of the ACS study found for all causes, cardiopulmonary and lung cancer deaths statistically significant increases of relative risks for PM2.5. TSP and coarse particles (PM15 – PM2.5) were not significantly associated with mortality (13). The effect estimates remained largely unchanged even after taking spatial auto-correlation into account (URL 11). Particulate matters can proceed up to the alveoli in the lungs and therefore causes such important problems as asthma and bronchitis (Sloss and Smith,2000).
\n\t\tThe City of Trabzon is situated in northeast of Turkey (Figure1), lies on the north sides of the Eastern Black Sea Mountains, between longitudes 38° 30\' - 40° 30\' E and latitudes 40° 30\' - 41° 30\' N (URL 5). The area of Trabzon is about 4.664 km2 and total population of the city is about 293.000. The population density is about 5.000 people per km2.Trabzon has a typical Black Sea climate, with rainfall throughout the year. Sea climate, with a lot of rainfall throughout the year. Summers are cool and winters are mild and damp. Towards the south, the climate becomes colder. Trabzon has a thick vegetation and receives ample rain [URL 7]. Though, in general, Trabzon has a rainy climate, and rain reaches its peak between September-late June. The average annual rainfall is 800-850 kg/m2, and about 152 days of the year are rainy. Starting from the sea level, the elevation reaches up to 3000 m in the south. The annual average temperature in Trabzon is 14.57 °C [URL 5], and the dominant wind directions are south-southwest in December, southwest in April, south in June, and west-north in the other months. April and especially May are rather foggy, and relative humidity reaches its peaks in May (79%) and June (76%), respectively. The humidity starts to decrease in summer months and reaches 67% in December, which is the minimum level. Sometimes, the humidity reaches 99% (URL-6).
\n\t\t\tAs a result of fast urbanization, there has been quite a dense housing in the city. Residential areas are concentrated on the coastal areas of the city especially in the west of the city (Figure 1). In recent years, the number of high-rise buildings is increasing day by day in the valleys stretching towards the south of the city.
\n\t\t\tTrabzon city map
Air pollution is an important problem during the winters in Trabzon. The level of SO2 and PM increases during the winter especially between November and April in Trabzon as it does in the other cities in Turkey. There is a dense air pollution in the residential areas along the coast line in the west of the city. These parts of the city are characterized with high buildings. This prevents the removal of the pollution by the dominant winds in the city (URL 7). Because the pollution is not transported out of the city by the air, a cloud of pollutant particles can easily be seen in winter months (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\tAir Pollution in Trabzon in Winter Period
According to the data obtained from the Trabzon Local Directorate of Environment and Forest, Trabzon is among the second-level polluted cities in Turkey in terms of air pollution. The geographical and topographical structure of the city, irregular urbanization, and the inadequacy of green areas in the city center are said to be the main causes of air pollution. In addition, the dense housing in the natural air corridors (the valleys) of the city, which would remove air pollution, prevents air circulation especially in winter times, and between 9:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m., 3:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m., and 6:00 p.m. and 9:00 p.m. air pollution reaches levels that threatens human health. In addition to dust and gas emissions caused by the burning of solid fuels used for heating purposes, the exhaust gases emitted from motor vehicles at certain times (closing times of schools and shops) increase air pollution.
\n\t\t\tAs in other cities with fast urbanization, many factors such as population growth, irregular and intense urbanization, increase in the number of buildings in the valleys that can be considered as the air corridors of the city, and increase in the number of motor vehicles cause air pollution in Trabzon. The intense air pollution in the city especially between November and April is caused by fuels used for heating purposes in the houses. A study by Uzunali showed that the main factor that causes air pollution is PM and that this was the result of the use of coal for heating purposes in the residences. When we investigate the annual amounts of coal (Kg) used for the purpose of heating in the city, we see that there is a gradual increase in the amount of the consumptiom of this type of fuel (Figure 3).
\n\t\t\tNatural gas is not yet used in the city for heating purposes. However, the necessary infrastructure works for this have been in progress. The active use of natural gas in the future will decrease the PM pollution. In their study, Akkoyunlu and Ertürk (Akkoyunlu and Ertürk,2002) investigated the effect of the increased share of natural gas in residential areas on air pollution levels. The pollution map indicated that the increased use of natural gas in residential areas significantly improved the air quality.
\n\t\t\tIn addition to the aforementioned factors, the light industrial complexes that may contribute to the air pollution in the city are located in the east of the city. Air pollution in this part of the city where there is a cement plant is high but is lower than the pollution in the west. For there is no residential settlement in this area.
\n\t\t\tAnnual amounts of coal consumed for the purpose of heating in Trabzon
The air pollution measurements were carried out by the Local Directorate of Environment and Forest in Trabzon for the past 9 years (2000-2009) in the winter months (November-April). Continuous daily observations of SO2 and PM have
\n\t\t\tbeen measured in the city at 2 stationary stations at different places in the city as shown in Figure 1. The monthly average APCs were taken into consideration in this study and are presented in Table 2. Data related to the kinds of diseases in statistic documents have been provided by the Medical Board of Trabzon. Figures 4 and 5 show that, in winter seasons until 2009, the limit of Turkish Air Quality Control Regulation (AQCR) was exceeded significantly both for SO2 and PM. But the limits in AQCR are less stringent than the standards recommended by the World Health Organization (Table 3). When compared to the WHO standards, the PM values increased especially in December, January, February and March, after 2003. The limits of air pollutant concentrations recommended by the Turkish Standards and WHO Guidelines are plotted as horizontal lines (URL8).
\n\t\t\tAn evaluation of the air pollution data covering the 2000-2009 period showed that the SO2 and PM concentrations were higher in winter times than in the summer times (Figure 6). In this context, various studies carried out in different years on the air pollution in Trabzon and this study are important in that they show the variations in air pollutants by years. The aforementioned studies (Çuhadaroğlu, 1994-1995; Topbaş et al., 1994-2000) and the present study have shown that the SO2 and PM valuses are increasing especially in the winter times. The main reason for this is the use of low quality coal for heating purposes mainly in the residential areas.
\n\t\t\tYears | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAPCs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tNovember | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tDecember | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tJanuary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFebruary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMarch | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tApril | \n\t\t\t\t\t
2000-2001 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t53 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t57 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t38 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2001-2002 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t44 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t93 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t107 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2002-2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t79 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t73 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t59 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t66 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t69 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2003-2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t109 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t133 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t101 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t73 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2004-2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t98 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t95 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t82 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t49 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t111 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t79 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t110 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t107 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2005-2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t79 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t56 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t127 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t132 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t208 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t119 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2006-2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t56 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t128 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t122 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2007-2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t51 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t|
2008-2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSO2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t44 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t110 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t79 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t66 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
The monthly average APCs data in Trabzon.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | Turkish Standards | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tWHO Standards | \n\t\t\t\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | LTS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSTS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tLong Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tShort Term | \n\t\t\t\t\t
SO2 µg/m3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t400 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t125 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PM µg/m3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
LTS: long-term standarts STS: short-term standarts (maximum daily average)
Air quality limits in Turkey and comparison to WHO Standards
Measured and calculated monthly mean PM concentrations in winter seasons from 2000 to 2009
Measured and calculated monthly mean SO2 concentrations in winter seasons from 2000 to 2009.
Distribution in air pollutants in Trabzon in the winter and summer times between 2000 and 2009.
It was found that air pollution in Trabzon has also a serious effect on human health and that there is an increase in the number of air pollution-related diseases. As seen in Figure 7, there is an increase in acute upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), acute tonsilitis, acute bronchitis, and acute pharyngitis in winter times. This increase is a clear indication of the relationship between the air pollutants and respiratory tract infections.
\n\t\t\tDistribution in respiratory tract infections in winter and summer times(KOAH:Disease of chronic obstructive lung).
In addition, as seen in Figures 8 and Figure 9, if we examine the distribution of diseases in winter and summer times by years, we see that there is an increase in the number of disesases in the years when the SO2 and PM values are high (2002-2003, 2004-2005, 2007-2008)).
\n\t\t\tDistribution in the respiratory tract infections in the 2000-2009 period(KOAH:Disease of chronic obstructive lung).
Distribution in SO2 and PM values in the 2000-2009 period.
The increase in morbidity that stands out in Figure 10 can be associated with the higher uses of fuels in the years when there was an increase and with the consequent increase in the values of air pollutants (SO2 and PM).
\n\t\t\tThe increase in the morbidity values of Acute URTI, acute tonsilitis, acute bronchitis, and acute pharyngitis (Figure 11) can be associated with the increasing air pollution in the same years.
\n\t\t\tDistribution in the morbidity values of respiratory tract infections between 2000 and 2009 (KOAH:Disease of chronic obstructive lung).
Distribution in SO2 and PM values in the winter months between 2000 and 2009.
As known, in general, respiratory tract diseases increase with an increase in APCs. According to the results of 9 years obtained from data analysis, as the APCs (SO2 and PM) increase, so does the morbidity and number of respiratory tract diseases.
\n\t\t\tThe results of this study show that there is a relationship between APCs and respiratory tract diseases.Furthermore, in a study carried out by Topbaş et al. (2004) between 1994-2000, it was found that the SO2 levels in Trabzon increased especially in the winter months. The other two studies carried out in Trabzon at different times and this study can be considered to be complementary, and are important due to the fact that they show the variations in air pollutants in Trabzon. The aforementioned studies and our study show that the SO2 and PM values increase especially in winter months. Because of the use of low quality coal for the heating of residences, Trabzon has a high level of air pollution in winter months. and APCs in the problem of air pollution can be solved with a multidisciplinary approach. The use of natural gas for the heating, and a reduction in coal particles, should be encouraged by the Official Institutions in Trabzon. For a short-term solution, high quality coal and fuel oil can be used for heating of residences and for energy. In addition, the direction of wind throughout the winter months should be taken into consideration in the urban structure plan. To improve the wind circulation in the city, buildings, streets and heights of buildings should be thoroughly planned, and designed by taking into consideration the direction of the prevailing winds. In this way air pollution can be reduced.
\n\t\t\tAccording to the findings of this study, there are relationships between the respiratory tract infections and SO2 and PM concentrations in Trabzon. Therefore, because those who do exercises take deep breaths and more frequently, sports activities should not be done in the city especially in the streets, roads and squares where pollution is dense. In this way, more pollutant intake into the body can be prevented. Furtheremore, the values regarding the pollutants in the “Air Quality Control Regulation” must be reevaluated and must be gradually aligned with the EU standards. Air pollution has a serious effect especially on the health of the elderly with respiratory problems and children. To this end, the public must continuously be informed of air pollution values. For everyone living in a city has the right to know about the quality of the air that they breathe.
\n\t\t\tThe increases in the diseases associated with the air quality requires more detailed studies on the air quality of the city. If such studies are planned by being based on the already efficient health statistics, they will make significant contributions to the solution of the problem. In this context, it is important from country level in general to city level in particular to adopt sustainable approaches by taking into consideration the total environmental quality.
\n\t\tAir pollution constitutes an important health risk not only for developed countries but also for developing countries. SO2 and NO2 are among primary pollutants commonly present in urban and industrial areas, whose main sources are combustion processes, and being both, acid rain precursors. The two main mechanisms responsible for pollutant removal in the atmosphere are dry and wet deposition. Gases and particulate matter are deposited in dry form, while completely soluble components are deposited by the rain action (wet deposition). Dry deposition of gases and particles occurs through complex processes such as sedimentation, impactation, and adsorption and can contribute in a significant way to local deposition of atmospheric components, being particularly important near urban and industrial areas, where particle concentration and dust can be relatively high [1]. On the other hand, wet deposition occurs as rain, fog or snow and plays an important role in the removal processes of soluble wastes in the atmosphere [2]. Some of components of atmospheric deposit (as nitrate and sulfate) are precursors of acidification, being able to harm the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems not only in the surroundings of sources but also in nearby regions.
Thus, it is necessary to measure the total atmospheric deposition of N and S, to estimate the inflows and outflows, their effects on the balance of biogeochemical cycles, and to assess the biologic and ecologic response to the current atmospheric pollution levels and their relationship with emission patterns. Since the effective design of public politics requires of surveillance and monitoring programs to understand and to quantify the current conditions, by comparison with historical data and reference values, measurement chemical composition, and physical characteristics are required. This will allow to propose environmental politics focused to protect not only public health but also ecosystems and diagnose the real effects of N and S deposition as a result of the current emission patterns [3]. Deposition maps are very useful tools to carry out this kind of assessments, since they allow to analyze the spatial distribution and temporal variability of N and S deposition in a given area; likewise, they allow to visualize those areas in which exceedances to threshold values of critical loads are occurring. In this way, the decision makers can implement control strategies of regionalized emissions to protect different receptors. Several exceedance ranges can be established and be related to sensitivity categories, from which, it is possible to diagnose in a preliminary way, the vulnerability of ecosystems to the inputs of N and S. However, the main problem during this process is to have enough and reliable data of N and S deposition fluxes.
Dry deposition fluxes for ecosystems are obtained from theoretical models, due in part to the lack of monitoring standardized methods. On the other hand, in the case of wet deposition, the estimation depends on the occurrence of rain events, resulting in the case of arid or semiarid regions in insufficient data to study the spatial and temporal variability at long-term. In addition, atmospheric sampling devices for atmospheric deposition comprise manual and automatic collectors. Although the first choice in more economical, it is hard to implement in field in the case of remote sites, while in the case of automatic collectors, these are expensive and must meet specific criteria for installation and operation. Fenn and Bytnerowicz [4] proposed a collector based on ionic exchange resin (IER) to quantify atmospheric deposition in forests. In this regard, comparison between conventional collectors and passive sampling devices of atmospheric deposition have been carried out [5, 6], concluding that passive collectors can be used to quantify total sulfur deposition and report a strong correlation between N Deposition and the presence of nitrate in soils. From combined use of mapping and measurement of N and S deposition fluxes, it is possible to study the spatial and temporal variability of deposition. Therefore, this study was aimed to estimate N and S atmospheric deposition fluxes using passive collectors to assess their spatial distribution and temporal variability in Central Region of México known as “Bajío.”
Study area is located in Central México within an area known as “Bajío,” in metropolitan area of León, in Guanajuato. León City is the most populated in Guanajuato state with a population of 1,578,626 inhabitants [7]. Climate is semi-dry semi-warm [8].
The main economic activities in this region are shoe manufacturing, tanned skin, cardboard production, and chemical industry; however, economical activities are not only based on these sectors, but also building, plastics, mining, manufacturing, textile, and automotive industries. There were selected a total of 10 sampling sites considering in first place the site accessibility and the land use; as well as safety of sampling devices, preferring public buildings to safely house the equipment. In Figure 1, study area and sampling site location are shown.
Study area location.
Since passive sampling is defined as hydrologic flux to soil of ions and other compounds in solution, passive sampling provides a useful estimation of atmospheric inputs to a given site, because of it includes both, wet and dry deposition. Considering the high cost and the difficulty of measuring dry deposition fluxes, passive collectors constitute a useful alternative to measure annual atmospheric inputs at ground level [4, 9]. Additionally, automatic collectors are very expensive, for this reason, passive collectors constitute a good sampling choice in a given area, since they allow to increase the number of sampling sites at a low cost and take samples simultaneously in different locations in a specific region.
Therefore, it is possible to obtain complex spatial patterns of N and S atmospheric deposition in a given area by using monitoring equipment of low cost, easy to operate, and that does not require frequent field visits. Collectors based on IER beds have been used to measure atmospheric deposition in forest ecosystems with a high spatial resolution [10].
This type of passive collectors consists in a funnel connected to a column which contains 30 g of ionic exchange resin (IER) [11]. Glass wool is placed in both, bottom (as a support) and top (as a filter) sections. Samples are collected through the funnel, and hydrologic flux is channeled to resin mixed bed through the column where ions are retained. The funnel is connected to IER column by a PVC tube (1.27 cm × 35.6 cm), in addition, a double-wall shadow tube is placed around resin column to avoid that solar radiation damage the resin. Resin used for IER collectors was a mixed bed of polystyrene to exchange both, anions and cations (Amberlite IRN-150™). In the top of sampling devices, a fine mesh is placed to avoid the input of insects, leaves, and so on. The PVC column has a valve which must be open all time to let the pass of hydrologic flux through the collector.
The main advantage of this kind of collector is that can be used during long exposition periods (i.e., months), the equipment has a low cost, and let to display a great number of them to characterize deposition spatial patterns with a high resolution [12].
Sampling was carried out from January 1 to December 31 of 2018, with three sampling sub-periods considering three climatic seasons: cold dry, warm dry, and rains. At the end of each sampling sub-period, resin tubes were changed by tubes containing fresh resin. Later, retained ions (sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium) were extracted from resin tube by using an extraction solution (KCL 2N solution) and analyzed by turbidimetric and colorimetric methods, respectively.
Atmospheric deposition samples were sent and analyzed in Environmental Protection Laboratory of Chemistry Faculty of Autonomous University of Carmen. NH4+ was determined by molecular absorption spectrometry by using blue indophenol method [13]. SO42− was determined by turbidimetric method [14], whereas NO3− was analyzed by colorimetric method using the brucine method [15].
To identify possible natural and anthropogenic sources and to analyze transport processes which could influence on N and S levels in atmospheric deposition in the study area, a meteorological analysis was carried out at both, surface and altitude. For this, surface meteorological data were obtained from meteorological portable stations (Davies Vantage Pro II). Later, to carry out surface meteorological analysis, wind rose graphs were obtained by using WRPLOT View™ (Lakes Environmental), to identify prevailing wind direction in the study area.
For the altitude meteorological analysis, backward air-masses trajectories for 24 h were obtained from HYSPLIT model (Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) from NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of United States) to identify the origin of air masses and to identify the main transport processes contributing to N and S deposition during the study period.
To obtain descriptive measurements, to analyze the morphology and symmetry of data, univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analysis was carried out by using XLSTAT 20016 program. Likewise, non-parametric tests (Friedman test) were applied to establish if, there were significant differences between treatments (sites and sampling seasons) [16].
To obtain deposition maps in the study area, a geo-statistical procedure was applied to interpolate field measurements (kriging interpolation) and to obtain a continuous spatial pattern for the variables (concentration iso-lines) to increase the number of points in the maps.
To assess the seasonal variability, deposition fluxes were analyzed for three climatic periods: cold dry, warm dry, and rainy. During the cold dry season, a mean flux of 10.89 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum of 17.14 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site VI, which corresponds to Zoológico, located at NE, whereas the minimum value of 6.58 Kg Ha−1 year−1 was obtained for site VII that corresponds to Universidad de León (Figure 2).
Sulfate atmospheric deposition fluxes by season.
On the other hand, the mean value obtained during warm dry season was 13.98 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum value of 25.82 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site IV (Instituto Tecnológico de León), located at SE, whereas the minimum value (1.81 Kg Ha−1 year−1) was found in site III, which corresponds to monitoring station IMSS T-21, located at downtown of the city (Figure 2).
Finally, during rainy season, the mean value obtained was 15.52 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum of 18.43 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in sites III and VI, located at NE and at downtown of the city, whereas the minimum value (11.77 Kg Ha−1 year−1) was obtained for site I (monitoring station CICEG-Bomberos) (Figure 2).
From Figure 2, it can be observed that mean deposition fluxes for sulfate were relatively higher during the rainy season and lower during cold dry season. With respect to extreme values, the highest values were observed during warm dry season, suggesting that the lack of dilution during this season could result in higher values in the region. Applying the Friedman tests, significant differences in sulfate atmospheric deposition fluxes were found between seasons.
To assess the spatial distribution, sulfate atmospheric deposition fluxes were analyzed by site. A mean value of 13.78 Kg Ha−1 year−1 was found, with a maximum value of 25.82 Kg Ha−1 year−1. From Figure 3, it can be observed that the highest mean value was found in site IV (Instituto Tecnológico de León) located at SE, whereas the minimum value (1.81 Kg Ha−1 year−1) was registered for site III, where monitoring station IMSS-T21 is located just at downtown of the city. Considering extreme values, the higher fluxes were found for site IV; however, when Friedman test was applied, significant differences were not found. It suggests a certain homogeneity in sulfate deposition levels in the study region, which confirms the regional character of sulfate precursor (SO2).
Sulfate atmospheric deposition fluxes by site.
To assess the variability of sulfate atmospheric deposition fluxes by land use, sampling sites were grouped according to the prevailing land use as follows:
Industrial land use: Sites I, II, III, IV, V.
Urban land use: Sites VI, VII, VIII, IX, X.
According to Figure 4, it can be observed that mean sulfate deposition fluxes were slightly higher in sites with an urban land use; however, sites with an industrial land use showed extreme values. When Friedman tests was applied, significant differences between land use were not found. It demonstrates a spatial homogeneity that suggests the regional origin of sulfate as a result of long-range transport mainly during the rainy season.
Sulfate atmospheric deposition fluxes by land use.
In the case of sites grouped with an urban land use, the mean value found was 14.05 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum and minimum values of 20.70 and 6.58 Kg Ha−1 year−1, respectively, observed in sites VI (Zoológico at NE) and site VII (Universidad de León) (Figure 4).
On the other hand, in the case of sites grouped with an industrial land use, the mean value found was 13.51 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum value of 25.82 Kg Ha−1 year−1. Considering extreme values, the highest values were found in site IV (Instituto Tecnológico de León at SE), whereas the lowest value (1.81 Kg Ha−1 year−1) was registered in site III (monitoring station IMSS-T21 at downtown of the city).
From Figure 5, it can be observed that the higher nitrate deposition fluxes were obtained during cold dry season, with a mean value of 2.93 Kg Ha−1 year−1 and a maximum value of 3.93 Kg Ha−1 year−1, which corresponds to site X (Loma Blanca, at SW). On the other hand, the mean value obtained for warm dry season was 0.78 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum of 1.47 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site X (Loma Blanca at SW). Finally, during the rainy season, a mean value of 1.13 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum value of 2.84 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site X (Loma Blanca at SW) and a minimum value of 0.22 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site V (Instituto de la Mujer at SE) were found (Figure 5).
Nitrate atmospheric deposition fluxes by season.
Applying Friedman tests, significant differences were found between cold dry season and the other two sampling seasons.
From the analysis by sampling site, a mean nitrate atmospheric deposition flux of 1.61 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum value of 3.93 Kg Ha−1 year−1 was found. The highest value was observed in site X (Loma Blanca at SW) (Figure 6). However, when Friedman test was applied, differences found were not statistically significant, suggesting a certain uniformity in the distribution of sources (especially mobile sources) and nitrate levels around study area.
Nitrate atmospheric deposition fluxes by site.
To assess the variability of nitrate atmospheric deposition fluxes by land use, sampling sites were grouped according to the prevailing land use as follows:
Industrial land use: Sites I, II, III, IV, V.
Urban land use: Sites VI, VII, VIII, IX, X.
In the case of sites grouped with an urban land use, it was obtained a mean value of 1.62 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum of 3.93 Kg Ha−1 year−1. Regarding extreme values, the highest nitrate deposition fluxes were found in site X (Figure 7). On the other hand, in the case of sites grouped with an industrial land use, the mean value obtained was 1.50 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum of 3.26 Kg Ha−1 year−1. The highest flux was registered in site I, corresponding to monitoring station located at CICEG Bomberos (Figure 7).
Nitrate atmospheric deposition fluxes by land use.
According to Figure 7, it can be observed that nitrate deposition was slightly higher in sites with an urban land use; this agrees with the origin of nitrate, whose main source is mobile sources, which are uniformly distributed along metropolitan area of León. This hypothesis was confirmed by applying Friedman tests which demonstrated that there were not significant differences between sampling sites or land use.
From Figure 8, it can be observed that the mean ammonium deposition flux was higher during the cold dry season. During the cold dry season, the mean value obtained was 11.29 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum value of 15.78 Kg Ha−1 year−1 which corresponds to sites I and IV (CICEG Bomberos and Instituto Tecnológico de León, located at SE). On the other hand, during the other two seasons, nitrate deposition fluxes were significantly lower. The mean value obtained during warm dry season was 1.08 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum of 6.07 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site VI (Zoológico located at NE), whereas the mean value registered for rainy season was 0.25 Kg Ha−1 year−1 with a maximum value of 1.06 Kg Ha−1 year−1 in site III (IMSS-T21, at the downtown of the city) (Figure 8).
Ammonium atmospheric deposition fluxes by season.
The marked seasonality found in ammonium levels suggests two important aspects: first, the dilution effect is important since ammonium levels during the rainy season were considerably lower as a result of frequent and intense rains occurring during this season in comparison with the other two seasons of the year. Second, the temporality of sources could be important, since the use of agrochemicals can be intensive during the cold dry season, resulting in levels considerably high during this season. This was demonstrated applying Friedman test, whose results confirmed that differences between seasons were significant.
To assess the spatial variability and their distribution, ammonium deposition fluxes were analyzed by sampling site, finding a mean value of 4.29 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with the highest value registered in site X (Loma Blanca at SW) (Figure 9). However, applying Friedman test, it was concluded that there were not significant differences between sampling sites. It suggests that the differences found could be attributed only to sampling season as a result of agricultural activities and the effect of atmospheric dilution.
Ammonium atmospheric deposition fluxes by site.
To assess the variability of ammonium atmospheric deposition fluxes by land use, sampling sites were grouped according to the prevailing land use as follows:
Industrial land use: Sites I, II, III, IV, V.
Urban land use: Sites VI, VII, VIII, IX, X.
In the case of sites grouped with an urban land use, the mean value obtained was 3.97 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum of 14.04 Kg Ha−1 year−1. Regarding extreme values, the highest values were found in site VI (Zoológico at NE), whereas in the case of sites grouped with an industrial land use, the mean value obtained was 4.45 Kg Ha−1 year−1, with a maximum of 15.78 Kg Ha−1 year−1. The highest mean value was registered in site IV (Instituto Tecnológico de León at SE) (Figure 10). From Figure 10, it can be observed that the mean ammonium deposition flux did not show any variability or trend with respect to land use; however, the extreme values were higher in those sites with an industrial land use; however, when Friedman test was applied, any significant difference was found.
Ammonium atmospheric deposition fluxes by land use.
To carry out the meteorological analysis at regional level, 24-h backward air-masses trajectories at 500, 1000, and 1500 m of altitude were obtained (a total of 85 trajectories) from HYSPLIT Model (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), and choosing as representative site to CICEG-BOMBEROS, located at SE of the metropolitan area. In addition, meteorological surface data were obtained from SINAICA (National System of Air Quality Information) to estimate wind roses to identify the prevailing wind direction during the study period.
From surface analysis, it could be observed that wind direction showed a great variability between climatic seasons, for example, the prevailing wind direction during cold dry season was from SW (Figure 11a), during warm dry season was from NE (Figure 11b), and during rainy season was from E-NE (Figure 11c).
Frequency histogram for (a) cold dry season, (b) for warm dry season, and (c) for rainy season.
In Figure 12, it can be observed that during warm dry and rainy seasons, the lowest ammonium deposition fluxes were registered, unlike cold dry season, when the highest levels were observed. During all study period, the highest ammonium atmospheric deposition fluxes were found at the southeast of the city (CICEG-Bomberos and Instituto Tecnológico de León, both with an industrial land use). It is worth mentioning that both sites are influenced by the emissions released by a great vehicular fleet that circulates daily on the streets, especially near monitoring station CICEG-Bomberos which is located on the main route of entry to the city from Guanajuato and Silao.
Deposition map of NH4+ (kg ha−1 year−1) in León City, (a) cold dry season, (b) warm dry season, and (c) rainy season.
In the case of nitrate, from Figure 13, it can be observed that the highest nitrate deposition fluxes were found during the cold dry season. Regarding seasonal patterns, it can be observed that the highest nitrate deposition fluxes were registered at de Southwest of the city, specifically in site X, which corresponds to site of Loma Blanca. This zone has an urban land use with the highest altitude in the city (elevation of 1874 m), in which, there are many commercial areas and avenues with high vehicular traffic such as Miguel de Cervantes Av., Miguel Torres Landa Oriente Blvd. and Mariano Escobedo Oriente Blvd.
Deposition map of NO3− (kg ha−1 year−1) in León City, (a) cold dry season, (b) warm dry season, and (c) rainy season.
Since nitrate deposition fluxes were higher during the cold dry season, it suggests the origin of nitrate and its precursor in local sources. In addition, wind velocities are lower during the cold dry season in comparison with the other two seasons; therefore, there is a minor dispersion of pollutants in the region. Another important factor is the lack of rain, contributing to a minor dilution or washing of the atmosphere. Levels found were homogeneously distributed as a result of local sources, and it agrees with residence time in the atmosphere of NO2.
In the case of SO42−, its deposition fluxes were uniformly distributed in the metropolitan area of León (Figure 14a–c). In all seasons, the highest levels were found at NE (Site VI: Zoológico) and at SE (Sites I and IV corresponding to CICEG Bomberos and Instituto Tecnológico de León), all of them, with an industrial land use. On the other hand, the lowest sulfate deposition fluxes were found at North of the city.
Deposition map of SO42− (kg ha−1 year−1) in León city, (a) cold dry season, (b) warm dry season, and (c) rainy season.
The highest value for sulfate atmospheric deposition flux was found during the rainy season; however, this difference was not statistically significant in comparison with the other two seasons. Some hot spots were identified: at NE (Site VI), at SE (sites I and IV), and at SW (Site X).
It has been proposed a critical load value of 5 Kg N ha−1 year −1 for alpine ecosystems, which are more sensitive than ecosystems in lowlands [17], whereas in Nuevo México and California, a critical load value of 3–8 and 4–7 Kg N ha−1 year−1, respectively, has been proposed [18]. Regarding to Mexico, reference values to compare N and S atmospheric deposition fluxes are not available. On the other hand, for S, it has been proposed a critical load value of 3 Kg S ha−1 year−1 for sensitive areas in Europe, whereas for natural forests, values between 2 and 5 Kg S ha−1 year−1 have been proposed [18].
In this study, mean deposition fluxes for N (as N-NH4+ + N-NO3−) and S (as SO42−) in metropolitan area of León were 5.82 N and 13.77 Kg S ha−1 year−1, respectively. In the case of N, exceeds the value reported for alpine ecosystems, but is near the reference values for Nuevo México and California. N deposition levels found in metropolitan area of León were twice as that reported by Cerón et al. [19] in Carmen Island, Campeche (2.15 N Kg ha−1 year−1); by Cerón et al. [20] in Orizaba Valley, Veracruz (1.44 N Kg ha−1 year−1); and by López [21] in Mérida, Yucatán (2.7 N Kg ha−1 year−1); also exceeding those values reported by Cerón et al. [22] in metropolitan area of Monterrey (4.88 N Kg ha−1 year−1) and five times as that reported by Cerón et al. [23] in Atasta-Xicalango, Campeche (1.15 Kg ha−1 year−1).
With respect to S, deposition fluxes exceeded almost 4.5 times the critical load value proposed for sensitive areas in Europe, whereas for natural forests, reference value was exceeded almost three times those values reported by Cerón et al. [19] in Carmen Island, Campeche (4.7 S Kg ha−1 year−1) and by López [21] in Mérida, Yucatán (4.07 S Kg ha−1 year−1), and twice the value reported by Cerón et al. [23] in Atasta-Xicalango, Campeche (8.57 S Kg ha−1 year−1). However, values reported by Cerón et al. [20] in Orizaba Valley (55.16 S Kg ha−1 year−1) and by Cerón et al. [22] in metropolitan area of Monterrey (25.03 Kg ha−1 year−1) were not exceeded. Therefore, it can be inferred that, N and S atmospheric deposition fluxes constitute a potential risk of acidification for ecosystems in the region.
In general, a strong seasonality in both, N and S atmospheric deposition fluxes was observed. Regarding to spatial variability, it was found that, in each climatic season, fluxes stayed homogeneous and uniformly distributed as a result of meteorological conditions prevailing in each season, having a regional origin during the rainy season and a local origin during the rest of the year. NH4+ and NO3− showed a similar spatial and temporal pattern in their deposition fluxes. According to the analysis by season, the highest N deposition flux was found during the cold dry season, followed by warm dry season and rainy season, respectively. It could be explained due to the occurrence of a minor dispersion of pollutants resulting from lower wind velocities, and the frequent occurrence of thermal inversions during the cold dry season. On the other hand, dilution phenomena could play an important role during the rainy season, resulting in lower fluxes during this season. From spatial analysis of N deposition fluxes, it can be concluded that the site with the highest N deposition was Loma Blanca (Site X). In general, all sites where the highest N deposition fluxes were found are urban sites located in the suburbs of the city, with high vehicular traffic, where some agricultural sites are located. It suggests that the main sources of NO3− are vehicular emissions, whereas the main source of NH4+ is the intensive use of fertilizers in these agricultural zones. However, since significant differences were not found between sampling sites by land use, it can be concluded that fluxes could be uniformly distributed, confirming their local origin. It agrees with the residence time of NO2 in the atmosphere of 1 day, time in which, it is deposited as NO3− or NH4+ at ground level, being their concentrations higher in the surroundings of the emission point. Since in León city, there was not a territorial ecological order in the past, the city growth and development along the years was not planned, resulting in the coexistence of different type of land use in a given zone.
On the other hand, S deposition fluxes showed a different pattern, suggesting their regional origin. From seasonal analysis, it was found that the highest atmospheric deposition flux occurred during the rainy season, followed by warm dry and cold dry seasons. It agrees with the regional character of SO2 (sulfate precursor) which has a residence time in the atmosphere of 1–5 days [24, 25], being able to transport long distances before to be deposited finally at ground level. From air masses trajectories analysis, it could be concluded that, during the rainy season, this pollutant is long-range transported from the South of United States and from the North of Gulf of Mexico, explaining in this way, why during this season, a relative sulfate enrichment is observed in comparison with the other two seasons.
From analysis by sampling site, the site with the highest S atmospheric deposition flux was Instituto Tecnológico de León followed by Zoológico (sites IV and VI), these sites have an industrial and urban land use, suggesting that both vehicular and industrial emissions could contribute to background sulfate levels, which in turn were temporarily increased during the rainy season due to the long-range transport of air masses from distant sources (South of United States and North of Gulf of Mexico).
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