Syngas compositions (% by volume)
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8613",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Aerospace Engineering",title:"Aerospace Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of engineering. The book comprises chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in the aerospace engineering research area. All chapters are separate but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on engineering, and opening new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-83962-786-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-784-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-787-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79206",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"aerospace-engineering",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"075278075d72ebe02490ff58675119ef",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8613.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13440,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:36,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/9833/images/system/9833.jfif",biography:"Prof. George Dekoulis received his Ph.D. in Space Computing and Communications from Lancaster University, UK, in 2007. He was awarded a First Class BEng (Hons) degree in Communications Engineering from De Montfort University, UK, in 2001. He has received several awards from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), and the Hudswell International Research Scholarship (IET). He is the Founding Dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Technology at the American University of Cyprus (AUCY), Cyprus. He was previously a professor at the Aerospace Engineering Institute (AEI), Cyprus. Founder of the IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society (AESS), Cyprus. General chair of IEEE Aerospace Engineering Innovations 2019 (IEEE AEI 2019), Limassol, Cyprus. He has worked as a professor in Computer Science & Communications at various departments, such as Space & Planetary Physics, Aeronautical and Space Engineering, Professional Flight, Robotics/Mechatronics & Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science & Engineering, and Electrical and Electronics Engineering. His research focuses on the design of reconfigurable Digital Logic Computer Science and Engineering Systems.",institutionString:"American University of Cyprus (AUCY)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"111",title:"Aerospace Engineering",slug:"aerospace-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"65403",title:"Green Comparable Alternatives of Hydrazines-Based Monopropellant and Bipropellant Rocket Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82676",slug:"green-comparable-alternatives-of-hydrazines-based-monopropellant-and-bipropellant-rocket-systems",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Concepts are presented for “green” (with reduced hazards) replacements for monopropellant hydrazine propulsion systems and for hypergolic bipropellant systems while maintaining similar performance. At the onset of the “green propulsion” age, “green” alternatives to hydrazine propulsion have been emerging. The introduction rate of these into space systems is very slow due to the conservatism of the space propulsion industry. The concept presented here for monopropellant hydrazine systems offers gradual conversion to “green propellants” by dual capability of conventional hydrazine systems and ammonium dinitramide (ADN)-based systems. An initial risk reduction program has been carried out for materializing the concept. It includes proof of concept of dual use of all propulsion system parts. Materials compatibility and actual operation have been demonstrated. For bipropellants, we present the emerging “green” hypergolic system based on kerosene and peroxide, similar in performance to MMH/N2O4. Results of the proof-of-concept and development model systems are presented. The experimental results of various engine types demonstrate the capability to operate in both pulse and steady-state modes and the ability to produce different thrust levels. The fuel and oxidizer show very robust hypergolicity and short ignition delay times, as well as characteristic velocity efficiency exceeding 98%.",signatures:"Dov Hasan, Dan Grinstein, Alexander Kuznetsov, Benveniste Natan, Zohar Schlagman, Avihay Habibi and Moti Elyashiv",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65403",authors:[{id:"267970",title:"Mr.",name:"Dov",surname:"Hasan",slug:"dov-hasan",fullName:"Dov Hasan"},{id:"284659",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Grinstein",slug:"dan-grinstein",fullName:"Dan Grinstein"},{id:"284661",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"alexander-kuznetsov",fullName:"Alexander Kuznetsov"},{id:"284663",title:"Prof.",name:"Benveniste",surname:"Natan",slug:"benveniste-natan",fullName:"Benveniste Natan"},{id:"284664",title:"Mr.",name:"Zohar",surname:"Schlagman",slug:"zohar-schlagman",fullName:"Zohar Schlagman"},{id:"284665",title:"Mr.",name:"Moti",surname:"Elyashiv",slug:"moti-elyashiv",fullName:"Moti Elyashiv"},{id:"284666",title:"Mr.",name:"Avihay",surname:"Habibi",slug:"avihay-habibi",fullName:"Avihay Habibi"}],corrections:null},{id:"65003",title:"High Strain Rate Characterization of Thermoplastic Fiber-Reinforced Composites under Compressive Loading",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82215",slug:"high-strain-rate-characterization-of-thermoplastic-fiber-reinforced-composites-under-compressive-loa",totalDownloads:1248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Experimental study on the mechanical behavior of polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)-based composite laminates reinforced with carbon and glass fibers subjected to different strain rates under compression load is reported. Quasi-static tests have been carried out using an electromechanical universal testing machine at three different strain rates, while dynamic tests were done using a split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) apparatus at two pressure setups in the gas chamber. High-speed imaging system was used to monitor failure process during dynamic test, and these images were used to measure strain by digital image correlation (DIC) in order to compare the DIC-based measurements performed with the SPHPB strain gauges and quasi-static results. Fractography analysis was also performed to identify the main failure mechanisms induced at different strain rates.",signatures:"Carolina Ramirez, Vitor Reis, Carlos Opelt, Rafael Santiago, Facundo Almeraya, Mauricio V. Donadon, Citlalli Gaona, Rene Croche and Miguel Angel Baltazar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65003",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65003",authors:[{id:"27441",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauricio V.",surname:"Donadon",slug:"mauricio-v.-donadon",fullName:"Mauricio V. Donadon"},{id:"170094",title:"Dr.",name:"Citlalli",surname:"Gaona",slug:"citlalli-gaona",fullName:"Citlalli Gaona"},{id:"170095",title:"Dr.",name:"Facundo",surname:"Almeraya-Calderon",slug:"facundo-almeraya-calderon",fullName:"Facundo Almeraya-Calderon"},{id:"270028",title:"MSc.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Ramirez",slug:"carolina-ramirez",fullName:"Carolina Ramirez"},{id:"281934",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Santiago",slug:"rafael-santiago",fullName:"Rafael Santiago"},{id:"281935",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitor",surname:"Reis",slug:"vitor-reis",fullName:"Vitor Reis"},{id:"281936",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Opelt",slug:"carlos-opelt",fullName:"Carlos Opelt"},{id:"285441",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Angel",surname:"Baltazar",slug:"miguel-angel-baltazar",fullName:"Miguel Angel Baltazar"},{id:"285447",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene",surname:"Croche",slug:"rene-croche",fullName:"Rene Croche"}],corrections:null},{id:"63682",title:"Matrix Converter for More Electric Aircraft",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81056",slug:"matrix-converter-for-more-electric-aircraft",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This proposed chapter discusses three methods that do not allow regenerative power from the matrix converter (MC) motor drive onto the aircraft power supply. According to aerospace power quality specifications, the regenerative power must be dissipated in the drive itself to avoid instability problem in aircraft power supply. These are bidirectional switch (BDS) method, input power clamp (IPC) method, and standard clamp circuit (SCC) method for aerospace applications. To identify regeneration in a matrix converter drive, two novel techniques are proposed. These are power comparison technique (PC) and input voltage reference technique (IVR). In both techniques, output power of MC and direction of speed, these factors are used to detect regeneration in MC drive. The electrical braking is important in many aerospace applications such as surface actuation and air-to-air (in-flight) refueling system. Therefore, the inherent regeneration capability of the matrix converter drive is not desirable for aerospace applications so it has to be avoided. The proposed methods are demonstrated through detailed simulation results and experimental verification. In order to prove the proposed methods with novel techniques, a 7.5-kW matrix converter fed 4-kW induction motor (IM) with inertial load has experimentally implemented. The obtained results using BDS method with PC technique proved avoiding regeneration with a matrix converter is feasible. This chapter is valuable for 150-kVA matrix converter for high-power application.",signatures:"Imayavaramban Munuswamy and Patrick W. Wheeler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63682",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63682",authors:[{id:"116380",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Wheeler",slug:"patrick-wheeler",fullName:"Patrick Wheeler"},{id:"230898",title:"Dr.",name:"Imayavaramban",surname:"Munuswamy Thanalakshmi",slug:"imayavaramban-munuswamy-thanalakshmi",fullName:"Imayavaramban Munuswamy Thanalakshmi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64742",title:"Turbine Engine Lubricant and Additive Degradation Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82398",slug:"turbine-engine-lubricant-and-additive-degradation-mechanisms",totalDownloads:1136,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern ester based synthetic lubricants have been used in various formulations with anti-oxidants, phosphorus based anti-wear additives and other additives for many years. The physical and chemical properties of both the basestock and additives are known to change through use. Basestocks are normally thought to degrade through various mechanisms, while additive can either degrade or are used as they react when they complete the function that they are added for. In this chapter, the composition of modern turbine engine lubricants and the mechanisms by which the lubricants degrade over time will be examined. Potential changes in bearing materials being evaluated for future engines and the effects of possible new ionic liquids based additives will be will be discussed as they relate to currently used additives. Also included will be a discussion of effects of degradation on the lubricant properties, how the changes affect turbine engines and how the changes can impact human health. These new materials introduce a number of new possible degradation schemes that must be evaluated before the materials enter wide-spread use.",signatures:"David W. Johnson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64742",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64742",authors:[{id:"178441",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"}],corrections:null},{id:"64957",title:"The Evolution of the Composite Fuselage: A Manufacturing Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82353",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-composite-fuselage-a-manufacturing-perspective",totalDownloads:4175,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A review of critical technologies and manufacturing advances that have enabled the evolution of the composite fuselage is described. The author’s perspective on several development, military, and production programs that have influenced and affected the current state of commercial fuselage production is presented. The enabling technologies and current approaches being used for wide body aircraft fuselage fabrication and the potential reasons why are addressed. Some questions about the future of composite fuselage are posed based on the lessons learned from today and yesterday.",signatures:"Alan Hiken",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64957",authors:[{id:"268240",title:"Mr.",name:"Alan",surname:"Hiken",slug:"alan-hiken",fullName:"Alan Hiken"}],corrections:null},{id:"64528",title:"Robotic Autonomous Spacecraft Missions: Cassini Mission-To-Saturn Example",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82161",slug:"robotic-autonomous-spacecraft-missions-cassini-mission-to-saturn-example",totalDownloads:1021,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Robotic interplanetary spacecraft sent to the outer planets of our solar system face many challenges: maintaining internal health and functionality of spacecraft subsystems handling material stresses from solar heating close to Earth, the cold of deep space once the destination is reached, solar radiation and bombardment of cosmic rays; maintaining adequate power to support engineering devices and science instruments; handling time-critical onboard faults in the presence of the long round-trip light time; and preserving one-time “crucial event” activities such as moon/planet flybys, deployment of the probe, and selected science targets. As an example, this chapter details the strategy implemented on the Cassini Mission-to-Saturn spacecraft, how its onboard subsystems are protected and maintained, the advantage of automated onboard fault protection monitor/response routines, protocols implemented to preclude human error in uplinked sequences, and updating onboard flight software as new discoveries are uncovered about the adverse flight environment, so that mission objectives are met under the presence of an ever-increasing delay between ground issued commands and the Cassini spacecraft as it approaches the Saturnian system, safeguarding planetary protection constraints as the spacecraft was deposited into the planet in a final fiery plunge.",signatures:"Paula S. Morgan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64528",authors:[{id:"110221",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Morgan",slug:"paula-morgan",fullName:"Paula Morgan"}],corrections:null},{id:"64840",title:"Advanced Nonlinear Modeling of Gas Turbine Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82015",slug:"advanced-nonlinear-modeling-of-gas-turbine-dynamics",totalDownloads:1386,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The process of gas turbine development requires different mathematical models. In particular, physics-based nonlinear dynamic models are widely used in the development of control and diagnostic systems. The present chapter firstly reviews known works on nonlinear dynamic engine modeling centering on model applications and developments. As an important development, modeling of heating up engine components is considered. This phenomenon consists in a radial clearance change during transients that influences engine static and dynamic performances. This clearance change is usually computed by a finite element method that is critical to computer resources. The chapter secondly presents a new and more rapid simulation methodology to integrate two dynamic processes, a general engine transient and a clearance change. This allows creating a more accurate and relatively fast engine dynamic model that is easy to use in the design of control and diagnostic systems. Finally, the chapter introduces further methodology enhancement consisting in the consideration of the influence of varying metal temperature on the strains induced by mechanical loads. To validate methodology, it is applied to a particular turbofan engine, and the simulated and real engine dynamic performances are compared.",signatures:"Roman L. Zelenskyi, Sergiy V. Yepifanov and Igor Loboda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64840",authors:[{id:"179551",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",surname:"Loboda",slug:"igor-loboda",fullName:"Igor Loboda"},{id:"268896",title:"Dr.",name:"Roman",surname:"Zelenskyi",slug:"roman-zelenskyi",fullName:"Roman Zelenskyi"},{id:"268899",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergiy",surname:"Yepifanov",slug:"sergiy-yepifanov",fullName:"Sergiy Yepifanov"}],corrections:null},{id:"63715",title:"Effect of Microstructure on Microhardness and Electrochemical Behavior in Hypereutectic Al-Fe Alloy Processed by Laser Surface Remelting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81095",slug:"effect-of-microstructure-on-microhardness-and-electrochemical-behavior-in-hypereutectic-al-fe-alloy-",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An analysis was made of microstructure of hypereutectic Al-2.0 wt.% Fe alloy treated by laser surface remelting (LSR), microhardness test, and electrochemical behavior test and their numerical simulation was done. Microstructure was analyzed by optical microscopy, field-emission scanning electron microscopy and Vickers microhardness tests. Results obtained in this study indicate in LSR-treatment occurred rapid heating and followed by rapid cooling, resulting in formation of a thin recast layer with a refined microstructure, with dissolution of precipitates and inclusions and formation of metastable phases, however, an overlapping line on consecutive weld fillets was observed. Furthermore, analysis of Vickers hardness were done in the cross-sectional area of treated sample and on the treated sample surface, therefore, result a greater microhardness of the treated region than untreated substrate. Through the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test, laser surface remelting-treated workpiece exhibit higher polarization resistance than untreated, at 11 times higher and capacitive behavior of material is related to aluminum oxide layer properties, then, microstructure characteristic caused by overlapping ratio and multi-track has a strong effect on electrochemical process.",signatures:"Moises Meza Pariona and Katieli Tives Micene",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63715",authors:[{id:"38666",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Moises",surname:"Pariona",slug:"moises-pariona",fullName:"Moises Pariona"},{id:"223626",title:"Dr.",name:"Katieli",surname:"Micene",slug:"katieli-micene",fullName:"Katieli Micene"},{id:"269835",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Zara",slug:"jose-zara",fullName:"Jose Zara"}],corrections:null},{id:"64541",title:"Optimal Control of Fuzzy Systems with Application to Rigid Body Attitude Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82181",slug:"optimal-control-of-fuzzy-systems-with-application-to-rigid-body-attitude-control",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the author presents a theoretical result on the optimal control of nonlinear dynamic systems. In this theoretical result, the author presents the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems and shows that this problem can be solved by utilizing the dynamic programming approach and the inverse optimal approach. The author employs the dynamic programming approach to derive the Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (H-J-B) equation associated with the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems. Then, the author presents an analytic way to solve the H-J-B equation with the help of the inverse optimal approach. Based on the theoretical result presented in this chapter, the author establishes an optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems that guarantees the global asymptotic stability of an equilibrium point and the optimality with respect to a cost function and provides good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. The author considers the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body to illustrate the optimal control design method for TS-type fuzzy systems. The author designs the optimal three-axis attitude stabilizing control law for a rigid body based on this optimal control design method and analyzes its control performance by numerical simulations.",signatures:"Yonmook Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64541",authors:[{id:"2861",title:"Dr.",name:"Yonmook",surname:"Park",slug:"yonmook-park",fullName:"Yonmook Park"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5597",title:"Field",subtitle:"Programmable Gate Array",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee9b6139297123dec4d906c950913c0d",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5597.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George 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Therefore it is necessary to find alternative fuels to be used in the standard internal combustion engine to bridge this gap. Biomass is considered as the renewable energy source with the highest potential to contribute to the energy needs of modern society for both the developed and developing economies world-wide [1]. Energy from biomass, based on short rotation forestry and other energy crops, can contribute significantly towards the objectives of the Kyoto Agreement in reducing the greenhouse gases emissions and to the problems related to climate change [2]. The gasification of biomass allows the production of a synthesis gas or ‘‘syngas,’’ consisting primarily of H2, CO, CH4, CO2 and N2 [3]. The specific composition depends upon the fuel source and the processing technique. These substantial variations in composition and heating value are among the largest barriers toward their usage.
The main advantage that comes from the use of syngas in SI engines over the conventional liquid, petroleum-based fuels is the potential for increased thermal efficiency [4]. This is attributed to the relatively high compression ratios permitted, usually by converting Diesel engines for gaseous fuel operation in the SI mode [5], since CO and CH4 are characterized by high anti-knock behavior [6]. On the contrary, the relatively increased end-gas temperature, which the fast flame propagation rate of H2 can produce during combustion and can be responsible for knock onset, is compensated for by the presence of diluents in the fuel (N2 and CO2). Their effect on combustion is to lower flame speed and so decrease the in-cylinder pressures and temperatures. The moderation of peak gas temperatures during combustion, attributed to this feature, has also a reduction effect on NOx emissions [8]. Besides, the drawback of reduced power output using fuels with relatively low heating values can be partially balanced by turbo-charging the engine. Towards the direction of minimizing this power derating when, for example, syngas with low heating value equal to 4–6 MJ/Nm3 is used instead of natural gas with low heating value of approximately 30 MJ/Nm3, contributes the fact that the syngas stoichiometric air–fuel ratio is about 1.2 compared with the value of 17 for the natural gas case. Thus, the energy content per unit quantity of mixture (air + fuel) inducted to the cylinder is only marginally lower when using syngas, compared with the corresponding natural gas case [9].
In single-cylinder or multi-cylinder engines, it is very difficult to control the combustion, because parameters are coupled with each other under engine operating conditions. For this reason, the use of a rapid compression machine (RCM) allows to elucidate about combustion characteristics and visualize combustion phenomena [10-15].
In this chapter, two typical mixtures of H2, CO, CH4, CO2 and N2 have been considered as representative of the producer gas coming from wood gasification, and its turbulent combustion at engine-like conditions is made in a rapid compression machine designed to simulate the thermodynamic cycle of an engine, particularly compression and expansion strokes, in order to improve current knowledge and provide reference data for modeling and simulation with the objective of its application in stationary energy production systems based on internal combustion engines.
Gasification is the thermo-chemical conversion of a carbonaceous fuel at high temperatures, involving partial oxidation of the fuel elements. The result of the gasification is a fuel gas - the so-called syngas - consisting mainly of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), methane (CH4), nitrogen (N2), some hydrocarbons in very low quantity and contaminants, such as carbon particles, tar and ash.
Syngas-air mixtures and methane-air mixture are prepared in bottles by means of partial pressure method, and then the mixture is prepared within the chamber by adding syngas and air at specified partial pressures. The purity of the gases is in all cases at least 99.9%. The typical syngas compositions are shown in the Table 1.
Gasifier | H2 | CO | CO2 | CH4 | N2 |
Updraft | 11 | 24 | 9 | 3 | 53 |
Downdraft | 17 | 21 | 13 | 1 | 48 |
Syngas compositions (% by volume)
The simplified chemical reaction that expresses the stoichiometric combustion of syngas for syngas typical compositions is [16]:
Where
The flammability limit is the most widely used index for representing the flammability characteristics of gases. In accordance with generally accepted usage, the flammability limits are known as those regions of fuel–air ratio within which flame propagation can be possible and beyond which flame cannot propagate. And there are two distinct separate flammability limits for the fuel–air mixture, namely, the leanest fuel-limit up to which the flame can propagate is termed as lower flammability limit (LFL), and the richest limit is called as upper flammability limit (UFL).
The purpose of this study is to determine the flammability limits of syngas-air mixtures as guidance for stationary energy production systems. As the conditions in an energy production scenario are different, namely in terms of pressure, some apparatus characteristics referred in the standards described above are not followed. The flammable region obtained will be narrower than the actual flammable region.
In this context, prior to our experimental work, various measurements of the flammable region of syngas-air mixtures with a specific ignition system providing ignition energy of 45 mJ and initial conditions of 293 K for temperature and 1.0 bar and 3.0 bar for pressure.
The syngas-air mixtures were prepared within the spherical chamber using two 10L bottles previously prepared with the syngas composition and another with compressed atmospheric air by the partial pressure method. The equivalence ratio was varied in 0.1 steps. The flammability limits using for different initial conditions of pressure is shown in figures 1-2. In the boundaries of the flammable region ten shots were made in order to get the ignition success.
Flammability limits of the updraft syngas-air mixture.
Flammability limits of the downdraft syngas-air mixture.
Figure 1 shows that the flammable region for the updraft syngas-air mixture for 1.0 bar and 293K is between 0.4 and 1.4 equivalence ratios. Increasing the initial pressure to 3.0 bar, the lean flammability limit is reduced to ϕ=0.5.
Figure 2 shows that the flammable region for the downdraft syngas-air mixture for 1.0 bar and 293K is between 0.3 and 1.6 equivalence ratios. Pressure increase for ϕ=0.3 is only 20% of the initial pressure. Increasing the initial pressure to 3.0 bar, the lean flammability limit is reduced to ϕ=0.4.
The stretched burning velocity,
Where
The simultaneous change in the pressure and temperature of the unburned mixture during a closed vessel explosion makes it necessary to rely on correlations which take these effects into account like the one proposed by [18]:
Where,
The correlations of laminar burning velocities of the typical syngas compositions of the type
where,
The experiments were conducted in a rapid compression machine (RCM) at the Institute P’ of the ENSMA. This RCM has been designed in such a manner that the piston velocity evolves similarly as it does in a real engine. Volumetric compression ratio of the RCM can be varied from ε=9.1 to ε=18.8 by changing the clearance volume. The RCM features a square cross/section with rounded corners piston (50×50, r=3.6 mm), allowing flat windows to be mounted on lateral sides of the chamber; this enables direct visualizations and planar laser sheet measurements within the whole dead volume (Fig. 3).
The piston is equipped with a squared sealing ring but also with a square shaped guiding ring, to avoid asymmetric formation of corner vortex. Moreover the RCM features a long compression stroke (S=419 mm), providing a wider visualization window at top dead center (TDC) for a given compression ratio. Compression of reactive mixtures is obtained as follows. A hydraulic cylinder sets a cam into motion. The horizontal translation is transformed into a vertical motion via a guiding wheel. The RCM is equipped with a return cylinder to keep the contact between the cam and the guiding wheel; this ensures that the volume of the chamber is well stabilized at TDC.
The RCM is fitted with a heating system in the chamber walls to vary the initial temperature at bottom dead center (BDC) between 293 and 373 ±1.5K.
RCM scheme. (1) Cylinder/combustion chamber, (2) return cylinder, (3) guiding wheel, (4) Brake system, (5) Piston, (6) Connecting rod, (7) Cam, (8) hydraulic cylinder, (9) lever.
The mechanical part of the RCM is based on the principle of the catapult. A cylinder, commanded by a high-speed servo valve (response time of approximately 5 ms) and supplied with a hydro-electric power station allowing a flow of 400 l/min, drives a steel rod of large dimensions (length 775 mm, thickness 50 mm, H section) which in turns drive a carriage of 40 kg at high speed installed horizontally on rails. This carriage is equipped with a cam whose profile actuates a roller that supports the piston vertical movement. The profile is calculated to reproduce the movement of an engine running at around 700 rpm. It was necessary to install hydraulic brakes (ordered in a mechanical way, by safety) on the way of the carriage in order to stop it, which passes from 0 to 40 km/h and then from 40 km/h to 0. Everything will take 60 ms, which explains the 5 meters length of the machine.
The RCM is equipped with various measurement means: a laser sensor to measure displacement, inductive sensors positioned along the axis of the piston to start the optical instrumentation and to generate the spark, a sensor to measure the dynamic pressure in the combustion chamber, as well as a thermocouple used during special tests where the chamber is heated, and controlled in temperature. The chamber is equipped with valves intended for the draining and filling of gas mixtures, as well as a secondary cylinder to create controlled aerodynamic effects representative of those found in engines (swirl movement, tumble or homogeneous turbulence).
The RCM control is managed by a PC. The measuring signs (pressure, piston position, wall temperature, heat flux, etc.) are registered simultaneously by a data acquisition system (National Instrument 6259) and integrated in the interface. Also some RCM controlling parameters (brakes pressure, hydraulic pressure, piston position, contact cam/lever, etc.) are taking into account for security reasons. The interface also controls the signals of the lasers and camera.
In an ideal spark-ignited internal combustion engine one can distingue three stages: compression, combustion and expansion. The entire pressure rise during combustion takes place at constant volume at TDC. However in an actual engine this does not happen as well as in the RCM. The pressure variation due to combustion in a compression and expansion rapid compression machine is shown in figure 4 where three stages of combustion can be distinguished.
Stages of combustion in a RCM.
In this figure, A is the point of passage of spark, B is point at which the beginning of pressure rise can be detected and C the attainment of peak pressure. Thus, AB represents the first stage, BC the second stage and CD the third stage [19].
The first stage is referred to as ignition lag or preparation phase in which growth and development of a self-propagating nucleus of flame takes place. This is a chemical process depending upon both pressure and temperature and the nature of the fuel. Further, it is also dependent of the relationship between the temperature and the rate of reaction.
The second stage is a physical one and is concerned with the spread of the flame throughout the combustion chamber. The starting point of the second stage is where the first measurable rise of pressure is seen, i.e. the point where the line of combustion departs from the compression line (point B). This can be seen from the deviation from the compression (motoring) curve.
During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a constant velocity. Heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low, because only a small part of the burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall during this period. The rate of heat release depends largely of the turbulence intensity and also of the reaction rate which is dependent on the mixture composition. The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release because during this stage, the combustion chamber volume remains practically constant (since the piston is near the TDC).
The starting point of the third stage is usually taken at the instant at which the maximum pressure is reached (point C). The flame velocity decreases during this stage. The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame front surface. Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion, with the piston moving away from the TDC, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.
Although in principle RCM simulates a single compression event, complex aerodynamic features can affect the state of the reacting core in the reaction chamber. Previous studies [20, 21] have shown that the motion of the piston creates a roll-up vortex, which results in mixing of the cold gas pockets from the boundary layer with the hot gases in the core region. However, substantial discrepancies have been observed between data taken from different rapid compression machines even under similar conditions of temperature and pressure [22]. These discrepancies are attributed partly to the different heat loss characteristics after the end of the compression stroke and partly to the difference in aerodynamics between various machines. The effect of aerodynamics is particularly more complicated because it does not show up in the pressure trace and it may lead to significant temperature gradients and ultimately to the failure of the adiabatic core hypothesis.
The aerodynamics inside a rapid compression machine is highly unsteady in nature; it plays a role in pre-ignition through turbulent mixing, but also because it drives the evolution of the temperature distribution. The characterization of the temporal evolution of the flow, and quantify the distribution and turbulence intensity is made using an inert gas N2 to simplify the diagnosis and avoiding the disruption of PIV images by possible oxidation of unwanted particles. The flow remains representative of the reactive case when the heat release is negligible. Measurements on the total extent of the clearance volume and at the center of the chamber were made.
2.2.2.1. Velocity fluctuations
The study of turbulent flows is generally based on the Reynolds decomposition, where the instantaneous velocity (U) is decomposed into an averaged (<U>) part and a fluctuating (u) part: U = <U> + u.
In most cases, a global average is used to estimate mean velocity. Using this approach in an engine results in substantial overestimation of the turbulent intensity that can reach a factor of 2 [23]. Indeed, the cyclical fluctuations of the overall movement (such as large eddy scale movement) are included in the fluctuating field as well as fluctuations in velocity caused by the turbulent nature of the flow.
Instantaneous. velocity
Figure 5 shows the time evolution of the velocity field during an inert gas compression. It is observed 10 ms BTDC a laminar one-dimensional compression flow. A zone of high velocities (5 to 8 m/s), where the flow is turbulent, that come in the center of the clearance volume 5 ms after. The laminar flow of this zone becomes two-dimensional and diverging to the walls. The turbulent zone reaches TDC and occupies a large part of the chamber at that moment. The flow in this zone is structured by two counter-rotating vortices, which is consistent with the literature where the movement of the piston brings the gas from the side wall toward the center of the chamber, forming vortices on the corners. These vortices then move to the side walls and after down the chamber. Simultaneously, the maximum velocity of the flow gradually decreases, and the size of the \'laminar\' zone observed at the end of compression decreases. The disappearance of this zone occurs approximately 17 ms after TDC, although some low velocity zones remain. 40 ms after TDC, the corner vortices are replaced by a fragmented and highly three-dimensional flow.
Inert compression velocity fields (m/s) in the RCM [
The coexistence of laminar and turbulent regions is characteristic of MCR flat piston flow, where the gases are at rest before compression. One can observe a certain asymmetry in vortices velocity, with lower values at TDC and close to the walls (figure 5). This asymmetry reflects the exchange of kinetic energy that occurs in the strain layer between the vortex and the zone of lower flow. The velocity gradient direction at the zone interface may also be parallel to the mean flow, as is in the case of few milliseconds before TDC. In this case, if the inertia of the high speed zone regrowth clearly the core zone, the turbulent nature of the flow at the interface is also likely to accelerate the decrease in the extent of the core zone. This emphasis the existence of two ranges of scales associated with mixing phenomenon: those of the overall movement, and those of turbulence. Moreover, the overall velocity of the movement decreases rapidly if the flow stops. Thus, reflecting the kinetic energy transfer from large scales to the turbulent scales.
2.2.2.2. Analysis of the flow at the chamber core
The whole movement has been analyzed, and an initial assessment of turbulent fluctuations was provided from the whole filed measurements. Specific field measurements are now exposed to evaluate the properties of turbulence in detail. The turbulent characteristics are evaluated thanks to particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements with time resolution of 5 kHz along one field of 13x13 mm and image resolution of 512x512 pixels. The investigated zone is close to the center of the chamber (1.5 mm to the left), where the mean and fluctuating velocities remain relatively high along a 10 ms period after TDC. Figure 6 shows the fluctuation velocity components in this zone. It is observed that both velocity components fluctuations decrease after TDC with similar amplitude. The maximum of flow velocity is obtained 2-3 ms before TDC with values around 0.65 m/s. It is followed by a rapid decrease to around 0.4 m/s that reflect the overall decrease of the convection of the fastest zones outside the measured field.
Time evolution of the variation of velocity fluctuations [
Both velocity components fluctuations decrease after TDC with similar amplitude. The kinetic energy (
It is therefore, slightly underestimated (~20%) due to the lack of the third component. The turbulent intensity
Where u’ is the root mean square (rms) of the turbulent velocity fluctuations and U the mean velocity (Reynolds averaged).
Figure 7 represents the kinetic turbulent energy. The maximum of kinetic energy is obtained 2-3 ms before TDC. It is followed by a rapid decrease that reflects both the overall decrease of the turbulent kinetic energy but also the convection of the fastest zones outside the measured field.
Kinetic energy (left) and turbulence intensity (right) [
The turbulent intensity is moderate, with a value of about 20% with minor variations over time. One should remind that this value corresponds to a high velocity turbulent zone.
The RCM can work on two distinctive modes: single compression stroke and compression and expansion strokes.
Single compression is generally used for the study of high pressure auto-ignition of combustible mixtures as it gives direct measure of ignition delay [11]. When the interest is the heat transfer to the walls then it is usually used an inert gas, with equal adiabatic coefficient as the reacting mixture, as a test gas. In this work instead of an inert gas a stoichiometric syngas-air mixture was used out of auto-ignition conditions in order to provide data for the thermal model simulation.
Compression and expansion strokes simulate a single engine cycle of an internal combustion engine under easily controlled conditions and a cleaner environment than the traditional internal combustion engine.
Figures 8-9 show RCM experimental pressure histories of stoichiometric syngas-air mixtures for various spark times and compression ratio
Pressure versus time for stoichiometric updraft syngas-air mixture at various spark times.
Pressure versus time for stoichiometric downdraft syngas-air mixture at various spark times.
In both syngas cases, peak pressure decreases as the ignition time increases. When ignition is made at TDC, combustion will occur at constant volume, in the clearance volume. In this case, one has higher initial pressure and temperature and no influence of the flow of the fresh mixture being compressed by the piston movement, which reduces turbulence and, in turns, the heat transfer. As far as ignition timing concerns, the deviation from TDC allows lower initial pressure and temperature for combustion in the compression stroke and consequently lower peak pressure. It is also observed a reduction in the pressure gradient after TDC, which means that the heat released by combustion of syngas-air mixtures is not enough to keep the same pressure gradient. One can observe that the pressure gradient is kept for ignition timing of 12.5 ms BTDC.
As mentioned above, experiments with stoichiometric methane-air mixture were also performed for comparison reasons and the results are shown in Fig. 10.
Pressure versus time for stoichiometric methane-air mixture at various spark times.
This mixture follows the same behaviour of the typical syngas compositions nevertheless with higher pressures. For these results contributes the fact that the syngas stoichiometric air–fuel ratio ranges between 1.0 (downdraft) and 1.12 (updraft) compared with the value of 9.52 for methane. Taking into account that the RCM chamber has 1.0 Liter, the energy introduced in to the chamber is 2.60 kJ in the updraft case, 2.85 kJ in the downdraft case and 3.38 kJ in the methane case for stoichiometric conditions. These values are in agreement with the obtained cylinder pressures, however not proportional in terms of peak pressures due to the influence of heat losses. These are mainly dependent of the quenching distance as well as thermal conductivity of the mixture. The higher burning velocity of methane (see Ref. [24]) compared to syngas compositions also cause a more intensified convection.
Direct visualizations of the flame propagation in a RCM are shown in Fig. 11 for updraft syngas and for ignition at TDC and 12.5 ms BTDC, to clearly establish differences.
Direct visualization of stoichiometric updraft syngas-air mixtures combustion in a RCM. (a) Ignition at TDC; (b) Ignition at 12.5 ms BTDC [
When the ignition is made at TDC the combustion occurs at constant volume, in the clearance volume. Direct visualizations show an explosion with fast and turbulent flame propagation with combustion duration of about 17.5 ms. In opposite, the initial phase of combustion shows a quasi-spherical relatively smooth flame kernel specially for ignition timing of 12.5 ms BTDC. The flame kernel propagation is laminar and at some point experience flattening due to piston movement reaching the TDC. After that, a change to constant volume combustion occurs. The whole combustion duration is around 22.5 ms, which represents a remarkable increase compared with the full constant volume combustion. The deviation of the spark plug from TDC allows lower initial pressure and temperature for combustion in the compression stroke and lower turbulence intensity [12].
Figures 12-14 show RCM experimental pressure histories of stoichiometric syngas-air mixtures and methane-air for various spark times and compression ratio
Pressure versus time for stoichiometric updraft syngas-air mixture at various spark times.
Pressure versus time for stoichiometric downdraft syngas-air mixture at various spark times.
Pressure versus time for stoichiometric methane-air mixture at various spark times.
From Figs. 12-14 it is observed that the in-cylinder pressure increases as the spark time deviates from TDC. If combustion starts too early in the cycle, the work transfer from the piston to the gases in the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke is too large. If the combustion starts too late, the peak cylinder pressure is reduced, and the stroke work transfer from the gas to the piston decreases. Another observation that is brought out from these figures is that higher pressures are obtained with methane-air mixture followed by downdraft syngas-air mixture and lastly by updraft syngas-air mixture, which represents the same behavior observed in the single compression case.
Making a parallel with the laminar combustion case where the performances of updraft and downdraft syngas are similar (see Ref. [24]). This behaviour is not found in turbulent conditions, where peak pressure of downdraft syngas is higher in about 25%. As the turbulent burning velocity could be considered as proportional to the laminar one [26], the correlations (Eq. 5, 6) shows that the laminar burning velocity increases with temperature increase and decreases with the increase of pressure. Temperature is irrelevant in this comparison since the temperature coefficient is similar for both syngas compositions. However, pressure coefficient for updraft syngas is 40% higher in relation to downdraft syngas coefficient. This means that the higher pressures used on the RCM have a higher impact in reducing the laminar burning of updraft syngas composition and, thus, justifying the lower pressures obtained in turbulent conditions.
Burning of a mixture in a cylinder of a SI engine may be divided into the following phases: (1) spark ignition, (2) laminar flame kernel growth and transition to turbulent combustion, (3) turbulent flame development and propagation, (4) near-wall combustion and after burning. Figures 15-17 show flame propagation images of stoichiometric syngas-air mixtures combustion and stoichiometric methane-air mixtures in a RCM, where is possible to observe these first three phases of combustion and the corresponding pressure.
In these figures, after the passage of spark, there is a point at which the beginning of pressure rise can be detected. This stage is referred to as ignition lag or preparation phase in which growth and development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes place. This is a chemical process depending upon both pressure and temperature and the nature of the fuel. Therefore, this stage is longer for earlier ignition timings as shown in the figures 15-17. Pictures of this initial phase of combustion show an initially quasi-spherical, relatively smooth flame kernel for syngas compositions and methane.
Direct visualization of stoichiometric updraft syngas-air flame in a RCM for various Ignition timings. (a) 5 ms BTDC; (b) 12.5 ms BTDC [
Direct visualization of stoichiometric downdraft syngas-air flame in a RCM for various Ignition timings. (a) 5 ms BTDC; (b) 12.5 ms BTDC [
Direct visualization of stoichiometric methane-air flame in a RCM for various Ignition timings. (a) 5 ms BTDC; (b) 12.5 ms BTDC [
After this stage and up to the attaining of peak pressure another stage of combustion could be considered as second stage. This is a physical one and is concerned with the spread of the flame throughout the combustion chamber. The starting point of the second stage is where the first measurable rise of pressure is seen, i.e. the point where the line of combustion departs from the compression (motoring) line. This can be seen from the deviation from the motoring curve. During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a constant velocity. Heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low, because only a small part of the burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall during this period. The rate of heat release depends largely of the turbulence intensity and also of the reaction rate which is dependent on the mixture composition [27]. The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release because during this stage, the combustion chamber volume remains practically constant (since the piston is near the TDC where the turbulence intensity is higher [15]). Therefore, comparing the three fuels, it is observed that this stage of combustion is faster for methane, followed by downdraft syngas and finally by updraft syngas. This behavior is in agreement with the heat of reaction of the mixtures as well as with the laminar burning velocity of typical syngas compositions.
The starting point of the third stage is usually taken at the instant at which the maximum pressure is reached. The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame front surface. Direct flame visualizations of this stage are not shown in the figures 15-17 because the combustion continues in the expansion stroke, i.e. away from the clearance volume. Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion, with the piston moving away from the TDC, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.
Timing advance is required because it takes time to burn the air-fuel mixture. Igniting the mixture before the piston reaches TDC will allow the mixture to fully burn soon after the piston reaches TDC. If the air-fuel mixture is ignited at the correct time, maximum pressure in the cylinder will occur sometime after the piston reaches TDC allowing the ignited mixture to push the piston down the cylinder. Ideally, the time at which the mixture should be fully burned is about 20º ATDC [28]. This will utilize the engine power producing potential. If the ignition spark occurs at a position that is too advanced relative to piston position, the rapidly expanding air-fuel mixture can actually push against the piston still moving up, causing detonation and lost power. If the spark occurs too retarded relative to the piston position, maximum cylinder pressure will occur after the piston is already traveling too far down the cylinder. This results in lost power, high emissions, and unburned fuel. In order to better analyze these experimental results, Fig. 18 synthesizes the peak pressure
Pressure peak (continuous lines) and pressure peak position (dashed lines) versus ignition timing for stoichiometric syngas-air and methane-air mixtures.
From Fig. 18 it is clear that the in-cylinder pressure increases as the ignition timing is retarded. The pressure peak occurs latter as the ignition timing decreases. In opposite to static chamber combustion, the peak pressure does not represent the end of combustion. However, is possible to conclude that the peak pressure occurs always after TDC.
The syngas application to spark ignition engine by the use of rapid compression machine is made experimentally. There is an opposite behavior of the in-cylinder pressure between single compression and compression and expansion strokes. The first is that one gets higher in-cylinder pressures on single compression event than for compression-expansion events, which emphasis the fact of the constant volume combustion to be the way of getting higher pressures. The second is that for single compression peak pressure decreases as the ignition delay increases. In opposite, for compression-expansion the peak pressure increases with the ignition delay increase. This opposite behaviour has to do with the deviation of the spark plug from TDC position that influences the combustion duration in the compression stroke and this extent has different consequences on peak pressure regarding the number of strokes events. For single compression it reduces the constant volume combustion duration. For compression-expansion strokes it increases the combustion duration on the compression stroke where the heat released has the effect of generate pressure before expansion. In both experimental events, higher pressures are obtained with methane-air mixture followed by downdraft-syngas and lastly by updraft-syngas. These results could be endorsed to the heat of reaction of the fuels, air to fuel ratio and also to burning velocity. Crossing the heat value with the air to fuel ratio conclusion could be drawn that the energy content inside the combustion chamber is in agreement, however not proportional with the obtained pressures. Updraft and downdraft syngas compositions have similar burning velocities on laminar conditions (see Ref. [16, 24]) but the same is not found in turbulent conditions, where the difference on pressure peak is higher in about 25%. As the turbulent burning velocity is proportional to the laminar burning velocity, the analysis of the correlations for laminar burning velocity of typical syngas compositions shows that the effect of pressure is very significant (pressure coefficient for updraft syngas is 40% higher in relation to downdraft syngas coefficient). The higher pressure used on RCM also makes temperature to increase due to compression but the effect of temperature on burning velocity for typical syngas compositions is irrelevant since the temperature coefficient is of the same order. Another major finding is that syngas typical compositions are characterized by high ignition timings due to its low burning velocities.
This work is supported by European Union Funds (FEDER/COMPETE - Operational Competitiveness Programme) and by national funds (FCT - Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) under the project FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-022696.
This work was made on behalf of the FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) project PTDC/AAC-AMB/103119/2008.
Canned foods were well known and widely used for feeding the armies since the mid-eighteenth century. Nowadays, they play a crucial role in the everyday nutrition of everyone all over the globe, where they provide food with good quality that can last for a long time compared with fresh food. The canned food production industry, as any other industry, includes material processing, storing, and transportation. These activities lead to waste and emission generation and can affect the environment negatively if not well planned and applied. These negative effects might include air and water pollution and soil contamination. Of the major pollutants generated by this industry, the organic pollutants are very crucial [1].
In general, food processing from raw materials requires large volumes of high-grade water, which will become wastewater after usage. In particular, it requires a large volume of potable water for several usages, e.g. raw materials cleaning, fluming, blanching, pasteurizing, processing equipment cleaning, and cooling of the final products. These vast usages require the enforcement of quality criteria for the water used in each application; the best quality usage often requires independent treatment to assure complete freedom from odor and taste and to ensure uniform conditions [1]. The wastewater effluents from this industry are characterized by their large volumes. On average, some 10–20 m3 wastewaters are produced per tonne of products. The precise characteristics of these wastewaters are highly dependent on the performed processes during the canned food production, i.e. the process of vegetable washing leads to the generation of wastewaters with high loads of some dissolved organics, and particulate matter [2].
The organic content in the wastewater generated as a result of the operation of different processes in the food canning industries is characterized by high concentrations of biodegradable contaminants and variable pH levels. When an environmental reservoir, e.g. a stream or waterway, receives these wastewater effluents, the organic pollutants will consume some of the dissolved oxygen (DO) that exists in the reservoir during their stabilization. This will reduce considerably the DO to levels below that required for the sustainability of lives of the aquatic organisms. The extent of pollution caused by these effluents can be characterized based on the plant capacity, the utilized process, and the characteristics of the raw materials. In this respect, it is beneficial to categorize the plant capacity in terms of population, where seasonal plants are likely to generate waste loads equivalent to 15,000 to 25,000 people, and large plants generate loads up to 250,000 people. The processing of fruit and vegetables is one of the sources of wastewaters, which contain organic matters. Fruit and vegetable canning companies generate wastewaters with high levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total solid (TS), and suspended solids (SS) [1]. This chapter aims to introduce the available technologies for secondary wastewater treatment that are widely investigated to prevent and control pollution from the food industry. In this respect, the features of the aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment technologies are summarized. Then, an overview of the uncertainty management in biological treatment plants is provided.
Due to the nature of the food industry, the preparatory and operational processes of the raw animals, vegetables, and fruits into edible products do not include the application of chemicals. Subsequently, the organic maters in most of the cannery wastewater effluents are best treated using biological treatment, where these matters are rarely present toxicant or inhibitory compounds in their composition. Yet in some operations, e.g. sterilizing and cleaning the equipment, chemicals are used. In particular, disinfectants and caustic soda are used at the end of the processed batch. These effluents could be characterized as short-time concentrated discharges. They may cause shock loads in the wastewater treatment plants that are not designed to deal with these effluents. In this case, the use of equalization unit can achieve acceptable flow equalization and pH adjustment and dilute the high concentration to a nominal concentration that allows safe operation for the biological treatment unit [3].
Aerobic wastewater treatment processes could be applied using several technologies, i.e. pond and lagoon-based treatments; surface and spray aeration; oxidation ditches; trickling filters; septic or aerobic tanks; activated sludge; and aerobic digestion. In this section, sequencing batch reactor (SBR), activated sludge (AS), rotating biological contactor (RBC), and aerobic lagoons (AELs) for treating food processing wastewater are discussed.
In general, SBR is a fill-and-draw activated sludge system for wastewater treatment. In that system, wastewater effluent is added to a single batch reactor, where treatment is achieved by removing undesirable components, and then, the effluent is discharged. In the same single batch reactor, equalization, aeration, and clarification are conducted.
The formation of granules in aerobic conditions has been possible and appears as a promising technique for treating high-strength or highly toxic wastewaters. It appeared that aerobic granules were successfully cultivated only in SBR. The cyclic operation of SBR consisted of influent filling, aeration, settling, and effluent removal [4].
The development of aerobic granular sludge to achieve simultaneous removal of COD, phosphorous (P), and nitrogen (N) from saline fish-canning wastewater was investigated by Campo [5]. In that work, a 1.6-L SBR with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 0.25 d and a volumetric exchange ratio (VER) of 50% was used. The wastewater fed to the SBR was collected from a fish-canning factory located in the south of Galicia (Spain). The SBR was operated in 3-hour cycles comprising 60-min anaerobic feeding, 112-min aeration, 7–1-min settling, and 1–7-min effluent discharge. The salt concentration was approximately 10.4 ± 0.8 g NaCl/l, and the applied organic loading rate (OLR) equals 5.4 ± 1.9 kg COD/(m3d). Under these conditions, aerobic granules were detected after operational time equals 34 days. Some filamentous bacteria were detected on the surface of the aggregates. The granular biomass has a volatile suspended solids (VSS) concentration of 1.34 gVSS/l, density near 11.5 gVSS/l granule, and mean diameter of 1.35 mm. After 41 days of operation, fluffy-flocculent suspension was formed in the presence of the granules. This behavior was attributed to the salinity and the respectively high fraction of slowly biodegradable COD in the influent (35% of total COD). The study reported good removal efficiencies of soluble COD nearly equal to 80%. The phosphorus and ammonium were mainly concluded to be removed to cover the minimum metabolic demand of heterotrophic bacteria. The study indicated that the enrichment of the biomass with slow growing autotrophic and phosphorus-accumulating bacteria in a saline environment requires a longer operational time [5].
The most commonly used biological wastewater treatment technology is the activated sludge. In that technology, the activated sludge (bacterial biomass suspension) is used to degrade the organic pollutants. Over years, various activated sludge processes have been developed. Depending on the design of the AS unit, the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) can degrade organic carbon substances and remove nutrients, i.e. N and P. In some biological wastewater treatment systems, activated sludge was attached to a surface to form a bio-film. Examples of these systems are integrated fixed-film activated sludge systems, rotating biological reactors, trickling filters, and moving bed bio-film reactors [6].
RBC process entails the contact between the wastewater and the biological medium that is used to degrade the organic contaminants. A RBC is described as a device that “consists of a series of closely spaced, parallel discs mounted on a rotating shaft which is supported just above the surface of the wastewater” [4, 7]. RBCs are used to remove biodegradable organic matter and convert ammonia-N and organic-N to nitrate-N. Operational problems caused by high organic loading rates restrict the use of RBCs for partial removal of organic matter (i.e. for “roughing” treatment). However, they can be used quite effectively for the substantial removal of organic matter. Process effluent (i.e. clarified) five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) and total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations can easily be reduced to less than 30 mg/l each, and even lower can be obtained in some instances [8].
Aerobic lagoons (AELs) are designed and operated to exclude algae. This is accomplished by two means. First, sufficient mixing is used to keep all biomass from the treatment system in suspension, thereby providing turbidity that restricts penetration of light into the water column. The mixing also has the effect of making the solid retention time (SRT) equal to the hydraulic retention time (HRT). Second, the HRT is controlled to values less than the minimum SRT for algal growth (about two days). Because algae are excluded, oxygen must be delivered by mechanical means [8].
This class of biological wastewater treatment technology utilizes microorganisms to degrade the organic pollutants in the absence of oxygen. The sludge in the anaerobic biological reactor consists of anaerobic bacteria and other microorganisms. Food processing wastewaters are particularly suitable for anaerobic treatment processes, firstly because of their high organic load and secondly because they rarely contain toxicants or inhibitory compounds [2].
The UASB process makes use of suspended growth biomass, but the gas-liquid-solids separation system is integrated with the bioreactor. The operating conditions within the reactor could be adjusted to allow the formation of large, dense, and readily settleable particles that can lead to the accumulation of very high concentrations of SS, on the order of 20 to 30 g/l as VSS. These high suspended solids concentrations allow significant separation between the SRT and HRT, and operation at relatively short HRTs, often on the order of two days or less, even when the SRT is long. The three-phase UASB reactor allows the achievement of compact and cheaper units due to its ability to separate the gas, water, and sludge mixtures under high turbulence conditions. It has multiple gas hoods for the separation of biogas and can be operated in a one-metre-height reactor that prevents the formation of floating layers [9]. Due to the extremely large gas/water interfaces, the turbulence is greatly reduced, so it is possible to operate the treatment process with relatively high loading rates of 10–15 kg/m3d [8].
UASB technology is known for its efficiency in treating wastewaters with high carbohydrate content. In this respect, the wastewater effluents from the canning industry are efficiently treated by microbes to produce a nutrient-rich starting material for anaerobic hydrogen production. This has led to the wide application of up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor for the treatment of the wastewater effluents from food processing plants [10]. These reactors are well known for their ability to withstand variations in wastewater quality and complete shutdown of the reactor in off season [11].
Anaerobic treatment of a highly alkaline fruit-cannery lye-peeling wastewater was investigated, using an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UArSB) reactor. Only a short initializing period was required before COD reduction and OLR had stabilized at 85 to 90% and 2.40 kg COD/m3d, respectively. With subsequent increases in OLR to 8.1kgCOD/m3d, the COD reduction remained between 85 and 93% and biogas production peaked at 4.1 l/d (63% methane). After 111 days, the COD and reactor pH started to decrease and the gas production was reported to decrease after 102 days and continue to decrease to reach the lowest value of 0.93 l/d after 129 days. Subsequent reductions in the OLR, by reducing influent COD, had no effect on reactor stability. This reduction in the reactor performance was attributed to the inhibition of methanogenesis due to the sodium accumulation of sodium (potentially >20,000 mg/l) in the biomass [10, 12].
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is used for the stabilization of particulate organic matter. An anaerobic digester is well mixed with no liquid-solids separation. Consequently, the bioreactor can be treated as a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) in which the HRT and SRT are identical. An SRT of 15 to 20 days is typically used, although SRTs as low as 10 days have been used successfully and longer SRTs are employed when greater waste stabilization is required [8].
For several cannery waste streams, the recovery of useful by-products could be achieved by anaerobic digestion. High COD content fruit and vegetable wastes (>50,000 mg/l) have been treated successfully by AD using a HRT of 10 days and a sludge age of 80 days. For elder sludges, the SS build-up within the reactor reached 30,000 mg/l, but at higher concentrations settling became a problem. Generally, successful treatment of food processing wastes could be achieved using AD with a retention time greater than 10 days and gas production of up to 0.75 m3/kg volatile solids [9, 11].
A Single reactor system for High activity Ammonium Removal Over Nitrite (SHARON) is a treatment process, which utilizes partial nitrification process for the degradation of ammonia and organic nitrogen components from wastewaters. The process results in stable nitrite formation, rather than complete oxidation to nitrate. The process relies on controlling the pH, temperature, and retention time to prevent the nitrate formation by nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, e.g. Nitrobacter. The wastewater denitrification that employs SHARON reactors can proceed with an anoxic reduction, such as Anammox. In the Anammox process (anaerobic ammonium oxidation), nitrite and ammonium are converted into nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions without the need to add an external carbon source. In comparison with conventional N-removal processes, the SHARON process results in a reduction of required aeration energy and carbon source.
The application of the successive SHARON-Anammox processes was tested to treat the wastewater from a fish cannery plant. The effluents generated from the anaerobic digestion are characterized by their salinity up to 8000–10,000 g NaCl m−3, organic carbon content (1000–1300 g TOCm−3), and high ammonium content (700–1000 g NH+4−Nm−3). In the SHARON reactor, nearly half the ammonia is oxidized to NO−2-N via partial nitrification. Then, SHARON effluent was directed to feed the Anammox reactor. The system was reported to attain average nitrogen removal of 68%. The bacterial population distribution in the Anammox reactor, followed by FISH analysis and batch activity assays, did not change significantly despite the continuous entrance to the system of aerobic ammonium oxidizers coming from the SHARON reactor. Most of the bacteria corresponded to the Anammox population and the rest with slight variable shares to the ammonia oxidizers. Despite the continuous variations in the amounts of ammonium and nitrite in the feed wastewater, the Anammox reactor showed an unexpected robustness. Only in the period when NO−2-N concentration was higher than the NH+4-N concentration did the process destabilized and it took 14 days until the nitrogen removal percentage decreased to 34% with concentrations in the effluent of 340 g NH+4-Nm−3 and 440 g NO−2-N m−3, respectively. That study concluded that this successive application of SHARON-Anammox reactors is successful in treating high nitrogen and saline effluents with acceptable control on the ratio between the NO−2-N and NH+4-N [13].
An-MBR can be simply defined as a biological treatment process operated without oxygen and using a membrane to provide solid–liquid separation. The advantages offered by this process over conventional anaerobic systems and aerobic MBR are widely recognized [12].
Saline wastewaters are known for their negative impact on the performance of the biological treatment units. Sodium chloride is widely used, not only for cooking and to melt snow and ice, but also in a wide variety of food industries including food canning, seafood processing, milk processing, etc. In particular, the operation of the seafood processing industry leads to the generation of wastewaters with high soluble and colloidal pollutants and a high concentration of N and SS. For these effluents, the application of conventional biological treatment is not efficient. It was reported that the efficiency could be enhanced by reducing the sodium toxicity with compatible solutes that can increase the sludge activity. Moreover, the anaerobic membrane bioreactor reduces the COD concentration in the wastewater [14].
AF consists of a fixed bed biological reactor with one or more series of filtration chambers. This technology relies on the entrapment of the particles in the wastewater on the filter media and the subsequent degradation of the organic matter by the active biomass attached to the surface of the filter media [15]. As the anaerobic biomass should grow on the filter media, 6–9-month start-up period is required for AF to attain the full treatment capacity. The filter can be inoculated with anaerobic bacteria to reduce the start-up time, and the flow should be gradually increased [13, 16].
Hybrid UASB/AF systems combine aspects of the UASB process with aspects of the AF process. Influent wastewater and recirculated effluent are distributed across the bioreactor cross section and flow upward through granular and flocculent sludge blankets where anaerobic treatment occurs. The effluent from the sludge blanket zone enters a section of media similar to that used in AF systems where gas-liquid-solids separation occurs. Treated effluent then exits the media section and is collected for discharge from the bioreactor. Gas is collected under the bioreactor cover and is transported to storage and/or use. The hybrid UASB/AF process primarily uses suspended biomass, and process loadings are similar to those used with the UASB process. The solids removal system is similar to that used with the UASB process [8].
A research study on the treatment of wastewater generated from vegetable processing was conducted. In this project, an anaerobic filter, a fluidized bed reactor, and an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor associated with an anaerobic filter were designed, constructed, and tested [5]. For the anaerobic filter, the removal efficiency for COD was reported to exceed 80% for HRT of 16 h, at temperatures ranging from 20 to 31°C. The FBAR was operated at HRT of 2 h with mean COD removal efficiency of 63%. The UASB/AF achieved mean COD removal efficiency of 80% at HRT of 6 h [17].
Anoxic process is widely used in wastewater treatment. Anoxic means depletion or deficiency of oxygen. Anoxic process is a biological treatment process by which NO3-N is converted to molecular nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen.
A system comprised of anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic reactors was tested to treat the wastewater from tuna cooker. This wastewater stream is characterized by high COD and N concentrations. The up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor was used to achieve the anaerobic digestion in a two-step process. In the first, the COD concentration was varied and ORLs up to 4 g COD/(l.d) were achieved. In the second step, the 6 g COD/l and the HRT were varied between 0.5 and 0.8 day, and this step led to ORLs less than 15 g COD/(l.d). The denitrification process was carried out in an up-flow anoxic filter, and the result of the project indicated that the efficiency of this process is dependent on the supplied carbon content. For optimum carbon content, the ratio between the COD and N equalled 4 and the denitrification percentage equalled 80%. Finally, the nitrification was reported to be fixed at 100% ammonia removal regardless of the amount of carbon in the range of 0.2–0.8 g TOC/l. The variation of the recycling ratios between the denitrification and nitrification reactors in the range of 1–2.5 was found to affect the efficiency of the COD and N-removal percentage, where 90 and 60% removal for COD and N was reported at recycling ratio between 2 and 2.5 [15].
There are several types of uncertainties that should be addressed during the design of a wastewater treatment plant, e.g. the variation in strength and quantity of wastewater entering into the plant, the diversity, and the dynamics of the microbial community. An uncertainty analysis for a pre-denitrification plant that uses an activated sludge unit was performed [18]. The unit consists of five compartments: the first two are anoxic and the last three are aerobic. Three scenarios were considered in that study that cover the uncertainty due to stoichiometric, bio-kinetic and influent parameters; uncertainty due to hydraulic behavior of the plant and mass transfer parameters; and uncertainty due to the combination of both scenarios. The study concluded that parameters related to the first and second scenarios introduce significant uncertainties in the plant performance measures. In addition, it was stated that the applied uncertainty farming technique largely affects the uncertainty estimates.
The Monte Carlo simulation was intensively used to simulate the design and upgrade of wastewater treatment plants under uncertainty in balancing effluent costs, violating effluent quality standards, predicting the disinfection performance, generating different influent compositions for posterior process performance evaluation or as a pragmatic procedure to automate the calibration of ASM models, and considering the impact of the input parameter uncertainty on the multi-criteria evaluation of control strategies at wastewater plant [19, 20, 21, 22].
Due to the complexity and non-linearity of wastewater treatment plant operations, mathematical models are generally not sufficient to predict the performance of WWTPs. Therefore, AI models have been proposed as an alternative model to linear methods. The methods for minimizing the effect of uncertainty in wastewater characteristics and wastewater flow on wastewater treatment reported in the literature have included support vector machine (SVM) and artificial neural network (ANN) [23]. An optimization model to control uncertainty in operation of wastewater treatment from the shale gas production has been reported in the literature [24]. In addition, genetic algorithms have been developed to model and optimize a biological wastewater treatment plant [25].
Information regarding uncertainty in the wastewater treatment plants in treating cannery wastewater is lacking in the literature. However, the principles governing uncertainty in wastewater treatment plants can be applied to control uncertainty in cannery wastewater treatment.
The following conclusions can be reached based on the review of literature in cannery wastewater treatment:
The wastewater that is generated in food canning industries contains high quantities of organic material, a high level of biodegradables and variable pH levels.
The food processing industry requires a large amount of potable water for a variety of non-consumption usages, such as for initial cleaning of raw material, fluming, blanching, pasteurizing, cleaning of processing equipment, and cooling of finished product.
The nature of the organic matter of cannery industry wastewater makes it suitable for biological treatment.
Flow equalization and influent pH control normally have enough diluting and neutralizing effect to permit the use of biological processes for cannery wastewater treatment.
Various treatment processes using aerobic and anaerobic treatment can be applied for the treatment of cannery wastewater, depending upon wastewater strength.
Information regarding uncertainty in wastewater treatment plants in treating cannery wastewater is lacking in the literature. However, the principles governing uncertainty in wastewater treatment plants can be applied to control uncertainty in cannery wastewater treatment.
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Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. 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Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. 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It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",abstract:"Universities are the main actors that deliver community service in Ethiopia. Community service is among the three pillars of the university’s business along with teaching and research tasks. Employing a qualitative case study design, this research inspects the practices of community services against the ascribed principles and identifes the pitfalls of community service in Debre Markos University. Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data were collected through key informants interviews, semistructured interviews, and non-participant observation. Thirteen participants, five through key informant interview and eight through a semistructured interview were addressed. Participants were purposively selected from both the university and the nearby community. Lecturers, vice-presidents, and directors have participated in the interview. Articles, books, different reports, newspapers, and magazines were reviewed and used as sources of secondary data. Thematic data analysis technique was employed to analyze the primary data, and document analysis was used to analyze the data gained from secondary sources. The results show that, though community service is rendered since 2006 at Debre Markos University, there are still limitations in adhering to the principles of community service. These include shortage of budget, low level of University-Industry Linkage (UIL), less commitment of the staff, and the low level of monitoring and evaluation.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Adane Mengist"},{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",abstract:"This article presents the results of an analysis of apology strategies in native and non-native French in Canadian context. The data used were obtained through a Discourse Completion Task questionnaire that was completed by a group of native French speakers (FL1) and a group of learners of French as a second language (FL2). The goal was to identify and compare pragmatic and linguistic choices made by both groups when apologizing in three different situations. Several differences and similarities emerged between the two groups regarding the use of exclamations to introduce apologies, direct apologies, indirect apologies, and supportive acts. For instance, it was found that the FL1 speakers used “expressions of regret”, “offers of apology” 15 and “requests for forgiveness” to apologize directly, while the FL2 speaking informants used 16 only “expressions of regret” and “offers of apology”. While the respondents of both groups 17 mostly chose “offers of repair” to apologize indirectly, they displayed divergent preferences 18 regarding the use of other indirect apology strategies. Differences were also documented 19 with respect to the use of intensification devices in direct apologies and the use of supportive acts. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",book:{id:"11480",title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg"},signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"},{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83027",title:"Coping Strategies and Meta-Worry in Adolescents’ Adjustment during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"coping-strategies-and-meta-worry-in-adolescents-adjustment-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106258",abstract:"With the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several limitations and stressful changes have been introduced in adolescent’s daily life. Particularly, Italian teenagers were the first among western populations to experience fears of infection, home confinement, and social restrictions due to a long lockdown period (10 weeks). This study explores the role of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance coping) and meta-beliefs about worry as vulnerability factors associated with adolescents’ anxiety. A community sample of adolescents (N = 284, aged 16–18 y.o.) answered questionnaires assessing anxiety symptoms (RCMAS-2), meta-cognitive beliefs and processes about worry (MCQ-C), and coping strategies (CISS). Results show that 37% of participants report clinically elevated anxiety. Emotion-centered coping predicted higher anxiety, whereas task-centered coping resulted associated with decreased anxiety. Cognitive monitoring about their own worry contributes, but to a lesser extent, to higher levels of anxiety. The implications for the intervention are discussed, especially the need to enhance the coping skills of adolescents and mitigate the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic, which could last for a long time.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto, Ilenia Schipilliti and Massimo Ingrassia"},{id:"83023",title:"Gestational Tryptophan Fluctuation Underlying Ontogenetic Origin of Neuropsychiatric Disorders",slug:"gestational-tryptophan-fluctuation-underlying-ontogenetic-origin-of-neuropsychiatric-disorders",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106421",abstract:"Neuropsychiatry underlies personality development and social functioning. Borderline personality disorder exhibits high trait aggression and is associated with tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphisms. The acute tryptophan depletion reduces plasma and cerebrospinal fluid tryptophan availability and brain serotonin concentrations, leading to alterations in personality and trait-related behaviors. Tryptophan is essential for fatal neurodevelopment and immunomodulation in pregnancy. Gestational tryptophan fluctuation induced by maternal metabolic disorders or drug administrations may account for the maternal-fetal transmission determining neurogenesis and microbial development, consequentially shaping the long-standing patterns of thinking and behavior. However, it is not possible to assess the gestational tryptophan exposure effects on fetal brain and gastrointestinal system in humans for ethical reasons. The maternal–fetal microbe transmission in rodents during gestation, vaginal delivery, and breastfeeding is inevitable. Chicken embryo may be an alternative and evidence from the chicken embryo model reveals that gestational tryptophan fluctuation, i.e., exposed to excessive tryptophan or its metabolite, serotonin, attenuates aggressiveness and affects peer sociometric status. This chapter discusses the gestational tryptophan fluctuation as a risk factor of personality disorders in offspring and the prevention of personality disorders by dietary tryptophan control and medication therapy management during pregnancy.",book:{id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg"},signatures:"Xiaohong Huang, Xiaohua Li and Heng-Wei Cheng"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:282},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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