Conditions of houses at each inundation level.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1460",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Nuclear Fuel",title:"Advances in Nuclear Fuel",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Worldwide there are more than 430 nuclear power plants operating and more plants are being constructed or planned for construction. 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Miatello",slug:"roberto-m.-miatello",email:"rmmiatello@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5682",title:"Physiologic and Pathologic Angiogenesis",subtitle:"Signaling Mechanisms and Targeted Therapy",fullTitle:"Physiologic and Pathologic Angiogenesis - Signaling Mechanisms and Targeted Therapy",slug:"physiologic-and-pathologic-angiogenesis-signaling-mechanisms-and-targeted-therapy",publishedDate:"April 5th 2017",bookSignature:"Dan Simionescu and Agneta Simionescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5682.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"66196",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:"T.",surname:"Simionescu",slug:"dan-simionescu",fullName:"Dan Simionescu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11889",leadTitle:null,title:"Sexual Disorders and Dysfunctions",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe book explains and educates the reader regarding normal sexual function, sexual dysfunction, and sexual dysfunction disorders both in males and females. The objective of the book will be to highlight the importance of sex education and explain normal human sexuality. With the growing number of males and females reporting sexual dysfunction the need for a ready reckoner of sexual dysfunction may be relevant and necessary.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will have chapters on normal human sexuality, sexual health, Sexual dysfunction in the male and female, sexual dysfunction disorders related to libido, orgasm, ejaculation, erection, and genetic or hormonal or developmental or sexuo-erotic orientation defects.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will also highlight the importance of sex counselors and therapists.
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
Preparing a contingency plan before disasters is essential to increase the capacity of personnel in charge of disaster response and enhance local resilience to disasters. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 [1], adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in 2015, addresses the importance of “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” as the fourth priority action. More specifically, its paragraph 33 states that national and local governments shall prepare or review and periodically update disaster preparedness and contingency policies, plans and programmes with the involvement of the relevant institutions, considering climate change scenarios and their impact on disaster risk and facilitating, as appropriate, the participation of all sectors and relevant stakeholders [1].
\nIn order to achieve effective disaster response, it is important first to assume possible disasters, then quantify expected disaster damage and conduct contingency planning based on the scenarios of the possible disasters. One of the practical tools to carry out this process is evidence-based flood contingency planning, which is based on scientific approaches such as flood simulation and quantitative risk assessment. This planning method, however, is not always feasible to disaster-prone areas in Asia due to the lack of data on natural and social conditions. To overcome such a challenge, the International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) focuses on flood disasters and proposes an effective method for local communities to predict the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assess flood risk with key indicators, decide coping strategies against the identified flood risk and develop a contingency plan beforehand. This method is first applied to one of the flood-prone areas in Asia, Calumpit Municipality in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines, to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited.
\nThe “ISO22301 Societal security—Business continuity management systems” specifies requirements for all types of organisations to plan, implement, review and improve a documented management system to prepare for, respond to and recover from disruptive incidents [2]. It requires the organisations to select business continuity strategy based on the outputs from the risk assessment and business impact analysis. The risk assessment aims to identify and evaluate the risk of disruptive incidents to the organisations, while the business impact analysis assesses the impacts of disrupting activities that support organisation’s services. To conduct evidence-based flood contingency planning in reference to the procedures employed in the ISO22301, six steps are proposed, as shown in Figure 1.
\nSix steps of evidence-based flood contingency planning.
The first step of this planning is to understand the current conditions of the target communities such as topography, land use, population and structures, as well as past flood records in the area. At the second step, flood hazards and risks are identified through flood and inundation simulations conducted by national or provincial governments. Flood scenarios are presented with two key components, i.e. a flood inundation map and a time-series inundation water chart, to illustrate dynamic changes in inundation depth for residents to easily understand how the inundation may expand, linger and recede in their communities. The third step is flood impact analysis, in which the numbers of residents and houses at risk are estimated based on the average ground-floor height of houses, and possible problems the community may face due to the flood are identified. At the fourth step, the communities in the target area should develop a response strategy. Necessary actions should be discussed according to the time sequence of “before the flood”, “during the flood” and “after the flood”. The fifth and sixth steps are documentation and sharing of the plan among the community members. It is also important that the produced plan should be updated constantly through the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle.
\nAmong the Asian flood-prone areas, a municipality called Calumpit was selected as the first case study area. It is in Bulacan Province in Pampanga River basin located northwest of Metro Manila in Central Luzon Island, Philippines. The municipality lies at the junction of several rivers, including Pampanga, Angat and Labangan, as illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. This topography makes Calumpit one of the most flood-prone municipalities in the Philippines. As of 2010, 101,068 people live in an area of 5625 ha, or 2.03%, of the province. The municipality has 29 barangays, the smallest administrative units. The recent largest flood was caused by Typhoons Pedring and Quiel in September 2011, and a large area of the municipality suffered massive flood damage. Due to an inundation of 1.2–1.5 m deep, Calumpit lost its government functions, which consequently impeded emergency response.
\nLocation of Calumpit in Pampanga River basin. (a) Luzon Island and (b) Pampanga River basin).
Land use map of Calumpit [
The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act (Republic Act No. 10121) [3], enacted in 2010, provides for the development of policies and plans and the implementation of actions and measures related to all aspects of disaster risk reduction and management. It defines the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (NDRRMC) as the national organisation to coordinate, integrate, supervise, monitor and evaluate disaster policymaking. It also mandates the establishment of the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office in every barangay, municipality, city and province.
\nCalumpit has the Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (MDRRMC) and the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (BDRRMC) in its 29 barangays. The act defines MDRRMCs and BDRRMCs to perform functions such as designing and coordinating disaster risk reduction and management activities, supporting risk assessments and contingency planning activities at the local level [3]. Following this act, the MDRRMC of Calumpit published a contingency plan [4], which describes governmental emergency response in case of a flood. It assumes casualties, structural damage and impacts on livelihood, infrastructure and facilities in the worst-case scenario, based on the experience during Typhoons Pedring and Quiel in 2011. However, the scenario based on the past flood experiences makes it difficult to assume future floods of different scales which have never occurred before. It is therefore recommended to make contingency plans by quantifying a spatial distribution of expected damage and necessary needs in consideration of dynamic changes in inundation depth provided from flood inundation simulations performed for each community.
\nThe proposed method was applied to Calumpit Municipality in Bulacan Province.
\nFigure 4 illustrates overall activities related to the six steps to be proposed. The first and second steps were applied to the whole area of the municipality in April 2014. At the third and fourth steps, two flood-prone communities were selected as model sites, and their flood contingency plans were jointly developed through workshops with community leaders and members. In the workshops, the participants discussed problems they may face during the flood of each scale and proposed necessary response actions in order to make response strategies. The final workshop was held in March 2016, inviting all the community leaders in the municipality, and the experience in the workshops was shared among the participants. The following subchapters detail each step:
\nActivities at six steps of evidence-based flood contingency planning.
In areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited, administering interviews and questionnaires to local government officials, community leaders and local people is useful to understand the current conditions of their localities. In this study, interviews were conducted at MDRRMO and selected communities [5]. The surveys found that population census data at the barangay level was available, while the spatial distribution data of buildings was not. Then, a questionnaire survey was administered to all 29 barangay leaders to understand the building conditions in each barangay. The houses in the 29 barangays were classified and tallied according to construction types and storeys. Of those, 62.5% were a one-storey structure, while the rest were two-storey.
\nInterviews at the selected individual households were also conducted to understand recent flood damage, including the damage status of house structures, property and family members and their behaviours during the recent floods. During the interviews, the survey staff measured the heights of the first floor, ceiling and flood marks from the past floods with the permission of family members. From the household survey, it was found that the average first-floor height of the one-storey houses was 0.54 m from the ground, while that of the two-storey houses was 0.17 m, as shown in Figure 5. Table 1 summarises the conditions of the houses at five inundation levels using the thresholds from the household interviews. Different damages to the livelihood of the residents are listed according to inundation levels. Inundation level 1 with a water depth of 0.17 m or lower did not inundate inside the house. At inundation level 2, the two-storey houses started being inundated. At inundation level 3, at which the water depth exceeds 0.54 m, both one- and two-storey houses suffered from inundation above the first floor, which suggests that the residents had to stay somewhere above the water level or evacuate to safer places near their houses.
\nThreshold of inundation based on measurement results.
Conditions of houses at each inundation level.
The household interviews also found that the inundation above electric plugs caused severe damage to daily life. The height of electric plugs averaged 1.27 m and that of LP gas tanks 0.60 m. The residents usually move LP gas tanks to the second floor or to the rooftop to use them for cooking during an inundation. Inundation level 4 was set, based on the observed average height of electric plugs, as the condition cutting local people off from power. At inundation level 5, the inundation depth exceeds 2.83 m, the height of the second floor of a house. Under this situation, they could not find an evacuation space due to the rarity of buildings having three storeys or more, which means an inundation of this scale is likely to be a potentially life-threatening crisis for the residents.
\nCalumpit Municipality has its own community flood warning system called “colours of safety”. This system uses power poles painted in three colours (yellow, orange and red) by every 2 ft to visualise the level of danger and help residents make decisions on evacuation. At present, 193 electric poles in the municipality are tricoloured for this purpose. The residents are advised to evacuate before the water reached the red colour.
\nIn this step, the expected flood inundation area was delineated by flood inundation simulation using the rainfall-runoff-inundation model (RRI model), developed by ICHARM. The RRI model is a two-dimensional model capable of simulating rainfall, runoff and flood inundation simultaneously Sayama et al. [6]. The model deals with slopes and river channels separately. It applies a 2D diffusive wave model to flows on slope grid cells and a 1D diffusive wave model to channel flows. The software of the model can be downloaded from the ICHARM website [7] for free.
\nWe used the RRI model that Shrestha et al. [8] locally customised to conduct flood simulation for the Pampanga River basin and performed hazard mapping for Calumpit Municipality, following the eight sub-step procedures [5] presented below:
Sub-step 1: acquisition of input data for the model.
Sub-step 2: acquisition of flood mark records.
Sub-step 3: flood inundation simulation during Typhoons Pedring and Quiel in September 2011 (grid, 200 m).
Sub-step 4: calibration of the model by comparing observed and simulated discharges in sub-step 3.
Sub-step 5: validation of the model by comparing the simulation results with flood mark records.
Sub-step 6: frequency analysis using rainfall data.
Sub-step 7: flood inundation simulation using design rainfall assumed with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods.
Sub-step 8: development of inundation depth maps in Calumpit with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods (grid, 5 m).
The simulation used the high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) of 5 m grid, observed by the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR) and provided by the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) in the Philippines without a fee. Inundation simulation for the River basin was first conducted using DEM data of 200 m grid created by IFSAR. After the flood inundation simulation, a grid of Calumpit with the inundation depth of 5 m was developed by obtaining the difference between the floodwater surface level of 200 m grid and the ground-level surface level of 5 m grid by IFSAR. As a result of the flood inundation simulation, three kinds of flood inundation maps with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods were produced for ordinary, past largest and extreme floods. From the frequency analysis using past rainfall data, a return period of the flood caused by Typhoon Pedring in 2011 was estimated to be 28.3 years. The occurrence of flood inundation with a 30-year return period means the reoccurrence of the 2011 flood. Figure 6 shows the inundation maps produced in this step.
\nMaximum inundation depth maps.
Municipal personnel pointed out that the word “return period” is too technical for residents to understand. Thus, to help them understand the flood scale easily, floods were named according to their scales as “ordinary flood” for 10-year return period floods; “high flood” for 30-year return period floods, whose scale is roughly equal to the largest recorded flood in 2011; and “extreme flood” for 100-year return period floods.
\nBased on the flood simulation results, maps and a chart were created for each barangay, as shown in Figure 7. As mentioned above, Calumpit Municipality has its own community flood warning system called “colours of safety” in which power poles are painted in three colours by every 2 ft to visualise the level of danger and help residents make decisions on evacuation. The inundation maps for each barangay (Figure 7b) adopted this locally familiar tricolour system to show the inundation depth.
\nMaps and chart for each barangay (example of Barangay Santa Lucia).
In addition to inundation maps with three different return periods, inundation probability maps, time-series inundation charts and resource maps were also developed for each barangay. The inundation probability map (Figure 7c) was created to help people understand the most frequently inundated areas, by combining the information of three inundation maps with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods. The map shows the probability of inundation that may exceed 2 ft. (0.61 m) or higher, the depth almost equal to the height of the first floor of a one-storey house. The area in dark purple colour indicates that one-storey houses in the area may be inundated above the first-floor level in case of a 10-year return period flood. The time-series inundation chart (Figure 7d) shows the chronological development of inundation in a barangay using different colours. From this chart, people can understand how many days the area may be inundated according to different flood scales. In the resource map (Figure 7a), the locations of barangay halls, evacuation centres and electric poles for “colours of safety” were plotted.
\nIn order to quantify flood risk at each community, the number of affected residents was estimated based on damage levels by overlaying inundation maps on the population distribution map of each barangay. Since most of the municipal area of Calumpit is used for agricultural purposes, we considered it reasonable to assume that the population is not uniformly distributed over the municipal area but disproportionately distributed in the built-up areas. For this reason, the built-up areas were identified. The identification of the built-up areas was made using satellite images because no digital land use maps were available. If accurate land use maps are available, they can be used for the purpose. The population in each barangay was assumed to be evenly distributed in its identified built-up areas. Then, the number of affected residents in each barangay was estimated according to inundation levels (Table 1). As a result, the total ratio of affected residents living in the area with inundation levels 3–5 was calculated to be 55.9% for a 100-year flood, while 34.6% for the past maximum flood case, as shown in Figure 8. That well over 55% of the population may suffer at inundation level 3 or above in a 100-year flood means both one- and two-storey houses are very likely to be inundated above the floor.
\nEstimated number of affected residents in Calumpit.
Figure 9 shows the estimated number of affected residents in each barangay in both flood cases. In case of a 100-year flood, more than 90% of the residents in barangays of Sapang Bayan, Corazon, Bulusan, Gugo and San Jose may suffer from an inundation of level 3 or above. They should prepare for prompt evacuation in case of such a severe flood. In this case study, only the number of affected residents was analysed due to a lack of spatial distribution data of buildings. If the data is available, the number of damaged houses and the repairing cost could be estimated. Moreover, the number of affected residents or those who need to evacuate outside their houses could be calculated more accurately based on the number of damaged houses.
\nEstimated number of affected residents in each barangay.
The third step is flood impact analysis, in which possible problem communities may face in the event of a flood are identified. The most important thing is for communities to understand how flood impact becomes severer according to flood scales so that they can take sensible measures to increase disaster preparedness by themselves. Two flood-prone barangays were selected as model sites to develop flood contingency plans with barangay leaders and members through workshops. The participants of the workshops discussed problems on key components, such as information communication, evacuation, housing, water, food, relief goods, medical treatment and transportation, for three flood patterns identified in step 2: ordinary flood, high flood and extreme flood.
\nTable 2 summarises the impact of floods identified at the workshops in the two barangays. In case of high flood, many houses may be inundated, and the residents may experience various types of damage to their livelihood, while only non-elevated houses may be inundated in ordinary foods. The participants anticipated problems associated with information acquisition, capacities of evacuation centres, supplies of water, power, relief goods, availability of medical treatment and transportation. In case of extreme flood, they anticipated difficulty in repairing houses as a considerable number of inundated houses may well mean the shortage of construction materials. A photo in Figure 10 shows a scene of a workshop.
\nImpact of floods on barangay identified at workshops.
Workshop at Barangay Bulusan.
At this step, necessary actions associated with the flood impact on each key component identified in step 3 are discussed at each community according to the time sequence of “before the flood”, “during the flood” and “after the flood disaster”. For this purpose, the second workshop was held at each of the two barangays. At the workshop, the participants were requested to share opinions on necessary actions by writing them down on Post-its and show them to other participants. Then, the actions presented by the participants were sorted out into two categories: actions that a barangay should implement immediately as self-help and mutual support and requests that a barangay should make to municipal, provincial or national governments as public assistance. This activity will help clarify actions to be taken by themselves and requests to be made to higher administrative organisations. Tables 3 and 4 summarise the results of the discussions at the two barangay workshops on what they should do before, during and after the flood and what they should request. The participants found the importance of response strategies on actions such as informing water levels regularly to the municipal office, leading residents to evacuate quickly to a safer place, keeping relief goods dry, saving children and seniors and supporting residents in getting back to normal life quickly.
\nResults of discussion on actions to be taken in the barangay.
Results of discussion on requests to higher administrative organisations.
Although self-help and mutual support among residents are the priority for community disaster management, actions available for them are often limited due to budget and manpower constraints. At the series of workshops, the participants listed the requests they would like to make to higher administrative organisations, as shown in Table 4. Figures 11 and 12 are photos taken at workshops.
\nWorkshop at Barangay Santa Lucia.
A resident presenting an opinion on Post-its to other participants at the workshop.
After performing steps 3 and 4, the selected two barangays developed a contingency plan by themselves based on the results of steps 1–4. During the plan development, ICHARM provided them with necessary maps explained in the previous sections and several suggestions to barangay members in charge of the plan. Table 5 is the final contents of their developed plans. Following the message from the barangay leader in the first chapter, the basic information and explanation of risk identification and the contingency plan are presented. In the chapter on risk identification, the inundation maps and chart in Figure 7 are included, and the impact due to three types of floods discussed in Table 2 is explained. The chapter of the contingency plan consists of six parts: an organisation chart, a resource map which shows the locations of the important facilities in the area (Figure 7), a list of equipment, a response strategy as a result of step 4 (Table 3), a sectoral plan for each section to follow in order to achieve necessary actions listed in step 4 and an annual activity plan.
\nContents of contingency plan.
In the final step, the main focus is to share the developed contingency plan among community members and with other municipalities. Inviting the leaders and related members of the 29 barangays and Calumpit Municipality, a workshop was held to share all the activities. As the project had drawn much local attention, over 100 people attended the meeting. The representatives from the two model barangays introduced their contingency plans and explained how they developed a barangay contingency plan by themselves, as shown in Figure 13. At the end of the workshop, ICHARM provided printed maps developed in step 2 to all the 29 barangays so that every barangay could also make an evidence-based contingency plan of their own (Figure 14).
\nPresentation on contingency plan from representatives from two barangays.
Participants of final workshop in Feb. 2016.
This study proposed an effective method to implement evidence-based flood contingency planning for local communities by assuming the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assessing flood risk with key indicators and deciding response strategies against the identified flood risk before a flood occurs. The method was applied to a flood-prone municipality called Calumpit in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines as the first case study to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited. The case study revealed that the proposed method can be successfully applied to data-limited regions. However, the method needs testing in different flood-prone communities for further verification.
\nAs for the limitations of the study, the process of risk identification through flood inundation simulation was conducted by ICHARM although this process should be completed by the provincial or national governments of the country. In order for them to carry out the risk identification process by themselves, training of flood simulation and risk assessment should be provided for managers and engineers in flood risk management.
\nThis study was conducted in cooperation with the Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (MDRRMO) of Calumpit and the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). We would like to express our deepest appreciation to Calumpit Municipality Mayor Jessie P. De Jesus and the officers of MDRRMO. We would also like to extend our sincere gratitude to the officers in the Pampanga River Basin Flood Forecasting and Warning Center (PRBFFWC) and the headquarters of PAGASA for their support during the field activities. We also owe a great debt to the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) for providing high-resolution DEM data (IFSAR) in the step of risk identification under the MOU between NAMRIA and ICHARM. Last but not least, we thank all persons involved for their kind support in conducting this study.
\nMetabolomics is the study of metabolites within biofluids, cells, tissues, or organisms [1]. Whereas collectively, metabolites and their interactions are known as metabolome [2].
Metabolites are small molecules produced by metabolic reactions; these molecules are intermediate or end products of metabolic reactions. The metabolic reactions are catalyzed by naturally occurring enzymes within the organisms’ cells [3]. Compounds derived from primary and secondary metabolism are known as primary and secondary metabolites, respectively.
Primary metabolites are indispensable compounds used by organisms for their growth, development, and reproduction; these compounds are synthesized by the cells as a result of metabolism during the growth phase. Primary metabolites are referred to as central metabolites due to their key role in maintaining normal physiological processes. Primary metabolites include vitamins (B2 and B12), lactic acid, amino acids, polyols, alcohols such as ethanol, nucleotides, organic acids, etc. [3, 4].
The current chapter discusses the meaning and origin or sources of some important classes of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolic compounds, etc., the economic impacts of secondary metabolite compounds including their role in improving human and animal health and well-being (as antibiotics, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antifertility, antidiabetics, pain relievers, growth promoters, etc.). The chapter addresses the role of secondary metabolites in enhancing agricultural productivity (as pesticides, insecticides, preservatives, etc.); it also discusses the important present-day drugs derived from secondary metabolites, as well as some important biological/pharmacological effects or activities of different classes of the secondary metabolites and their folkloric usage based on reliable sources of information and genuine scientific investigations.
Secondary metabolites also known as phytochemical constituents, bioactive compounds, specialized metabolites, secondary products, or toxins are organic compounds produced by organisms such as plants, fungi, or bacteria as a result of secondary metabolic processes that lead to production and accumulation of diverse chemical compounds known as secondary metabolites. These compounds are not required for primary metabolic processes by the organisms [3, 4, 5]. Secondary metabolites are formed toward the end of the growth phase; thus, they are not directly involved in the normal physiologic processes of the organism such growth and development as well as reproductive processes. Instead, they increase the organism’s survivability through mediation of ecological interaction, to the organism, this serves as a selective advantage [4, 5]. Interspecies defenses such as defense against herbivory by plants are part of the important roles of secondary metabolites. However, humans use secondary metabolites as medicines, recreational drugs, flavorings, pigments, etc. [6].
Secondary metabolites are classified commonly based on their vast structural diversity, biosynthesis, and function. According to the literature, over 2140, 000 secondary metabolites are known; however, the main classes of secondary metabolites are five, which include alkaloids, terpenoids and steroids, nonribosomal polypeptides, polyketides and fatty-acid-derived substances, and enzyme cofactors [7].
Secondary metabolite is a term coined in 1910 by a Medicine and Physiology Nobel Prize laureate, Albert Kossel [8]. Friedrich Czapek, a Polish botanist, 30 years later described them as metabolic nitrogenous end products [9].
Secondary metabolites are produced by plants, fungi, or bacteria as well as many marine organisms such as snails, corals, tunicates, and sponges [10]. There are 150, 000–200, 000 bioactive compounds derived from the plant kingdom, 50, 000–100, 000 from animal kingdom, and 22,000–23, 000 from microbes [11].
Plants are the major sources of secondary metabolites; they produced 80% of the known secondary metabolites occurring in nature [10]. Secondary metabolites are used by carnivorous plants to attract, capture, digest, and assimilate the prey [12]. One of the early known plant secondary metabolites is morphine, isolated in 1804 [11].
In 1928, Alexander Fleming while working at St Mary’s Hospital in London discovered the most known secondary metabolite, the penicillin. Penicillin was discovered experimentally from a mold, the
Oligosaccharide, b-lactam, polyketide, non-ribosomal pathways, and shikimate are the main secondary metabolite production pathways in bacteria [15]. Although bacterial secondary metabolites have some beneficial effects, many are toxic to mammals through secretion of exotoxin, botulinum toxin secreted by
The name alkaloid was introduced by Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meißner, in the year 1819. The name was derived from Latin root alkali, rooted from Arabic word al-qalwi meaning plants ashes. The wide usage of the word alkaloid came after J. Oscar’s publication in the year 1880 in Albert Ladenburg, the chemical dictionary [16].
A large variety of organisms produced alkaloids; these chemical compounds are derived from plants, bacteria, fungi, and animals [17]. Morphine was the first individual alkaloid isolated in 1804 from the opium poppy plant (
The ancient Romans, Syrians, and Egyptians used cardiac glycosides contained in plant extracts for medicinal purposes, the plant extracts from
Early writings of 1250 BC mentioned
Plant is main source of cardiac glycosides; however, bufadienolide was isolated from frogs and mammalian tissues that are rich sources of endogenous digitalis; this show that animal species are also good sources of cardiac glycosides [20].
Flavonoids or bioflavonoids are yellow compounds derived from the Latin word Flavus, meaning yellow, their natural coloration [21]. Albert Szent-Györgyi and some group of scientists in the 1930s discovered that crude yellow extracts from lemons, oranges, etc., were more effective at preventing scurvy than vitamin C. They referred to these compounds as citrin or vitamin P, which were later discovered to be hesperidin, neohesperidin, etc., belonging to flavonoids rather than the vitamins [22].
Flavonoids are compounds belonging to polyphenolic structural class of secondary metabolites. They are widely found in vegetables, fruits, flowers, wine, tea, grains, roots, bark, and stem [23, 24]. Flavonoid compounds are found in several parts of plants, they are products extracted from plants using various extraction techniques such as chromatography [25].
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites produced by the secondary metabolic pathways of plants [26]. They are derived from pentose phosphate and shikimic acid of plants through metabolization of phenylpropanoid [27, 28]. The composition of phenolic substances or polyphenols includes tannins, flavonoids, lignans, coumarins, and phenolic acids [26], colored anthocyanins [29]; these compounds are naturally found in vegetables, fruits, leaves, and roots among other products of plant origin [26, 27].
Tannins are group of astringent and complex polyphenolic compounds found in plants, which can bind and precipitate proteins; the word tannin was derived from the usage of this compound in tanning animal hides and skins to make leather [30]; the term was first introduced in 1796 [31]. Commonly, tannins are found in wood, buds, fruits, leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and in the bark of trees [32]. Condensed tannins are the most abundant polyphenols, which are virtually found in plant families [33].
Unique structural diversity is provided by natural products when compared with standard combinatorial chemistry; these give opportunities for discovering novel lead compounds with low molecular weight. The world’s biodiversity evaluation of natural products for potential biological activity is less than 10%; thus, a lot of useful novel natural lead compounds await discovery [37].
Terrestrial plants are the major source of secondary metabolites; other sources include fungi, bacteria, as well as several marine organisms [10].
Natural antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced by microbes that inhibit bacterial growth by targeting essential cellular processes such as the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, DNA/RNA, and proteins. They are not essential for the growth of the organism (and usually produce at the end of the exponential phase of their growth). They have diverse roles, such as in cellular differentiation, nutrient sequestration, metal transport, ecological interactions, and defense [38, 39].
Between 1935 and 1968, 12 classes of antibiotics were launched and approved for use as drugs. However, between 1969 and 2000, the number dropped markedly, with only two classes introduced. Out of the 30 antibiotics launched between the year 2003 and 2015, 16 belong to natural products and their derivatives. They include three new classes of natural antibiotics—two actinomycete: the lipopeptide daptomycin in 2003 and fidaxomicin (of the tiacumicin family) in 2010. The third is a fungal product: retapamulin derived from pleuromutilin and approved in 2007 for topical use [38, 40].
Newman and Cragg reported the introduction of several natural secondary metabolites that have been reported to possess potent antibacterial activity including: anthrasil, omadacycline, dalbavacin, plazomicin, ceftaroline fasamil acetate, lefamulin, sarecycline, eravacycline imi-cilast-relebactam, etc. [41].
Inflammation is a normal biological process that occurs as a response to microbial infection, chemical irritation, or tissue injury. It is usually initiated by moving the immune cells from blood vessels and release of mediators to the damage site. It is then followed by reinforcement with inflammatory cells, release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and proinflammatory cytokines to fight the foreign pathogens and repairing the injured tissues. In general, normal inflammation is rapid and self-limiting, but unresolved and prolonged inflammation causes various chronic disorders. As a pathologic condition, inflammation can include a wide range of diseases such as rheumatic and immune-mediated conditions, diabetes, cardiovascular accident, etc. [38, 42]. Aswad and coworkers reported the use of moupinamide, capsaicin, and hypaphorine—natural products—with high scores in their indexing of potential anti-inflammatory drug candidates [43]. Mona et al. also reported more than 15 herbs, where their anti-inflammatory effects have been evaluated in clinical and experimental studies including
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death (second to cardiovascular diseases) in the world, despite the availability of wide range of anticancer drugs. The estimated cancer burden in the world as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) is 18.1 million new cases and 9.6 million deaths as at 2018 [38, 44]. Presently, research efforts are directed toward the discovery of natural products with anticancer potential [45]. Several secondary metabolites have been reported to possess anticancer potential; some of these compounds have the capacity to prevent oxidative stress and inflammation that causes damage to DNA, which in turn leads to carcinogenesis [45]. Natural products such as irinotecan, vincristine, vinblastine, etoposide, and paclitaxel from plants, actinomycin D and mitomycin C from bacteria as well as marine-derived bleomycin are widely used in the treatment of various cancers [44].
Also, fruits and vegetables are plant sources that are known to contain vitamins, minerals, folate, plant sterols, carotenoids, and various phytochemicals such as flavonoid and polyphenols—natural product compounds that are associated with reduced cancer mortality and risk [46]. The critical relationship of fruit and vegetable intake and cancer prevention has been thoroughly documented. It has been suggested that major public health benefits could be achieved by substantially increasing consumption of these foods [38].
Herbs and spices such as ginger, capsicum, curcumin, clove, rosemary, sage, oregano, and cinnamon are very rich in antioxidants due to the high content of phenolic compounds and have been shown to counteract reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated damage in different human cancers [47]. Many cyclic peptides and their derivatives obtained from marine organisms have been shown to possess anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and antihypertensive properties [46]. Furthermore, lactoferrin, a multifunctional protein found in bovine and camel milk, has also been reported to possess anticancer effect [48].
Natural compounds are an important source for the discovery and the development of novel antiviral drugs because of their availability and expected low side effects. Naturally occurring compounds with antiviral activity have been recognized as early as 1940s. The search for effective drugs against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the need of hour. Most of the work related with antiviral compounds revolves around inhibition of various enzymes associated with the life cycle of viruses. Structure-function relationship between secondary metabolites and the HIV enzyme inhibitory activity has been observed [38].
Diseases of the liver have been classified as high priority areas of health care, as an estimate by the World Health Organization shows approximately 500 million people of the world are suffering from a severe form of liver disorders that may lead to chronic hepatitis. Hepatic disorders can be caused by exposure to agents such as drugs, viruses, parasites, and toxins. Such an exposure usually may result in degeneration and inflammation of the liver; furthermore, it results in fibrosis and cirrhosis [49]. In addition, different chronic diseases such as diabetes may lead to development of hepatic clinical manifestations.
Several flavonoids such as catechin, apigenin, quercetin, naringenin, rutin, and venoruton are reported for their hapatoprotective activities [38]. Muhammad and coworkers review studies conducted on the composition, pharmacology, and nature of some selected plants in the light of possible mechanism deduced from experimental trials [49]. Also, a comprehensive review by Meng et al. [50], listed several plants and products that have been used in the prevention and treatment of chemically induced liver damages [50].
Many drugs with wide range of pharmacological activities were derived from alkaloids [51]. Some of the important drugs derived from alkaloids include:
Quinine—antimalaria [51]
Morphine—analgesic [52]
Codeine—analgesic, antitussive [53]
Ephedrine—antiasthma [51]
Galantamine—cholinomimetics [54]
Homoharringtonine—anticancer [50]
Quinidine—antiarrhythmic [52]
Vincamine—vasodilator [52]
Chelerythrine—antibacterial [55]
Piperine—antihyperglycemic [56]
Atropine—anticholinergic [57]
Pilocarpine—cholinergic agonist [58]
Paclitaxel—anticancer [59]
Ergotamine—anti-migraine [60]
Reserpine—antihypertensive [60]
Vinblastine and vincristine—anticancer [60]
Physostigmine—anti-mydriatic, etc. [60]
The effects of cardiac glycosides mainly for increasing heart muscle force of contraction and reducing heart rate are beneficial for treating cardiac arrhythmias and congestive heart failure; cardiac glycosides have long been used to manage these ailments. The commonest cardiac glycosides used clinically include digoxin, digitoxin, ouabain, and bufalin [61]. Other forms of cardiac glycosides are antiarin, thevetin A and B, peruvoside, neriifolin, thevetoxin, ruvoside, theveridoside, cerberin, convallarin, convallamarin, convallatoxin, glucoscillarene A, proscillaridine A, scillarene A, scilliglaucoside and scilliphaeoside, marinobufagenin, oleandrin, folineriin, adynerin, digitoxigenin, marinobufagenin, telocinobufagin [62]. Among these substances, literature has also reported the therapeutic uses of acetyldigoxin, digitoxin, digoxin, gitoformate, gitoxin, lanatoside C, metildigoxin (β-methyldigoxin), ouabain (strophanthin-g), peruvoside, proscillaridin, strophanthin-k [63], apart from digoxin, digitoxin, ouabain, and bufalin earlier mentioned [61].
From plants, over 8000 phenolic compounds have been reported [64]. Interestingly, flavonoids make up half of these phenolic compounds [64]. Effectively, flavonoids and several other phenolic compounds have been reported to possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidants, anticancer, cardioprotective, immunomodulatory, and skin radioprotective effects from UV light. More so, these compounds are good pharmaceutical candidates for medical application [65]. Several flavonoids including apigenin, galangin, flavone and flavonol glycosides, isoflavones, flavanones, and chalcones have been shown to possess potent antibacterial activity [38].
Certain carcinogenic incidences, such as esophageal cancer, have been related to tannins-rich foods consumption, especially the herbal tea and betel nuts. However, several reports showed that tannins’ carcinogenic effects are not due to tannins themselves but likely due to components associated with the tannins [66]. Many literatures revealed negative association between cancer incidences and consumption of tannins components and tea polyphenols, suggesting their anticarcinogenic effects [66].
The antimutagenic and antimicrobial activities of tannins have been documented. Tannins inhibit the growth of viruses, bacteria, yeast, and many fungi. It has also been reported that propyl gallate and tannic acid inhibit aquatic bacteria and foodborne bacteria; this action is not reported for gallic acid. In food processing industry, catfish fillets’ shelf-life can be enhanced using the tannic acid antimicrobial property. The antihypertensive, hypolipidemic, coagulative, and immunomodulatory effects of tannins have been reported [66].
Terpenoids being the most abundant compounds in natural products have been reported to possess antibacterial, antimalarial, antiviral, hypoglycemic, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Furthermore, literatures have also documented the effects of terpenoids in treating and preventing cardiovascular diseases, antioxidation, immunoregulation, and promotion of transdermal absorption of substances [67].
The beginning was the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming from penicillium mold; penicillin is one of the most known antibiotics in use, and the beta lactam antibiotics penicillin and cephalosporin were all derived from fungus [68]. Other antibiotics derived from fungus include alamethicin, brefeldin A, aphidicolin, citromycin, fumagillin, cerulenin, eupenifeldin, fusidic acid, fusafungine, itaconic acid, usnic acid, helvolic acid, nigrosporin B, verrucarin A, vermiculine, etc. [68]. Tiamulin, retaparmulin, and valnemulin are antibiotics derived from pleuromutilin [68].
Antifungal griseofulvin is a derivative of penicillium species [69], azoxystrobin, echinocandins, strobilurin, micafungin, anidulafungin, and caspofungin are all antifungal agents originally derived from fungus [70].
Bredinin, cyclosporin, mycophenolic acid, myriocin, endocrocin, and gliotoxin are all immunosuppressants isolated from fungus [71].
Compounds from several mushrooms such as
Pharmaceutical agents of bacterial origin include antibiotics, immunomodulators, nematicides, antitumor agents, coccidiostatic agents, enzyme inhibitors, and insecticides. Interestingly,
The resistance against herbivores and pathogens is a role played decisively by the chemical protection nature of plants, the secondary metabolites; they are plant features important especially for protection against a wide range of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, arthropods, herbivores, and vertebrates [88]. Soil decomposition is influenced by plant secondary metabolites by increasing nitrogen immobilization in the soil; cycling of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) is affected by terpenes and tannins [89].
Exudates from plants roots contain secondary metabolites that can attract, kill, or deter underground microbes, herbivorous insects, and nematodes, competing plants and underground injuries are also inhibited [90]. Plants secondary metabolites contain potential toxic substances used for defense against insects; these chemical compounds can be utilized for design of future insecticides with multiple or specific targets [91]. A good example of an insecticidal compound of such nature is pyrethrin derived from the flowers of Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium plant; pyrethroids are the synthetic analogs of pyrethrin [92].
In terms of animals’ productivity, animals that ingest forages containing different plants secondary metabolites get their meat and dairy products enhanced in terms of biochemical richness making them good for human consumption [93].
In today’s food industries, plants secondary metabolites are used extensively as flavoring, coloring, and texturizing agents. Preservation and anti-browning are done with metabolites possessing antioxidative properties [94].
The fact that animals and humans have been in existence before the advent of orthodox medicine is a proof that plants have been quite effective in treating diseases. The folkloric use of plant medicine has a long history [95]. From the earliest times, man acquired knowledge of the adverse and beneficial effects of plants from observations on animals. To distinguish edible from poisonous plants, grazing animals were observed and the plants not eaten were considered poisonous [96]. About 80% of the rural population today depends largely on medicinal plants for primary health care [97]. About 25% of all prescription drugs in developed countries are obtained directly or indirectly from plants [98].
Plants produce valuable organic compounds, some of which have potentials in treating ailments in both animals and humans [99]. Of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential by the WHO, 11% are exclusively of plant origin and a significant number are synthetic drugs obtained from natural precursors [100]. In 1997, the world market for phytomedicinal products was estimated at US$10 billion [101]. This prompted the WHO to consider phytotherapy in its alternative or complementary health program. Locally produced plant medicines can be cheaper than imported synthetic drugs. One striking example is an herbal wound powder (Himax®) in Sri Lanka that was found to be as effective as an imported powder (Neomex®) and comparatively 80–90% cheaper [102].
The most easily accessible, affordable, and inexpensive sources of treatment in the primary healthcare system throughout the world are medicinal plants; there is a long history for the therapy of various disease conditions traditionally in various regions of the world [103].
Natural products’ earliest records were depicted on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (2600 BC) in cuneiform; there are documented evidences of the folkloric of the use of oils derived from
Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological effects including antimalarial (quinine), antiasthma (ephedrine), anticancer (homoharringtonine), vasodilatory (vincamine), antiarrhythmic (quinidine), analgesic (morphine), antibacterial (chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g., piperine) [37].
Huang et al. [105] and other teams clearly demonstrated that anthraquinones, such as emodin, aloe-emodin, and rhein, inhibit the growth and proliferation of various cancer cells, such as lung adenocarcinoma, myelogenous leukemia, neuroblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, bladder cancer, and others through cell death and survival’s modulation. Several anthraquinones are able to inhibit the replication of viruses or even directly kill enveloped or unenveloped strains [106]. Senna, cascara, frangula, rhubarb, and aloe are commonly used for their laxative effects [107].
Flavonoids have various health-promoting effects such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic. Flavonoids have antioxidant effects associated with various diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, atherosclerosis [108].
The most important use of the cardiac glycosides is its effects in treatment of cardiac failure. In cardiac failure, or congestive heart failure, heart cannot pump sufficient blood to maintain body needs. During each heart contraction, there is an influx of Na+ and an outflow of K+. Before the next contraction, Na+, K+-ATPase must reestablish the concentration gradient pumping Na+ into the cell against a concentration gradient. This process requires energy, which is obtained from hydrolysis of ATP to ADP by Na+, K+-ATPase. Cardiac glycosides inhibit Na+, K+-ATPase, and consequently increase the force of myocardial contraction [109].
Saponins exhibit a biological role and medicinal properties such as anti-inflammatory [110], antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, insecticidal, anticancer, cytotoxic, and molluscicidal action [111].
Terpenes include substances such as floral fragrances, which serve as insect attractants, pine oil, growth inhibitors, plant hormones (gibberellic acid and abscisic acid), and some of which are insecticidal. About 30,000 terpenes have been identified; they all possess repeating five-carbon isoprene units (a five-carbon ring) [112].
Artemesinin is a sequiterpene, which originated from the Chinese medicinal plant Quinhao (
Secondary metabolites are known for their angiogenic or wound healing activity, new compounds such as the new alkylresorcinols isolated from the lipophilic extract of Urginea indica L. bulbs have been reported to possess wound healing activity following experimental trauma [115].
Authors declare no conflict of interest.
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',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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Marine eutrophication has a negative impact on food security, ecosystem health and economy through disruptions in tourism, fisheries and health industries. Both N and P have known point and non-point sources. Control of point sources has been easier than non-point sources particularly agricultural sources for both N and P as well as fossil fuel combustion for N, which remains a major challenge. Implementing mitigation strategies for N has been reported to be effective for P mitigation; however, the converse is not true due to mobility and volatility of N. Excessive N and P cause algae blooms, anoxic conditions, and ocean acidification with these conditions leading to dead zones, fish kill, toxin production, altered plant species diversity, food web disruption, tourism disruption and health issues. Management of N and P pollution includes reduction of leaching from farms through crop selection, timely and precise application of fertilizer and building artificial wetlands, proper management of animal waste, reduction of fossil fuel N emission, mitigating N and P from urban sources and restoration of aquatic ecosystem. Mitigation measures need to focus on dual nutrient strategy for successful N and P reduction.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Lucy Ngatia, Johnny M. 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Increasing concerns about pollution levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measuring and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types, characteristics, and concentrations. This chapter will discuss and elaborate the merits and limitations of these remote sensing techniques for mapping oil pollutants, suspended solid concentrations, algal blooms, and floating plastic waste in marine waters.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Sidrah Hafeez, Man Sing Wong, Sawaid Abbas, Coco Y. T. Kwok,\nJanet Nichol, Kwon Ho Lee, Danling Tang and Lilian Pun",authors:[{id:"225316",title:"Dr.",name:"Sawaid",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"sawaid-abbas",fullName:"Sawaid Abbas"},{id:"259861",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidrah",middleName:null,surname:"Hafeez",slug:"sidrah-hafeez",fullName:"Sidrah Hafeez"},{id:"259890",title:"Prof.",name:"Man Sing",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"man-sing-wong",fullName:"Man Sing Wong"}]},{id:"35057",doi:"10.5772/33720",title:"Surface Water Quality Monitoring in Nigeria: Situational Analysis and Future Management Strategy",slug:"surface-water-quality-monitoring-in-nigeria-situational-analysis-and-future-management-strategy",totalDownloads:13273,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"1998",slug:"water-quality-monitoring-and-assessment",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality Monitoring and Assessment"},signatures:"A.M. Taiwo, O.O. Olujimi, O. Bamgbose and T.A. 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Increasing concerns about pollution levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measuring and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types, characteristics, and concentrations. This chapter will discuss and elaborate the merits and limitations of these remote sensing techniques for mapping oil pollutants, suspended solid concentrations, algal blooms, and floating plastic waste in marine waters.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Sidrah Hafeez, Man Sing Wong, Sawaid Abbas, Coco Y. T. Kwok,\nJanet Nichol, Kwon Ho Lee, Danling Tang and Lilian Pun",authors:[{id:"225316",title:"Dr.",name:"Sawaid",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"sawaid-abbas",fullName:"Sawaid Abbas"},{id:"259861",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidrah",middleName:null,surname:"Hafeez",slug:"sidrah-hafeez",fullName:"Sidrah Hafeez"},{id:"259890",title:"Prof.",name:"Man Sing",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"man-sing-wong",fullName:"Man Sing Wong"}]},{id:"52206",title:"Particulate Matter Sampling Techniques and Data Modelling Methods",slug:"particulate-matter-sampling-techniques-and-data-modelling-methods",totalDownloads:3492,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Particulate matter with 10 μm or less in diameter (PM10) is known to have adverse effects on human health and the environment. For countries committed to reducing PM10 emissions, it is essential to have models that accurately estimate and predict PM10 concentrations for reporting and monitoring purposes. In this chapter, a broad overview of recent empirical statistical and machine learning techniques for modelling PM10 is presented. This includes the instrumentation used to measure particulate matter, data preprocessing, the selection of explanatory variables and modelling methods. Key features of some PM10 prediction models developed in the last 10 years are described, and current work modelling and predicting PM10 trends in New Zealand—a remote country of islands in the South Pacific Ocean—are examined. In conclusion, the issues and challenges faced when modelling PM10 are discussed and suggestions for future avenues of investigation, which could improve the precision of PM10 prediction and estimation models are presented.",book:{id:"5356",slug:"air-quality-measurement-and-modeling",title:"Air Quality",fullTitle:"Air Quality - Measurement and Modeling"},signatures:"Jacqueline Whalley and Sara Zandi",authors:[{id:"188593",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Whalley",slug:"jacqueline-whalley",fullName:"Jacqueline Whalley"},{id:"188594",title:"Ms.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Zandi",slug:"sara-zandi",fullName:"Sara Zandi"}]},{id:"72766",title:"Industrial Air Emission Pollution: Potential Sources and Sustainable Mitigation",slug:"industrial-air-emission-pollution-potential-sources-and-sustainable-mitigation",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Air of cities especially in the developing parts of the world is turning into a serious environmental interest. The air pollution is because of a complex interaction of dispersion and emission of toxic pollutants from manufactories. Air pollution caused due to the introduction of dust particles, gases, and smoke into the atmosphere exceeds the air quality levels. Air pollutants are the precursor of photochemical smog and acid rain that causes the asthmatic problems leading into serious illness of lung cancer, depletes the stratospheric ozone, and contributes in global warming. In the present industrial economy era, air pollution is an unavoidable product that cannot be completely removed but stern actions can reduce it. Pollution can be reduced through collective as well as individual contributions. There are multiple sources of air pollution, which are industries, fossil fuels, agro waste, and vehicular emissions. Industrial processes upgradation, energy efficiency, agricultural waste burning control, and fuel conversion are important aspects to reducing pollutants which create the industrial air pollution. Mitigations are necessary to reduce the threat of air pollution using the various applicable technologies like CO2 sequestering, industrial energy efficiency, improving the combustion processes of the vehicular engines, and reducing the gas production from agriculture cultivations.",book:{id:"10178",slug:"environmental-emissions",title:"Environmental Emissions",fullTitle:"Environmental Emissions"},signatures:"Rabia Munsif, Muhammad Zubair, Ayesha Aziz and Muhammad Nadeem Zafar",authors:[{id:"251787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"318519",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",middleName:"Jathol",surname:"Munsif",slug:"rabia-munsif",fullName:"Rabia Munsif"},{id:"320637",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Aziz",slug:"ayesha-aziz",fullName:"Ayesha Aziz"},{id:"320675",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-zafar",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Zafar"}]},{id:"48090",title:"Biological Contamination of Air in Indoor Spaces",slug:"biological-contamination-of-air-in-indoor-spaces",totalDownloads:2778,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"4572",slug:"current-air-quality-issues",title:"Current Air Quality Issues",fullTitle:"Current Air Quality Issues"},signatures:"Anca Maria Moldoveanu",authors:[{id:"25924",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"anca-moldoveanu",fullName:"Anca Moldoveanu"}]},{id:"64537",title:"Degradation Pathways of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Environment",slug:"degradation-pathways-of-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-in-the-environment",totalDownloads:2103,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are resistant to most of the known environmental degradation processes. Because of their persistence, POPs bioaccumulate in animal tissues and biomagnify along food chains and food webs with potential adverse impacts on human and wildlife health and the environment. Although POPs are resistant to most of the environmental degradation processes, there are some environmental processes mostly microbial degradation that can degrade POPs to other forms that are not necessarily simpler and less toxic. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants adopted in 2001 was meant to restrict the production and use of these toxic chemicals in the environment.",book:{id:"7224",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants",fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants"},signatures:"James T. Zacharia",authors:[{id:"28551",title:"Dr.",name:"James T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zacharia",slug:"james-t.-zacharia",fullName:"James T. Zacharia"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"133",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.